FOOD, POWDER, PNEUMATICS

Solving common pneumatic conveying problems

By Eric Maynard, Jenike and Johanson, Inc. umerous industries, such as chemicals, minerals, plastics, and foods have used pneumatic conveying systems to transfer bulk materials for decades. Pneumatic transport remains an attractive conveyor compared to belts or screws because it allows greater line routing flexibility, provides complete product containment with no material stagnation, and is easily automated. Although many equipment advances have been made, problems such as insufficient conveying capacity, plugging, product build up in pipelines, pipeline wear, and particle attrition still plague many plants. Some operations handling fine powders (e.g., phosphates) experience restricted conveying rates as well as plugging problems due to the powders cohesiveness. Pipeline and elbow wear is common at plants conveying abrasive bulk solids that contain silica or alumina. Some problems, like plugging, can be a result of poor system design and are manifest upon start-up. Others, such as pipeline wear, develop gradually. This article explains why these common conveying problems occur and offers practical solutions that can be used to significantly increase system efficiency and reliability. The first step in troubleshooting conveying problems is to collect information. System pressure, temperature, feeder speed, gas flow rate and etcetera should be collected under start up and steady-state conveying conditions. Information about the conveying system (e.g., pipeline length, number of bends, diverters, feeders, dust collectors) should also be collected.

Figure 1.

Insufficient capacity
Possible causes of insufficient conveying capacity include: hopper and feeder problems; use of too much or too little conveying gas; line constrictions or poor line layout. Hopper flow obstructions. If the hopper cannot reliably discharge the bulk solids into the conveying line, then the transfer rate in the line will be reduced. Flow problems such as bridging and ratholing will lead to erratic solids discharge into the conveying line. A funnel-flow discharge pattern, which occurs when flow through a hopper takes place only in a small flow channel, leaves large zones of stagnant material (Figure 1). Once the flow channel empties, a stable rathole can form and flow stops. Even if flow aids are employed (e.g. vibrators or air cannons), reliable discharge cannot be guaranteed with cohesive materials. Feeder capacity restrictions. Improperly designed or operated feeders can be a source of conveying line transfer restrictions. Undersized motors can restrict the rotational speed of screw feeders and rotary valves, which will lead to discharge limitations into the conveying line. Some feeders operate at critical rates, beyond which any further increase in speed does not further increase the solids flow rate. This can occur with screws and rotary valves operating at speeds too high to allow complete filling of the screw flights or rotary valve pockets.
56

Too much air or air leakage. A common misconception is that increasing the gas flow rate alone will increase the solids throughput capacity of a dilute-phase conveying line. Instead, the total pressure in the line will increase, and if the system is pressure-limited, the additional pressure needed to move the extra air through the line will take away the energy available to convey the solids. Venting of positive-pressure conveying lines at the feeder is often necessary, especially when feeding fine powders. The positive-pressure air can leak through a rotary valve and restrict the solids flow into the line. The upward-flowing air will impose resistive forces against the downward-flowing solids. If leakage from a positive-pressure conveying system is significant, the airflow in the line can drop to a point where dilute-phase conveying will be compromised. In some severe cases, the solids will plug the line because of insufficient airflow. Although air leakage within a vacuum system near the feed point is not often a problem, leakage downstream in the conveying line will reduce the conveying capacity. The extra airflow into the line will reduce the available vacuum for conveying, and since capacity is roughly proportional to the vacuum generated, reducing the vacuum reduces capacity. Although inward leakage is hard to detect, common leakage sources include couplings, feeders, valves, diverters and bag houses. Small line diameter. The cost of the pipeline can influence the decision to use a smaller-diameter line. However, this can be detrimental to conveying capacity. The pressure drop generated in a pipeline is strongly affected by diameter. Line constrictions. A pipeline constriction will reduce the solids transfer rate. The constriction will increase the total pressure drop in the line and thereby take away energy from the system necessary to convey the solids. In addition, a constriction can eventually lead to plugging. Common sites for (CONTINUES PAGE 58)

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constrictions include diverters, mismatched couplings, and improperly formed bends. Line length too long or too many bends. Pneumatic lines are often extended to accommodate solids conveying to new storage silos. This practice is a frequent cause of capacity reduction, as increased line length increases the total pressure drop in the system and reduces the available pressure necessary to convey the solids. Furthermore, rerouting of pneumatic lines to accommodate new equipment requires the addition of bends in the conveying line. As with increased line length, the addition of bends increases system pressure drop and reduces the conveying line capacity. Multiple bends in series with inadequate acceleration zones can cause large pressure drops, leading to capacity reductions and, in some extreme cases, line plugging. Underrated fan, blower, or compressor. The air mover is a major component of a pneumatic conveying system. Careful calculations must be made to ensure that total pressure drop through the line is correctly estimated assuming appropriate conveying velocities.

