Journal of Organizational Behavior J. Organiz. Behav. 29, 171192 (2008) Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/job.

506

Work-life benets and positive organizational behavior: is there a connection?

LORI MUSE1*, STANLEY G. HARRIS2, WILLIAM F. GILES2 AND HUBERT S. FEILD2
1 2

Department of Management, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan, U.S.A. Department of Management, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, U.S.A.

Summary

Focusing on the employee well-being component of positive organizational behavior (POB), this study explores the relationship between organization provided benet programs and POB. Specically, we ask the question: are employees use and perceived value of a work-life benet package associated with their positive attitudes and behaviors in the workplace? Grounded in social exchange theory and the norm of reciprocity, we develop and estimate a model identifying differential relationships of benet use and perceived benet value with employee attitudinal and performance outcomes. Employing the multigroup method, the hypothesized model was t to the data of two dissimilar organizations. Results support our hypothesis that providing work-life benets employees use and/or value is part of a positive exchange between the employee and employer. This exchange is positively related to employees feelings of perceived organizational support and affective commitment to the organization and reciprocation in the form of higher levels of task and contextual performance behaviors. Results also revealed that employees perceptions of benet program value play a critical role regardless of actual program use in inuencing attitudes and behavior. Our ndings emphasize the importance of valuing employees and investing in their well-being inside as well as outside the workplace. Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Introduction
Luthans (2002) and Wright (2003) recently charged the eld of organizational behavior with approaching research from a more positive perspective, pointing to the vast number of articles with a negative slant (375 000) compared to a positive vein (1000) as evidence of the need for change in approach. They suggest that it is time to start framing research with a positive lens, offering positive organizational behavior (POB) as one avenue. POB is dened as the study and application of positively oriented human resource strengths and psychological capacities that can be measured,

* Correspondence to: Lori Muse, Department of Management, Western Michigan University, 3369 Schneider Hall, Kalamazoo, MI 49008-5429, U.S.A. E-mail: lori.muse@wmich.edu

Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Accepted 10 September 2007

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developed, and effectively managed for performance improvement in todays workplace (Luthans, 2003, p. 167). Much of the research thus far has worked to dene measurable components of POB, identifying condence, hope, optimism, well-being, emotional intelligence, and resiliency as meeting the denitional criteria (Luthans, 2002). However, research has not yet explored if and how an organization might create an environment conducive to POB. Focusing on the employee well-being component of POB, this study investigates the implications of use and perceived value of work-life employee benet packages for positive employee attitudes and behaviors in the workplace. Nearly three decades ago, Kanter (1977) proposed the view of work and family in the business world as that of two separate domains. More recently businesses have begun to realize that work and family are indeed intertwined and need to be treated as such. Each year in their 100 best companies to work for list, Fortune magazine identies organizations that are increasingly expanding and diversifying their work-life benet programs in an attempt to help employees better manage the work and non-work demands facing them. Evolving from family-friendly initiatives, work-life benets are designed to help employees with the many facets of their lives including their personal well-being, professional development, and family responsibilities (Galinsky, Bond, & Friedman, 1996; McShane & Von Glinow, 2000). Following an investment-in-employees approach as opposed to the traditional utilitarian lens, a work-life benets package can include benets from six categories: child-related (e.g., childcare facilities, nancial assistance, and referral, childhood health programs, and maternity/ paternity leave), time/schedule (e.g., ex-time, compressed workweek, and job sharing), physical health (e.g., health insurance, medical and tness centers, and wellness programs), psychological well-being (e.g., counseling and employee assistance programs), professional development (e.g., tuition reimbursement and training), and eldercare (e.g., assistance and referrals). It is the emphasis of work-life life benets on employee well-being that connects them with POB. Wright (2003) identied one of the challenges facing POB is offering a more balanced view of human nature than that offered by the traditional utilitarian approach (p. 440). Wright also highlighted the application of Fredricksons (1998, 2001) broaden and build theory of positive emotions as a way to strengthen POB research. Fredricksons theory identies positive emotions as central to an individuals growth and development, enabling people to become more pro-active. Applying Fredericksons theory to work-life benets would suggest sending a message that the organization cares about its employees enough to provide a benet package that they use and/or value and that contributes to their well-being as a person, not just an employee, is a more balanced approach that could facilitate proactive attitudes and behaviors in the workplace. Prior research has identied affective commitment and performance as means for employees to reciprocate favorable treatment from their employer (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Positive employee attitudes and behaviors have been theoretically and empirically tied to diverse aspects of employee benets including benet choice (Duleborn, Murray, & Sun, 2000), benet availability (Allen, 2001; Behson, 2005; Grover & Crooker, 1995), benet satisfaction (Williams, Malos, & Palmer, 2002), perceived benet fairness (Parker & Allen, 2001), knowledge of how to take advantage of benets (Haar & Spell, 2004), benet use (Allen, 2001; Butler, Gasser, & Smart, 2004; Lambert, 2000), benet usefulness (Lambert, 2000), and perceived benet value (Haar & Spell, 2004; Wilson, Northcraft, & Neale, 1985). Despite this literature, several authors have noted that the nature of the relationships between work-life benet programs and employee attitudes and behaviors remains unclear and have called for more research on the impact of work-life benets in the workplace (Casper & Buffardi, 2004; Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux, & Brinley, 2005; Kossek & Ozeki, 1998; 1999). Responding to this call, we develop a model, grounded in social exchange theory and the norm of reciprocity, relating employees use and perceived value of work-life benets to four important attitudinal and behavioral outcomes: employees level of perceived organizational support (POS),
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 29, 171192 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/job

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affective commitment and task and contextual performance. To better assess the models generalizability, we test the model in two dissimilar organizations. This study contributes to the research on POB and employee benets and their integration in several ways. First, we respond to Lambert (2000) and Haar and Spells (2004) call for more research on the relative roles of benet use and perceived value. Second, the model developed and tested is the rst that has simultaneously examined benets inuence across our four diverse outcome variables. Previous research has examined only subsets of these outcomes and none have theoretically integrated the four in a single model. Third, this research challenges previous beliefs that employee benets cannot be related to POS (Shore & Shore, 1995; Wayne, Shore, & Liden, 1997).

Literature Review, Theoretical Model, and Hypotheses

Social exchange theory and the norm of reciprocity generally provide the theoretical justication for expecting work-life benets to be positively reciprocated by employees in the form of positive attitudes and behaviors (e.g., Lambert, 2000). Social exchange theory characterizes the employeeemployer relationship as an exchange of valued resources (Blau, 1964). Researchers have revealed recognition and rewards (Shore & Shore, 1995), fair treatment of employees (Kacmar & Carlson, 1997), strong levels of supervisory support (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986), and training (Wayne et al., 1997) are perceived by employees as valued resources offered by organizations to their employees. Employees can chose to reciprocate in the workplace by developing an emotional attachment to the organization in the form of affective commitment (Eisenberger, Fasolo, & Davis-LaMastro, 1990; Settoon, Bennett, & Liden, 1996), exerting extra effort in performing job-related tasks (Meyer, Sampo, Paunonen, Gellatly, Gofn, & Jackson, 1989; Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch, & Topolnytsky, 2001), and exhibiting more pro-social behaviors (Meyer et al., 2001). Connecting social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) and the norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960) with work-life benets suggests such programs have the potential to create a positive exchange relationship between the employer and employee. Consistent with this argument, Lambert (2000) found benet use, aggregated across the diverse benets in a work-life benets package, was positively related to interpersonal helping behaviors and POS.

Benet use and perceived value

Lambert (2000) emphasized the centrality of perceived value of work-life benets in the exchange relationship. Lambert employed Gouldners (1960) argument that individuals react differently to the same action based on their value system to justify the importance focusing on benet value in determining an employees resulting feelings of obligation. In other words, since individuals can value benets differently, it is the value ascribed the benets offered rather than just the offering of benets that engenders reciprocation. For example, a benet such as childcare is unlikely to engender reciprocation from someone with no children and no plans to have any because the benet has no perceived value to them. Consistent with this hypothesis, Lambert (2000) found that the perceived usefulness of a work-life benets package (i.e., the extent to which it helped balance work and family demands, provided benets they could not afford, helped their children have opportunities to do things they would not have otherwise been afforded, and helped in difcult times) was positively related to three specic manifestations of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB): suggestions submitted to the organization, quality meeting attendance, and interpersonal helping among a sample of employees in one organization.
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 29, 171192 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/job

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Lambert distinguished benet use from perceived benet value and intended to control for benet use. Unfortunately, problems with model identication did not allow benet use to be used as a control. However, Lambert did examine the relationship between use and the other variables in the study and found it to positively relate to perceived benet usefulness, and interpersonal helping. She concluded that more research on the relative roles of benet use and perceived value in the exchange relationship was needed. Complicating interpretation of Lamberts (2000) results for understanding the role of work-life benets for POB is a recent study by Haar and Spell (2004). Haar and Spell failed to nd any positive relationships between the perceived value of six specic work-family practices and normative, affective, or continuance commitment in a sample of six subunits of a New Zealand Government department. They also reported nding no relationships between use of the benets and commitment. Haar and Spells results may have been inuenced by focusing on a department that was embedded in the larger government system. To the extent that some benets were common across government departments, one would not expect such common benets to engender reciprocation to a specic department. How are the differences between Lamberts (2000) and Haar and Spells (2004) ndings to be resolved? A commonality between both studies was a grounding in social exchange theory and the theoretical expectation that both use and value would encourage positive employee reciprocation. Perhaps Lamberts emphasis on the aggregated benet package made it easier to demonstrate a reciprocal relationship. Haar and Spell did not aggregate to the benet package level; by focusing on discrete benets, the relationships Haar and Spell expected with the commitment variables may have been diluted. Lambert also focused on very specic behavioral manifestations of OCB while Haar and Spell looked at forms of departmental commitment. It is clear that a more integrative and expanded theoretical framework of key variables is needed to help clarify the role of benets in employees reciprocating attitudes and behaviors.

Benets and perceived organizational support

Work-life benet programs can be interpreted as a signal that the organization cares about the wellbeing of its employees, thereby strengthening the employer-employee bond and creating a desire within employees to reciprocate. While the use of work-life benets themselves may directly engender a desire to reciprocate, using such benets might also signal a generalized feeling of organizational support that encourages reciprocation. POS has been dened as the global beliefs employees develop concerning the extent to which the organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Antecedents of POS include signals sent by top management that are interpreted by employees as the organization caring for them (Shore & Shore, 1995). Whereas some researchers have speculated that work-life benets can contribute to workers feelings of POS (Grover & Crooker, 1995; Kossek, 1989), others have contended that benets offered to all employees cannot be related to POS because such benets are not discretionary and therefore do not signal to employees that they are valued (Shore & Shore, 1995; Wayne et al., 1997). We agree with Shore and Shore (1995) and Wayne et al. (1997) that benet availability should not be related to POS because the sheer provision of benets does not vary across employees. However, employees can use and/or value the same benet differently (Casper & Buffardi, 2004) therefore making benet use and perceived benet value variable rather than constant. Providing work-life benets that are used and/or valued can be viewed as a message from the organization that it is concerned enough for its employees well-being to offer a benet package that addresses employee needs not covered by traditional benet plans.
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 29, 171192 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/job

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Support represents yet another resource offered by organizations, leading us to expect assessments of that support, in the form of POS, to encourage reciprocation. Therefore, work-life benets can encourage reciprocation in two ways: direct reciprocation for the benets used themselves and reciprocation for the resulting POS generated by the symbolic value of offering such benets. Similarly, Lambert (2000) hypothesized that POS would mediate the relationship between perceived benet usefulness and OCB behaviors. While she found both use and perceived usefulness positively related to POS, POS was not related to two of the OCB behaviors and negatively related to one. Lamberts results suggest that POS may not play a role in reciprocation in the form of specic OCB behaviors or that the role played is not direct. Clearly, the nature of the role played by POS in the exchange process requires clarication.