Increasing the solids transfer rate

Mass flow hoppers. Modifying the hopper to promote a massflow discharge pattern (Figure 1), whereby all of the material is in motion during discharge, will produce a uniform discharge with a consistent bulk density. Mass flow can be achieved by changing the hopper geometry to give it a steeper angle, or by providing a smoother interior (i.e., with a lower coefficient of friction), or both. In addition, the hopper outlet must be large enough to prevent bridging and to ensure discharge at the required flow rate. Flow property tests are necessary to determine mass-flow parameters, as outlined in the American Society for Testing and Materials standard ASTM D6128 - Standard Test Method for Shear Testing of Bulk Solids Using the Jenike Shear Cell (Figures 1 & 2). Larger feeders. Installing larger screw or rotary valve feeders will increase the solids discharge rate into the conveying line. In addition, the more slowly rotating screw feeder or rotary valve will allow better flight and pocket filling, thus increasing the feeders efficiency. Proper airflow, venting, and leakage prevention. For dilute-phase transfer, reducing the airflow can increase the capacity of a pressure-limited conveying line. The maximum flow rate in a dilute-phase line can be achieved by using the least amount of air required to achieve the minimum conveying velocities necessary to entrain the solids and prevent saltation. For dense-phase transfer, the conveying capacity can be increased by judiciously increasing the airflow. The additional air reduces the friction between the particles and the pipeline and allows easier movement of the moving bed or plugs travelling through the line. The amount of leakage through a rotary valve is a function of the total pressure drop across the valve, the size of the valve, and the clearance between the rotor tips and valve housing. Leakage can be reduced by ensuring that the vent lines are not plugged and that regular maintenance is performed to maintain the proper clearances in the valve. Figure 2 illustrates a rotary valve with a large clean-side vent. Increasing the line diameter. Because the capacity of a conveying line is proportional to the pipeline area, doubling the size of a line will increase the conveying capacity by approximately a factor of four. Although this may be costly for retrofitting an existing system, if the desired flow rate increase is relatively large, this approach may be necessary. Inspecting and cleaning lines. Line components must be carefully selected and installed to avoid internal area mismatches.
58

Figure 2.

Furthermore, when conveying materials that are prone to build up, frequent line inspections and cleaning should be performed to prevent a gradual decline in the conveying capacity. Solids such as carbon black and titanium dioxide are highly prone to build up, and lines handling them may require periodic cleaning with pigs, high-pressure water, or mechanical methods. Reducing line length and number of bends. Conveying line capacity is inversely proportional to the line length. Consequently, if a pipeline length is doubled, its capacity is approximately halved. Extending the line length or adding more bends than necessary can negatively affect the system. In general, the pressure drop generated through each bend is equivalent to that generated in conveying through an additional 6 m of pipeline. Therefore, adding an additional five bends to a layout can increase the total pressure drop by the equivalent of 30 m of additional pipeline length - and this does not include the additional pipeline between the bends. It is also important to consider the type of bend being utilized. Long-radius bends (i.e., those with a ratio of bend radius to pipeline diameter > 8) incur a lower pressure drop than small-radius bends (r/d < 4). Blind tees have the largest pressure drops, but they have advantages of less wear, lower cost, and small footprint. Evaluating blower performance. A fan, blower, or compressor performance curve should be reviewed before selecting a gas mover to supply the gas velocity necessary for reliable conveying. By knowing the total pressure drop for a conveying line (accounting for line length, bends, gas/solids disengagement, solids loading, etcetera), a gas mover can be selected. For example, if the pressure drop in the line is less than 1/3 bar g, a fan may be selected, whereas for higher-pressure applications that require a more dependable air flow over a range of operating pressures, a rotary-lobe blower can be employed (typically up to 1 bar g delivery pressure). If the pressure in the line exceeds 1 bar g, plant compressed air or a dedicated compressor will be needed. Keep in mind that as the air is compressed its temperature will increase, and depending on the product being conveyed, an air cooler and desiccant dryer may be required before the feed point in the conveying line.