Theoretical model
In the present study, we focus on re-examining work-life benet use and perceived value through a POB lens with an aim at improved understanding of their connections with employee attitudes and behaviors. Specically, we believe the inuence of work-life benets on the organization-employee social exchange is most likely to be evidenced in their aggregate use and value and therefore we focus on use and perceived value aggregated across the benets included in a total package. In addition, we believe a more expansive theoretical ordering of employee POS, commitment, and behaviors will strengthen the theory, research, and subsequent understanding. Finally, we contend that a broader focus on task and contextual behaviors will be more fruitful than Lamberts (2000) focus on three very specic behaviors reective of OCB. Based on theory and extant research, we developed a model of proposed relationships shown in Figure 1. The rationale for this model and the relationships it depicts are discussed below.

Use of benets, POS, and affective commitment

The emotional attachment associated with affective commitment characterizes the employer/employee relationship such that employees remain with the organization because they want to. Employees whose

Figure 1. Hypothesized model for examining differential relationships of employee benet use and perceived benet value Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 29, 171192 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/job

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basic needs and expectations are met tend to develop stronger affective attachment to the organization than do those whose needs and expectations are not met (Meyer, Allen, & Smith, 1993). Use of work-life benets satises certain employee needs, contributing to their well-being and therefore can positively inuence the employeeemployer relationship and contribute to employees positively evaluating their commitment and attachment to the organization. Employees can reciprocate the benets they have utilized with greater psychological attachment to the organization. In addition to directly reciprocating the use of benets with affective commitment, benet use should also be associated with greater assessments in POS, which can also be reciprocated with affective commitment. Hypothesis 1a. Use of work-life benets will have a positive direct relationship with affective commitment. Hypothesis 1b. The relationship between use of work-life benets and affective commitment will also be partially mediated through POS.

Perceived benet value, POS, and affective commitment

Haar and Spell (2004) hypothesized a direct relationship between perceived benet value and organizational commitment. They assessed perceived value by simply asking respondents to rate how valuable each practice was to them. Consequently, perceived value was subject to interpretation relative to each individuals past, present, and future needs and circumstances. They only found a correlation between perceived value (across six work-life benets) and affective commitment, and it was in the direction opposite what they hypothesized. In addition to the potential that some of the benets were not features of the department, but rather of the government as a whole as described earlier, Haar and Spells focus on the value of individual benets may have diluted the reciprocity they expected. Aggregating across benets, as Lambert (2000) did might have been more appropriate since commitment is more likely to result from an aggregated sense of support. Haar and Spell also expected and tested for a direct relationship between perceived value and commitment; they even controlled for a potentially intervening attitude, POS. In contrast, Weathington and Tetrick (2000) suggest that benet importance will have an indirect rather than a direct relationship with affective commitment. Benets that are valued may not have yet been utilized and consequently may also not engender any current repayment obligation. It is logical however, to expect benet value to symbolically reinforce general assessments of POS. In turn, we expect these POS sentiments to translate into reciprocal employee affective commitment. Employees experience psychological attachment to the organization because the organization has demonstrated its continuing support for their well-being (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002; Rhoades, Eisenberger, & Armeli, 2001). Hypothesis 2. Perceived benet value will have a positive relationship with affective commitment that is fully mediated through POS.

Affective commitment and task and contextual performance

Researchers have identied task and contextual performance as distinct constructs within the broader domain of job performance (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993; Van Scotter, Motowidlo, & Cross, 2000).
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 29, 171192 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/job

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Task performance has been described as those tasks that differentiate one occupation from another and are required as part of the individuals job. In contrast, contextual performance addresses behaviors that support the broader organizational, social, and psychological environment in which the technical core must function (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993, p. 73). Moreover, contextual behaviors are not tied to any one specic job but are common to many jobs within the organization. Examples of contextual performance behaviors include taking the initiative to solve a problem, working harder than necessary (job dedication), praising a co-worker, and helping a co-worker without being asked (interpersonal facilitation) (Van Scotter et al., 2000). Contextual performance differs from OCBs which have been dened as individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization (Organ, 1988, p. 4). Some researchers have suggested that many of the behaviors in OCB scales are really more in-role behaviors rather than extra-role (e.g., Morrison, 1994). Additionally, researchers have suggested that some forms of OCB are just as likely to lead to rewards as in-role behaviors (Organ, 1997; Orr, Sackett, & Mercer, 1989). According to Organ (1997), contextual performance is a broader construct than OCB because is recognizes non-task related behaviors that can be both in-role and extra-role and rewarded and non-rewarded. While the constructs of contextual performance and OCB are similar (Findley, Mossholder, & Giles, 2000; Organ, 1997), contextual performance is free of some criticisms that have been leveled at the conceptual requirement of OCB. Therefore, this study focuses on contextual performance. Following social exchange (Blau, 1964) and the norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960), we would expect that work-life benets would ultimately be reciprocated by employee task and contextual performance. Consistent with this expectation, Lambert (2000) demonstrated positive relationships between work-life benet use and perceived usefulness and OCB. However, we feel that the inuence of benet use and perceived value on performance is not direct and instead will be fully mediated through affective commitment. Task and contextual performance are not direct reimbursements for work-life benets. Instead, they are more likely repayments for a generalized sense of psychological and affective attachment to the organization. Balance theory (Heidner, 1958) suggests individuals must have a balance between their attitudes and behaviors. Violations of balance create cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) which has been shown to generate stress and motivate attempts to reduce the dissonance. Being affectively committed to an organization is an attitude that is cognitively dissonant with positive task and contextual performance. Research on the employeeemployer relationship has demonstrated that employees can chose to reciprocate positive treatment by their employer by exerting extra effort in performing job-related tasks (Meyer et al., 1989, 2001), and exhibiting more pro-social behaviors (Meyer et al., 2001; Settoon et al., 1996). Based on theoretical rationale and empirical support for a relationship with OCB, we anticipate affective commitment will mediate the positive relationships between benet use and POS with both task and contextual performance. Hypothesis 3a. Affective commitment will fully mediate the positive relationship of benet use with task performance. Hypothesis 3b. Affective commitment will fully mediate the positive relationships of benet use with the contextual performance dimensions of interpersonal facilitation and job dedication. Hypothesis 4a. Affective commitment will fully mediate the positive relationship of POS with task performance. Hypothesis 4b. Affective commitment will fully mediate the positive relationships of POS with the contextual performance dimensions of interpersonal facilitation and job dedication.
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 29, 171192 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/job