Line plugging and build up

Plugged pneumatic conveying lines can cause an entire process to shut down, and clearing these pluggages can be difficult, especially for cohesive materials. Possible causes of line pluggag-

Australian Bulk Handling Review: May/June 2011

FOOD, POWDER, PNEUMATICS

es include insufficient conveying velocity, too many bends, no acceleration zone, long plug length, upward sloping lines, and product build up in the line. Low gas velocity. If the pickup velocity is below the saltation velocity, the solids will not all be picked up by the air at the feed point, or some will fall out of suspension downstream, possibly causing a pluggage. If plugging occurs at or near the feed point, then either the gas mover is not providing sufficient air velocity or the pipeline is experiencing significant leakage. Too many bends or multiple bends in series. Multiple bends in close proximity will retard the particle velocity through the transitions, and possibly lead to saltation though the gas velocity will be reduced only slightly. Little or no acceleration zone. The acceleration zone is a horizontal section located immediately after the feed point in the conveying line. The lack of an acceleration zone can lead to plugging because insufficient pipeline length is available to entrain the solids in the air stream before the first bend. This poor configuration is illustrated in Figure 3. Long plug length. In dense-phase systems, long plug formations can cause plugging. Long plugs exert tremendous forces against the pipeline thereby resisting forward motion. In most cases the plug does not move but instead blows out a line coupling. Long plugs form for a variety of reasons, such as poor feeder control, inclined pipelines, insufficient gas pressure across the plug, and low gas flow (and velocity) in the pipeline. Sloping lines. Upward-sloping lines in dense-phase systems are not recommended. Upward sloping lines allow nonuniform air distribution through the moving bed or plugs in the conveying line. Consequently, air will move along the top of the pipe while the solids either stop moving along the pipeline or start to flow backwards (which is called refluxing). If a large enough collection of particles gathers at the base of the sloping pipeline, the long plug or impermeable fine powder bed may cause plugging.

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Build up in the line. Pipeline build up will not only result in higher air velocities and larger pressure drop, but it can eventually lead to plugging. Condensation within a pipeline can cause increased build up. For instance, when warm material from a dryer enters a cooler pipeline, air vapour can condense and contribute to solids build up. When conveying resins pneumatically, snakeskins, streamers, and angel hair can occur. Plastic flowing through bends in conveying lines will skid around the elbow and locally melt, leaving a thin layer of plastic that forms thin skins or streamers. The problem is exacerbated with improperly quenched plastic, hot conveying gas or pipelines, and smooth long-radius bends.

Figure 4.

Solutions to eliminate or minimize plugging

Increase gas velocity or reduce solids loading. When plugging occurs in a dilute-phase conveying line, the gas velocity should be increased to properly entrain the bulk solids being conveyed. Fine powders might need only a slight increase in gas velocity, whereas coarse particles might require a significant increase. The minimum conveying velocity necessary to prevent saltation can be determined via pneumatic conveying tests. Reducing the solids loading (or phase density) in the conveying line while maintaining a constant gas velocity can also help to minimize line plugging. Reduce the number of bends. Since particles slow down due to frictional interaction with the pipeline wall and impact forces generated within a bend, by reducing the number of bends or the number of bends in series, the particles are more likely to remain entrained in the air stream during dilute-phase conveying. Reducing the number of bends in series can also help to minimize plugging. Limiting the number of bends in close proximity to two and including an acceleration zone of at least 15 times the pipeline diameter after the bends will allow sufficient particle velocity recovery to occur. Add an acceleration zone. The acceleration zone should be at least 25 times the pipe diameter. If there is not enough room in an existing system to accommodate an acceleration zone of this length, a shorter-radius bend can be installed after the horizontal pipeline to act as an acceleration zone, provide particle attrition is not a concern. Use boosters, bypass lines, or an air knife, or pulse the feeder. As particles exit a blow tank (also called blow pot or pod), either an air knife or a rapidly actuating slide gate within the pipeline can be used to create shorter plugs for easier conveying. To prevent problems of long plug formation or gradual transition from dense to dilute modes of conveying, some manufacturers proprietary systems employ bypass lines or boosters that allow lower-pressure air to be used for conveying or allow air injection for prevention of long plug formation. The line diameter can also be increased (i.e., stepped) along the conveying line length to limit the amount of velocity increase. Avoid line inclines. In general, inclines should be avoided and only horizontal or vertical pipeline orientations should be used for dense-phase conveying. Heat-trace or insulate the line. If condensation is forming within the pipeline and promoting build up, the conveying air can be dried or the pipeline can be heat-traced or insulated to minimize the temperature gradient between the bulk solids being conveyed and the pipeline. The use of specialty elbows, such as the Gamma-bend (Coperion) or the Pellbow (Pelletron), can often eliminate or reduce the formation of snakeskins, streamers, and angel hair. The plastic bounces through the transition in these elbows rather than skidding, thereby reducing any melting. Quenching the plastic and cooling the conveying gas can also improve processing conditions.
60