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Organizational Context
In the summer and fall of 2001, we collected data for this study from two research sites. The sites chosen were a healthcare organization (Organization A) and a manufacturing company (Organization B), both listed in 2000 and 2001 among Fortune magazines 100 best companies in America to work for (Levering, Moskowitz, Sung, Daniels, & Spencer, 2001). Since our study focused on POB and work-life benets, we chose these companies because both had extensive, yet diverse work-life benet programs that had been in place for quite a long time. Our choice of these organizations is consistent with Haar and Spells (2004) observation, based on Whitener, Brodt, Korsgaard, & Werners (1998) discussion of the norm of reciprocity, that when testing for reciprocation between employers and employees, the organization researched should ideally already offer multiple work-family practices and have been doing so for some time, thus allowing for a moral obligation to develop (p. 1042). Whereas our choice of organizations might reduce the generalizability of our results to organizations with lesser developed work-life benets, we attempted to enhance generalizability by choosing organizations from two very different industries (i.e., healthcare and manufacturing) with divergent jobs. Organization A (Healthcare Organization) Organization A is located in a small city in the southeastern United States, and at the time of our study employed approximately 1700 employees. As a healthcare organization, the majority of employees in Organization A were professionals including managers, physicians, nurses, pharmacists, laboratory specialists, dieticians, and radiology technicians. Females made up 83 per cent of employees and 68 per cent of the population were white. Organization A is one of its citys largest employers and is governed by a ten person Board of Directors. The president had led the organization for 12 years and believed strongly that the treatment of employees inuences the level of care they provide to patients. The organization routinely strove to continually better meet the needs of its employees, emphasized an open door policy and asked for employee feedback via surveys and team meetings throughout the year. Organization A offered a diverse range of work-life benets. Child-related benets included paternity/ maternity leave and on-site childcare. Health benets included a tness center, long-term disability insurance, and medical insurance including prescription, dental, vision, and cancer plans. Scholarships to encourage professional development were also available. To support psychological well-being, Organization A offered employee assistance and employee in crisis programs. Finally, to help employees manage their time and schedule demands, a leave bank and on-site credit union and cafeteria were offered. Organization B (Manufacturing Organization) Organization B, also located in the southeast, is a steel pipe manufacturer that at the time of our study employed 2200 employees. Most employees worked in manufacturing, with some professional positions in sales, research, nance and accounting. The employee population was 84 per cent male and 87 per cent white. The company was founded over 100 years ago and continued to be based upon Christian principles, emphasizing in its value statement the golden rule do unto others as you would have done unto you. The CEO had managed the company for 12 years and reported to a 12 person board that included several employee members. The organization had an extremely low turn-over rate of 3 per cent annually. Organization B also offered a diverse range of work-life benets to its employees. Child-related benets included a well-baby program. Health benets included wellness and diabetes education programs, medical and long-term disability insurance, and on-site medical and physical therapy
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 29, 171192 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/job

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treatment. Employee professional development was encouraged through an on-site company college and a tuition reimbursement program. To support psychological well-being, Organization B provided an employee assistance program. Finally, to help employees manage their time and schedule demands, vacation, sick, and bereavement leaves were offered as were general leaves of absence. In addition, the organization provided an on-site cafeteria.

Method
Sample
We collected multiple-source data using a voluntary employee questionnaire and a supervisor evaluation of employee task and contextual performance. A random sample of 1000 employees was selected from each organization. Code numbers were used to match returned employee questionnaires with corresponding supervisor evaluations. Employees from Organization A received the survey via internal mail and were allowed to complete the questionnaire during work hours. Organization A also reminded employees of the survey deadline with posters throughout the organization, an article in the organization newsletter, and announcements at departmental meetings. There were 54 surveys returned as undeliverable in organization A due to employees being on vacation or having terminated their employment with the organization. Employee questionnaires were sent directly to employees homes in Organization B where employees completed them on their personal time. All employee surveys were deliverable in Organization B. Response rates were 57 per cent (539 completed surveys) for Organization A and 31 per cent (313 completed surveys) for Organization B. Respondents from Organization A, were 83 per cent female, 68 per cent White, 27 per cent Black, 51 per cent under the age of 40, and 54 per cent had been with the organization 5 years or less. Participants from Organization B were 84 per cent male, 87 per cent White, 12 per cent Black, 74 per cent 40 or older and 60 per cent had been with the organization for 20 years or more. We compared respondents from each organization with data available for all employees on race and gender, to test for non-response bias. Females were more likely to respond in Organization A (85 per cent of respondents versus 78 per cent of the employee population) [x2 (1, N 535) 8.97, p < .01]. Whites were more likely to respond in Organization B (87 per cent of respondents versus 73 per cent of the employee population) [x2 (3, N 311) 32.42, p < .01], and females were also more likely to respond (16 per cent of respondents versus 11 per cent of the employee population) [x2 (1, N 311) 8.19, p < .01]. In sum, men were underrepresented in both organization samples, and Blacks were underrepresented in the Organization B sample. Supervisor evaluation surveys were distributed via internal mail in both organizations to supervisors of those employees who returned their surveys. A total of 457 supervisor surveys were returned from Organization A and 263 from Organization B for response rates of 85 per cent and 84 per cent, respectively. Following Goodman and Blums (1996) procedure for assessing non-random sampling, to test for response bias from the supervisors, multinomial logistic regression analysis was performed on the data from each organization regressing employee provided measures of benet use, benet value, POS, and affective commitment on a dichotomous variable representing a completed supervisor evaluation (1 yes). The results revealed only benet use for Organization B had a signicant regression coefcient, indicating supervisors from Organization B were more likely to complete a performance evaluation for employees who used their benets more. However, given that the
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 29, 171192 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/job

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supervisors were not aware of how frequently employees used most of their benets, it is unlikely that this issue led to non-response bias.