Pipeline wear
Bulk solids containing silica or oxides can quickly erode steel pipelines, especially with high gas velocities. Most pipeline wear occurs in the bends, and replacing bends can be costly and labour intensive. Causes of pipeline wear include high gas (and particle) velocity, soft pipeline surfaces, and bend layout. High gas velocity. The higher the gas velocity used to convey abrasive materials, the more the erosive wear. Many researchers have found this to be at least a geometric relationship, with wear proportional to gas velocity cubed, if not greater. Since the gas velocity always increases in a conveying line (due to the drop in pressure and density), the most severe wear occurs near the end of the pipeline. Figure 4 illustrates the effects of elbow wear (note the welded steel patch on the back of the elbow) in a long radius sweep, which is the most prone of all elbows to wear. Soft surfaces, hard particles, and long-radius bends. Wear is also a function of the relative hardness of the particles being conveyed, as well as the impact angle into the bend. In general, the maximum wear in steel elbows occurs at impact angles of approximately 20, which occurs at the primary impact zone entering long-radius elbows. The hardness of particles also strongly affects erosive wear in a pipeline. For instance, soft particles like talc cause little wear, whereas hard particles like quartz can generate significant wear at high conveying velocities.

Solutions to erosive wear

Use harder pipe material or short-radius bends. Using hardened steel or other wear-resistant pipeline surfaces can reduce abrasive wear. Blind tees with pockets that allow material-onmaterial impact can also help to minimize abrasive wear. Reduce gas velocity. The gas velocity can be decreased by reducing the gas flow, increasing the pipeline diameter progressively along the line (stepping), or using a damper or bleed valve to throttle the air entering the pipeline. In a dilute-phase system, make sure that increasing the line diameter does not reduce the gas velocity too low so that saltation occurs. In dense-phase, line stepping can be implemented to limit the amount of air velocity increase to avoid either particle attrition or pipeline wear. Use specialty bends. Hammertek (Figure 5) and Gerike bends have a bulbous pocket that allows material to impact a turbulent rotating air/solids mixture, which acts as a cushion, instead of the pipeline wall. Cast-back or wear-back bends

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have replaceable liners, typically made of basalt or ceramics, located at the back of the elbow. Use positive pressure instead of vacuum conveying. The terminal gas velocity in a positive-pressure conveying system will generally be less than that in a vacuum conveying system with a similar pressure drop through the line. This is because of the significant gas-density change that occurs throughout the conveying line in a vacuum system.

Conclusions

Figure 5.

Particle attrition
Bulk solids in the form of flakes, granules, or crystals can break down, or attrit, at high conveying velocities. Causes of attrition include high gas velocity, fragile particles, and bend layout. High gas velocity. As with pipeline abrasive wear, particle velocity strongly affects particle friability (attrition). Fragile particles. Crystalline and flake-like solids fracture easily at high conveying velocities, thereby generating fines and possibly an undesirable product.