Measures
Use of work-life benets Use of work-life benets was measured by asking employees How often have you or your family used each benet listed below during your employment with the company? The benets listed were specic to those offered by the organization (15 benets were included for Organization A and 14 for Organization B; refer to the previous description of the organizations in the Organization Context sidebar for a listing). A 5-point response scale was used ranging from 1 never, to 5 many times. We expanded the more commonly used dichotomous have used or have-not-used measure (e.g., Lambert, 2000) to account for the degree of use of the benets offered in the package, using an average as an index measure of benet use in the analyses. Perceived value of work-life benets Perceived value of work-life benets was assessed by employees with a measure similar to the one used by Haar and Spells (2004). Haar and Spell asked respondents to indicate How valuable is [this work-family practice] to you on a 5-point scale (1 no value; 5 invaluable). To make sure that respondents were considering the potential future value of the benet as well as its present value, we asked: How valuable do you think each of the benets below is or could be in the future to you and your family? followed by a list of all benets offered. Concerned that respondents may inaccurately interpret invaluable as the prex in can often be interpreted as not (as in incorrect), we employed a response scale that ranged from 1 not valuable at all to 5 very valuable. An index was created by averaging across all benet value items. Perceived organizational support (POS) Consistent with prior POS research (Lynch, Eisenberger, & Armeli, 1999; Settoon et al., 1996), an eight-item shortened version of the POS scale developed by Eisenberger et al. (1986) was completed by employees. Example items include, Help is available from my company when I have a problem and My company really cares about my well-being, anchored at 1 strongly disagree and 5 strongly agree (a .93 for both organizations). Affective commitment Employee affective commitment was measured using a six-item scale developed by Meyer and Allen (1991). Example items anchored at 1 strongly disagree and 5 strongly agree include, I feel emotionally attached to this company and I feel a strong sense of belonging to this company (a .89 for both organizations). Task performance Supervisors assessed the task performance of employee respondents using a seven-item scale (Williams & Anderson, 1991) anchored at 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree. Sample items include Fullls responsibilities specied in job description and Performs tasks that are expected of him/her (a .96 for Organization A and a .94 for Organization B). Contextual performance Supervisors assessed employee contextual performance using a 15-item scale developed by Van Scotter et al. (2000). Supervisors were asked, How likely is this person to do the following: with responses
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 29, 171192 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/job

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anchored at 1 unlikely to 5 extremely likely. Examples from the interpersonal facilitation subscale include Praise co-workers when they are successful. and Treat others fairly. Examples from the job dedication subscale are Work harder than necessary. and Take the initiative to solve a work problem. (a .93 and .94 for interpersonal facilitation and job dedication respectively for both organizations). Control variables In their review of antecedents of pay satisfaction, Miceli and Lane (1991) suggested both age and gender were related to perceptions of benets. Since that time, researchers have found age to be related to benet satisfaction (Judge, 1993) and perceptions of benets (Williams, 1995). Research has also reported a relationship between gender and benet use (Lambert, 2000; Thompson, Beauvais, & Lyness, 1999) and perceptions of benets (Lambert, 2000). In their meta-analysis, Judge, Thoreson, Bono, and Patton (2001) found both organizational and job tenure to have a signicant relationship with job performance. Based on these ndings, organizational tenure, job tenure, age and gender as reported by employees were used as control variables. To allay respondents potential concerns about the anonymity of their responses, the tenure and age variables were categorical in nature. Organizational and job tenure was assessed using six ordinal categories (less than 1 year, 15 years, 610 years, 11 15 years, 1620 years, and greater than 20 years). Age was assessed with seven ordinal categories (<21, 2129, 3039, 4049, 5059, 6069, and 70 and older). Gender was assessed dichotomously (female 1; male 0).

Analyses
A two-step modeling approach recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988) was used along with the multigroup method as described by Vandenberg (2002). Two-step modeling entails assessing the factor structure prior to estimating the structural paths to avoid the interaction of the measurement and structural models (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1995). Each organizations data were kept separate and the models, rst the measurement followed by the structural, were t to the data simultaneously to apply the multigroup method. First, separate conrmatory factor analyses were performed on each organizations data. Second, to identify if the factor structure was consistent across both organizations, the measurement model was t to the data. Next to test the hypotheses and determine if the paths were invariant in both organizations, the structural model was t to the data. Mediation testing procedures by Kenny, Kashy, and Bolger (1998) were used to test all hypothesized mediated relationships contained in the structural model. Finally, a fully latent model was examined to identify any potential detriment of using latent indicators in the structural model.

Measurement model
The conrmatory factor analyses for all measures except benet use and benet value (index measures) identied ve distinct and unidimensional constructs for both datasets with strong factor loadings (all items were signicant on their intended construct at p < .001). The model t the data of both organizations well; root mean square error adjusted (RMSEA) .06 and comparative t index (CFI) .98. Researchers have suggested RMSEA values less than .08, and CFI values greater than .90 indicate a good t (Hoyle, 1995). Descriptive statistics for control and model variables are presented in Table 1 for Organization A and in Table 2 for Organization B.
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Table 1. Means, standard deviations, coefcient alphas, and intercorrelations for organization A M 1.85 1.46 0.85 3.41 2.16 3.95 3.44 3.54 4.30 3.96 4.00 .77 .07 .45 .47 .06 .06 .13 .14 .06 .05 .01 .36 .35 .09 .07 .07 .04 .03 .03 .04 .06 .05 .02 .05 .06 .02 .05 .22 .04 .19 .12 .08 .04 .12 .15 .07 .20 .15 .05 .09 .22 .22 .07 .05 .06 1.41 1.17 0.35 1.15 0.70 0.75 0.77 0.81 0.55 0.75 0.73 SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. (.93) .71 .13 .14 .18 (.89) .11 .12 .16 (.96) .75 .62 (.94) .79

Variables

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Organizational tenurea Job tenurea Genderb Agec Benet use Benet value Perceived organizational support Affective commitment Task performance Job dedication Interpersonal facilitation

(.93)

Note: Coefcient alphas are listed in parenthesis on the diagonal. With N 457 and non-directional tests correlations of .09.11 are signicant at p < .05; correlations  .12 are signicant at p < .01. a Tenure variables were measured using six categories (0 less than 1 year, 1 15 years, 2 610 years, 3 1115 years, 4 1620 years, 5 greater than 20 years). b Gender was coded as 0 male; 1 female. c Age was measured using seven categories (1  21, 2 2129, 3 3039, 4 4049, 5 5059, 6 6069, 7 70 and older).