Implementing these practical solutions to costly pneumatic conveying problems will yield efficient, reliable, and safe operation of a positive-pressure or vacuum-conveying systems. Even though the stepby-step design of a pneumatic conveying system (Figure 3) is beyond the scope of this article, understanding these operational issues provides insight on ways to avoid such problems like insufficient conveying capacity, pipeline plugging, abrasive wear, or attrition through better design. Eric Maynard is the director of education and a senior consultant at Jenike & Johanson, Inc. During his 15 years at Jenike & Johanson, he has worked on hundreds of projects designing handling and conveying systems for all types of bulk solids, including plastics, minerals, specialty chemicals, coal, foods, and pharmaceuticals. He received a BS in mechanical engineering from Villanova University and an MS in mechanical engineering from the Worcester Polytechnic Institute.

Solutions to particle attrition

Reduce gas velocity. This can be done by decreasing the gas flow, stepping the line, or using a damper to throttle the amount of air entering the pipeline. Use long-radius bends. Long-radius elbows can help to minimize breakdown of attrition-prone solids.

Pneumatic conveying terminology

umerous terms are used to describe gas/solids flow and pressure conditions within a pneumatic conveying system. It is important to understand the following basic terminology. Saltation velocity is the gas velocity at which fully suspended particles within a horizontal conveying line begin to drop out of suspension and settle in a layer on the bottom of the pipeline. Choking velocity is similar to saltation behaviour, except it is in the vertical orientation. Pickup velocity is the gas velocity at the pickup point of the conveying system where solids are fed into the conveying gas stream. Dilute-phase conveying occurs when particles are conveyed in the gas stream at a velocity higher than the saltation velocity. This type of system is often referred to as a stream-flow system because particles are fully suspended in the gas stream. Almost any bulk solid can be conveyed in dilute-phase mode. However, potential adverse effects, such as pipeline wear or particle degradation (attrition), could occur due to the high conveying velocity. The term dilute phase often refers to the solids loading ratio within the conveying line. Typically, a dilute-phase line conveys less than 15 kg of solids per kg of gas at a relatively low pressure (< 1 bar g). Dense-phase conveying occurs when particles are conveyed in the gas stream at a velocity less than the saltation velocity. Two modes of flow are associated with dense-phase conveying plug or piston flow, and moving-bed flow. Only certain bulk solids can be efficiently and safely conveyed in these two dense-phase modes. Coarse, permeable bulk solids, such as plastic pellets or catalyst beads, can be reliably conveyed with plug flow, whereas fine and air-retentive bulk solids, such as cement or fly ash, can be effectively conveyed with moving-bed flow. The term dense phase also refers to the solids loading within the conveying line. Typically, a dense-phase line conveys more than 15 kg of solids per kg of gas at a higher pressure (> 1 bar g) than a dilute-phase system. The major advantages of a dense-phase system over a dilute62

phase system include lower conveying gas velocity (less pipeline wear and particle damage), lower gas requirements, lower operating (energy) costs, and often long conveying distances. Transport in dense-phase conveying does not mean that particles are settled throughout the entire line. In fact, in some dense-phase systems, the expansion of the gas through the conveying line allows the end of the system to operate in a dilute-phase mode even though the initial portion of the line operates as a dense-phase system. Pressure vs. vacuum systems. A positive-pressure conveying system utilizes gas above atmospheric pressure to entrain the bulk solids and transport the material to one or multiple destinations (often at atmospheric pressure). Conversely, a vacuum conveying system picks up solids at atmospheric pressure (possibly from multiple locations) and discharges the material into a vessel that is at a pressure less than atmospheric. Positive-pressure systems can operate at high pressures and convey materials over long distances. Vacuum systems are typically limited to less than 100 m, although some systems have a longer range. Vacuum systems are well-suited for handling dusty or toxic materials, because any leakage in the pipeline will be inward. Specialized systems that incorporate features of both positive- and negative-pressure conditions, such as pull/push systems used in ship unloading equipment, are also available.

References
1. ASTM International, Standard Test Method for Shear Testing of Bulk Solids Using the Jenike Shear Cell, ASTM D-6128, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA (2006). 2. Jenike, A. W., Storage and Flow of Solids, Bulletin 123, Utah Engineering Experiment Station, Univ. of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, (1964, rev. 1976). 3. Maynard, E. P., Designing Pneumatic Conveying Systems, Chemical Eng. Progress, 102 (5), pp. 2333 (May 2006).

Contact: epmaynard@jenike.com

Australian Bulk Handling Review: May/June 2011