J. Organiz. Behav. 29, 171192 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/job

Table 2. Means, standard deviations, coefcient alphas, and intercorrelations for Organization B M
a

Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. SD 1.85 1.72 0.36 1.00 0.48 0.73 0.83 0.78 0.67 0.83 0.83 .58 .34 .77 .25 .15 .08 .04 .02 .11 .16 .17 .52 .13 .17 .11 .02 .02 .06 .10 .12 .09 .20 .12 .07 .01 .13 .18 .23 .08 .03 .13 .02 .11 .12 .22 .04 .11 .00 .04 .03 .31 .24 .06 .04 .05 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 4.18 2.50 0.15 4.11 2.17 3.96 3.28 3.69 4.18 3.97 3.92 (.93) .72 .14 .21 .24 (.89) .17 .24 .25 (.94) .69 .50 (.94) .81

Variables

11

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Organizational tenure Job tenurea Genderb Agec Benet use Benet value Perceived organizational support Affective commitment Task performance Job dedication Interpersonal facilitation

(.93)

Note: Coefcient alphas are listed in parenthesis on the diagonal. With N 263and non-directional tests correlations of .13.15 are signicant at p < .05; correlations  .16 are signicant at p < .01. a Tenure variables were measured using six categories (0 less than 1 year, 1 15 years, 2 610 years, 3 1115 years, 4 1620 years, 5 greater than 20 years). b Gender was coded as 0 male; 1 female. c Age was measured using seven categories (1  21, 2 2129, 3 3039, 4 4049, 5 5059, 6 6069, 7 70 and older).

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Table 3. Multigroup method analysis goodness-of-t tests for measurement and structural models Model Measurement models Null model No constraints Factor loadings constrained Covariances constraineda Structural models Null model No constraints Structural paths constrained
a

x2 23 857.41 2763.36 2821.34 2834.57 3166.43 23.51 31.73

df 1332.00 1168.00 1199.00 1209.00 132.00 20.00 27.00

p 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.26 0.24

x2/df 17.91 2.37 2.35 2.34 23.99 1.18 1.18

CFI 0.00 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.00 0.99 0.99

TLI 0.00 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.00 0.99 0.99

RMSEA 0.15 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.18 0.02 0.02

Factor loadings also constrained.

Multigroup analysis
Following Byrnes advice (2004) on testing for multigroup invariance, three models were run to determine if the factor structure was invariant across both organizations: (a) a model without constraints tting the data to both organizations, (b) a model constraining the factor loadings to be equal across both organizations, and (c) a model constraining the factor loadings and the covariances between factors to be equal across both organizations. Model results are presented in Table 3. The unconstrained model t the data well (CFI .93, TLI .92, RMSEA .04), therefore this model was the baseline model to which subsequent models were compared. Experts suggest invariance has been achieved when the model t of the successive models does not signicantly deteriorate (Taris, Bok, & Meijer, 1998). Given Chi-square differences are sample size dependent (Brannick, 1995), researchers have suggested using alternative t indices (Hu & Bentler, 1998). Specically, Cheung and Rensvold (2002) found DCFI  0.01 to be a robust indicator of equivalence across groups. Accordingly, we employed the DCFI critical value in our multigroup method testing. When compared to the baseline model, both the factor loadings and covariance constrained models held constant at a CFI value of .93. In addition, other t indices indicate both models t the data equally well (TLI .92, RMSEA .04). Based on these ndings we concluded invariance was achieved and the factors were consistent across both organizations.

Structural model
Manifest indicators were created in both datasets for each latent variable by averaging the items for each scale (Kenny, 1979). Error variances for all scales were constrained to the product of one minus the reliability of the scale and its variance (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1982). Each of the four control variables (organizational tenure, job tenure, age, and gender) were allowed to co-vary with each other and had a path to benet use, benet value, POS, affective commitment, task performance, interpersonal facilitation and job dedication. Similar to the logic of testing the measurement model, two models were compared:(a) a model without constraints, tting the data to both organizations and (b) a model constraining the structural paths to be equal across both organizations (Byrne, 2004).

Results
Estimation of the hypothesized model
Results examining the hypothesized model are presented in Table 3; the t of the unconstrained and constrained models was identical (a2/df 1.18, CFI .99, TLI .99, and RMSEA .02), indicating
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the structural model was invariant between the two organization samples. All hypothesized paths, except two (H:1b no support; H:3b partial support) were fully supported. Benet use as hypothesized (H:1a), had a direct effect on affective commitment (b .15 p < .001) but contrary to H1b did not also have an indirect relationship mediated through POS. Mediation testing procedures by Kenny et al. (1998) were employed to test Hypothesis 2 (Perceived benet value will have a positive relationship with affective commitment that is fully mediated through POS.). Two alternative models were examined, one testing a direct relationship between perceived benet value and affective commitment constraining the path from benet value to POS to zero, and a second with the direct relationship plus an indirect relationship as mediated by POS. A signicant relationship between benet value and affective commitment existing in the model without the mediator, that becomes non-signicant in the model with the mediator, indicates full mediation. The model examining the direct relationship between benet value and affective commitment indicated a signicant relationship (b .08, p < .05), with a moderate t with the data (CFI .98, TLI .89, RMSEA .06). The model allowing POS to mediate the relationship revealed that the relationship between benet value and affective commitment became non-signicant (b .06, p .14) and provided a good t with the data (CFI .99, TLI .99, RMSEA .02). Additionally, when compared to the hypothesized model, a Chi-square difference test indicated a non-signicant difference [x2 (1, N 720) 2.73, ns], providing support for Hypothesis 2. Following Anderson and Gerbing (1988) when a path is added to a hypothesized model, a non-signicant difference in Chi-squares indicates the additional paths do not signicantly improve the model, thereby supporting the hypothesized model as a better t as it is more parsimonious. Similarly, to test the mediated relationships of benet use and performance in Hypotheses 3a (affective commitment will fully mediate the positive relationship of benet use with task performance) and 3b (affective commitment will fully mediate the positive relationships of benet use with the contextual performance dimensions of interpersonal facilitation and job dedication), two alternative models were compared, one with direct relationships between benet use and each of the performance variables (task performance, interpersonal facilitation, and job dedication) constraining the path from benet use and affective commitment to zero, and a second with the mediated relationships added. The rst model showed direct relationships from benet use to two of the three performance variables were signicant (btask performance .08, p < .05; binterpersonal facilitation .03, ns; bjob dedication .06, p < .05) and t the data well (CFI .99, TLI .94, RMSEA .04). The model allowing affective commitment to mediate the relationships revealed that those that were signicant without the mediator became non-signicant with the mediator (btask performance .06, p .33; binterpersonal facilitation .01, p .83; bjob dedication .04, p .48). Additionally, when compared to the hypothesized model, a Chi-square difference test indicated a non-signicant difference [x2 (3, N 720) 2.53, ns], providing full support for hypothesis 3a and partial support for 3b. The same procedure described above was used to test the mediated relationships of POS and performance in Hypotheses 4a (affective commitment will fully mediate the positive relationship of POS with task performance) and 4b (affective commitment will fully mediate the positive relationships of POS with the contextual performance dimensions of interpersonal facilitation and job dedication). The rst model without the mediation included showed that direct relationships from POS to each of the performance variables were signicant (btask performance .13, p < .01; binterpersonal facilitation .19, p < .001; bjob dedication .15, p < .01) and t the data well (CFI .99, TLI .99, RMSEA .01). The model allowing affective commitment to mediate the relationships revealed that the relationship between POS and all three performance variables became non-signicant (btask performance .13, p .08; binterpersonal facilitation .15, p .06; bjob dedication .11, p .15). Additionally, when compared to the hypothesized model, a Chi-square difference test indicated a non-signicant difference [x2 (3, N 720) 5.06, ns], fully supporting the hypothesized meditated relationships in H4a and b.
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Taken together, the analyses supported our hypothesized model, with the exceptions of the indirect path linking benet use to affective commitment through POS and the mediated relationship of benet use and job dedication by affective commitment. A fully latent model was also run for Organization A to identify any potential problems from our use of manifest indicators rather than a fully latent model (where all items for all variables are employed in the analyses). Due to its larger sample size, Organization A (N 457 versus N 263) was better able to support a fully latent model. Results of this model mirrored those of the nal constrained structural model, with very little changes in path coefcients and no change in their signicance level, suggesting that using manifest indicators did not inuence our results. The hypothesized model with resulting path coefcients and associated signicance levels from the multigroup constrained model are shown in Figure 2.

Discussion
This study contributes to the POB and employee benets research in four primary ways. First and foremost, we contribute to integrating POBs emphasis on employee well-being and employee benets literature by providing empirical evidence that work-life benets are directly associated with affective commitment and indirectly to important work behaviors. Second, our ndings clarify the differential paths that benet use and perceived benet value take in their relationships with affective commitment. Third, the signicant relationship between benet value and POS provides additional empirical support to that provided by Lambert (2000) countering previous beliefs that employee benets cannot be related to POS (Shore & Shore, 1995; Wayne et al., 1997). Lastly, this research works toward answering the calls to investigate the impact of work-life benets in the workplace (Casper & Buffardi, 2004; Eby et al., 2005; Kossek & Ozeki, 1998; 1999).

Figure 2. Multigroup method analysis results. Structural paths constrained to be equal across organizations. All numbers reect standardized path coefcients. Organization A N 457, Organization B N 263. NS not signicant, p < .05, p < .01, p < .001. All tests are one-tailed Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 29, 171192 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/job

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Work-life benets and positive organizational behavior

This study contributes to bridging the gap between POB research and the employee benets literature. Contrary to the results reported by Haar and Spell (2004), our results strongly suggest that providing work-life benets that employees use and value engenders positive affective commitment to the organization. Consistent with Lambert (2000), we found that benet use and perceived value were positively associated with important work behaviors. However, we extend Lamberts work by providing evidence that these relationships are best considered indirect and mediated through affective commitment. Through this enhanced emotional attachment to the organization, use and perceived value of benets indirectly are associated with higher levels of task and contextual performance behaviors. The performance outcomes can be partially explained by balance theory (Heidner, 1958) which indicates that a need for a balance between employee attitudes and behaviors would lead employees to exert more effort in their performance and pro-social behaviors once they felt more emotionally attached to the organization. Our ndings are also consistent with the strategic human resource management literature (Arthur, 2003; Mello, 2006) that suggests that caring for employees well-being and corporate protability may not be as mutually exclusive as was once thought.

Distinction between benet use and perceived value

Another compelling nding of this study is the importance of drawing a clear distinction between benet use and perceived benet value. Consistent with Lambert (2000) and Haar and Spell (2004), our measures of benet use and perceived benet value were only moderately correlated (r .22 in both organizations). Benet use and perceived value were also found to have differential paths to affective commitment. The results support a direct relationship between benet use and affective commitment accounting for 2 per cent of the variance in affective commitment. In contrast, perceived benet values relationship with affective commitment accounted for 6.5 per cent of the variance in affective commitment but was entirely mediated through POS. Benet uses relationship to affective commitment was not mediated through POS. It seems that because employees are receiving something tangible resulting from their use of benets, they are likely to directly reciprocate with affective commitment to the granting organization. However, perceived value is less tangible than benet use; it informs broader judgments of POS that in turn encourage affective commitment. Our ndings extend the results of Grover and Crooker (1995) who found the availability of ex-time, maternity/paternity leave and childcare (regardless of use) was associated with strong emotional attachment to the organization. Our study focused on the perceived value of a broader group of benets and identies the importance of how these benets are perceived by employees. The differential relationships of benet use and perceived benet value found in this study can be explained by POB, social exchange theory, and the norm of reciprocity. The results suggest that benets do not need to be used to be valued. For example, a cancer plan and employee-in-crisis program are two benets employees are likely to value but hope to not actually use. Benets that are used satisfy employee needs and thus inuence the employeeemployer relationship by motivating these employees to reciprocate.

Benet value and POS

The link between perceived benet value and POS is consistent with Lambert (2000) and contradicts arguments that employee benets do not signal to employees they are valued and are therefore not related to POS (Shore & Shore, 1995; Wayne et al., 1997). Our ndings are consistent, however, with
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suggestions that organizations can communicate employee value by offering benets that assist employees with meeting multiple demands, such as childcare, counseling, and time off for emergencies (Lynch et al., 1999). The results found in this study across two distinctly different organizations, indicate employee perceptions of work-life benets can indeed signal to employees that the organization values and supports them and cares about their well-being. Whereas benets viewed as valuable may not have been used, and may have not yet satised a need, they serve as a signal of caring by the organization (i.e., POS). It is this feeling that the organization cares for the employees that initiates the reciprocation process.

Impact of work-life benets in the workplace

Finally, this research begins to identify and explain the impact of work-life benets in the workplace. To date, this is the only study examining relationships among work-life benet use, work-life benet value, POS, affective commitment, and task and contextual performance collectively in the same model. Luthans (2002) charged that POB must go beyond mere employee selection (p. 699). This study provides evidence that work-life benets are one way of meeting that goal. Our ndings extend those of Casper and Buffardi (2004) who linked perceptions of work-life benets to company attractiveness and job pursuit intentions. Results of this study suggest that the positive inuence of work-life benets does not end with recruiting but continues during employment. Our results are also consistent with Allen (2001) who argued that simply offering family-friendly benets is not enough; the culture must be supportive of the programs so that employees perceive the benets positively and feel comfortable using them. Further examining employee perceptions of benet programs is important because the results of this study suggest that valued work-life benets, regardless of their current or past use, are positively associated with important employee attitudes and behaviors in the workplace.

Practical applications
The results of this study have important implications to organizations and practicing human resource managers. When deciding which benets to offer, organizations frequently follow a strict utilitarian approach giving costs and benets offered by competitors careful consideration (Lawler, 1990). Our ndings suggest a more balanced approach including an assessment of employees perceptions of benet value as a critical part of the decision making process. Suggestions for conducting such an analysis include personal interviews, focus groups, and survey questionnaires. Questions might include What benets are most important to you?, If you were given X dollars for benets, how would you spend them? (Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, & Wright, 2003), and How valuable do you think each of the following benets are? By providing work-life benets that are valued, employers can send a message to employees that the company cares about their well-being and supports them. The resulting employee perceptions of organizational support should motivate employees to reciprocate. Employees can fulll their desire to reciprocate by becoming more emotionally attached to the organization and enhancing their performance of both job-related duties and behaviors that support the organization as a whole (i.e., job dedication and interpersonal facilitation).

Limitations
The cross-sectional nature of the data collected is one limitation of this study which prevents the examination of causal relationships. Although other variable orders cannot be eliminated, applying
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Fishbein and Ajzens (1975) theory of reasoned action suggests the order of the variables in our model is theoretically reasonable. Studies collecting longitudinal data, both before and after work-life benets are implemented, are needed to further examine the direction of these benets relationships with employee attitudes and behaviors. Another limitation is the possibility that the relationships reported might be affected by other, non-assessed variables that are potential third variable contaminants, because of their relationships with the measured variables. For example, in their meta-analysis Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002) identied supervisor support as the second strongest antecedent of POS. Research has also revealed a correlation between supervisor support and benet use (Thompson et al., 1999), and perceptions of benets (Allen, 2001). Additionally, positive and negative affect has been linked to several variables contained in this study: perceptions of benets (Williams, 1995), POS (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002), affective commitment (Cropanzano, James, & Konovsky, 1993), and performance (Baumann & Kuhl, 2002; Cropanzano et al., 1993). Studies including these variables as well as others that could be third variable contaminants would be helpful in solidifying the exact nature of the relationships in this study. Generalizability of the results is another limitation of this study. Men were underrepresented in both organizations, and Blacks were underrepresented in Organization B. Therefore, more research is needed to determine if the results could be generalized to more diverse workforces. Additionally, studies exploring other avenues for building POB in the workplace would be fruitful in understanding this new area of research. Future research comparing the relationship of benet use with other types of commitment (continuance and normative commitment) similar to Haar and Spell (2004) would also provide a valuable contribution. Moreover, future research examining different conceptualizations of benet use and perceived benet value, as well as exploring additional antecedents and consequences, would shed light on their surrounding nomological net.

Conclusion
In sum, the results of this study suggest that providing work-life benets that employees use and/or value is part of a positive exchange between the employee and employer, whereby both parties can benet. Our ndings emphasize the importance to organizations in assessing employees perceived value of benets when making decisions concerning these programs. Work-life benets can send a message of caring for employees well-being that can have positive consequences in the workplace for both the employee and the employer. Our ndings suggest work-life benets and POB are connected and contribute to the research on both POB and employee benets and also provide practical insight to organizations interested in creating a positive climate for employees.

Author biographies
Lori Muse is an Associate Professor of Management at California State University, Fullerton. Her primary research interest focuses on the employeeemployer relationship, including work-family conict and work-life benets. Stanley G. Harris is the Torchmark Professor of Management at Auburn University and Faculty Director of the Physicians Executive MBA Program and the Management Ph.D. program concentration in Organizational Studies, Strategy, and Change.
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William F. Giles received his Ph.D. in Industrial/Organizational Psychology from the University of Tennessee and teaches various courses in human resource management at Auburn University. His primary research interest is performance appraisal, with secondary interests in training and selection. His research has been published in journals such as Journal of Applied Psychology, Academy of Management Journal, and Personnel Psychology. Hubert S. Feild is Torchmark Professor of Management in the College of Business at Auburn University. His professional interests include human resource selection and research methods in human resource management.

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