University of Southern Queensland

Faculty of Engineering and Surveying

Review of the Jet Grouting Method



A dissertation submitted by

Richard Fun Yiu CHOI


in fulfillment of the requirements of

Courses ENG4111 and 4112 Research Project

towards the degree of

Bachelor of Engineering (Civil Engineering)

Submitted: October 2005

ABSTRACT
J et grouting is a soil improvement technique which employs high-speed fluid jets to
erode soils. The resulting cavity is subsequently filled with grout to form a composite
material with enhanced characteristics. In a typical application, a borehole is first
drilled to the depth of the treatment strata. A nozzle located near the tip of the rod
ejects a horizontal pressurized water jet to cut into the soil. As the rod is rotated and
lifted, a cylindrical cavity forms. Grout is ejected through a lower nozzle to mix with
and displace the soil slurry, forming a columnar soilcrete element.
The purpose of this paper is to present the background behind the jet grouting tech-
nique and to review its current state of development in ground improvement. General
grouting is first discussed to provide a contextual background. Background informa-
tion on the jet grouting process is then presented, covering various aspects such as
equipment, operational parameters, quality control, etc. Finally, select case histories
illustrating the various applications and situations in which jet grouting has been used
before are presented. The contents of this paper are based on studies, case histories,
and reports from researchers and specialist contractors which have experience in the
field of jet grouting.
i
University of Southern Queensland
Faculty of Engineering and Surveying


ENG4111 & ENG4112 Research Project


Limitations of Use

The Council of the University of Southern Queensland, its Faculty of Engineering
and Surveying, and the staff of the University of Southern Queensland, do not accept
any responsibility for the truth, accuracy, or completeness of material contained
within or associated with this dissertation.
Persons using all or any part of this material do so at their own risk, and not at the risk
of the Council of the University of Southern Queensland, its Faculty of Engineering
and Surveying or the staff of the University of Southern Queensland.
This dissertation reports an educational exercise and has no purpose or validity be-
yond this exercise. The sole purpose of the course pair entitled Research Project is
to contribute to the overall education within the students chosen degree program.
This document, the associated hardware, software, drawings, and other material set
out in the associated appendices should not be used for any other purpose: if they are
so used, it is entirely at the risk of the user.

Prof. G. Baker
Dean
Faculty of Engineering and Surveying
Limitations of Use
ii



Certification





I certify that the ideas, designs and experimental work, results, analyses, and conclu-
sions set out in this dissertation are entirely my own effort, except where otherwise
indicated and acknowledged.
I further certify that the work is original and has not been previously submitted for
assessment in any other course or institution, except where specifically stated.


Richard Fun Yiu CHOI
Student Number: 0050027402


Signature



Date
Certification
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Abstract......................................................................................................................... i
Limitations of Use ....................................................................................................... ii
Certification................................................................................................................ iii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................ viii
List of Figures............................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures............................................................................................................. ix
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... xi
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... xi
1 BACKGROUND............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Need for ground improvement.............................................................. 1
1.2 Introduction to grouting........................................................................ 2
1.3 Development of jet grouting................................................................. 2
1.4 Areas of application.............................................................................. 3
1.4.1 Mechanical property improvement........................................... 3
1.4.2 Permeability and erosion control .............................................. 4
1.4.3 Settlement control ..................................................................... 5
1.4.4 Other applications..................................................................... 5
1.5 Grouting methods overview.................................................................. 5
1.5.1 Grouting methods by grout type............................................... 6
1.5.2 Grouting methods by process.................................................... 6
1.5.3 Grouting methods by mode of interaction................................ 7
1.5.4 Other grouting methods............................................................ 9
2 GROUTS........................................................................................................ 11
2.1 Grout classification............................................................................. 11
2.2 Grout properties.................................................................................. 12
2.3 Cement grouts..................................................................................... 14
2.3.1 Review of Portland cements................................................... 14
iv
2.3.2 Supplementary additives and admixtures............................... 15
2.3.3 Filler materials........................................................................ 16
2.3.4 Water-cement ratio.................................................................. 16
2.4 Chemical grouts.................................................................................. 18
2.4.1 Chemical grout systems.......................................................... 19
2.4.2 Chemical grout classification.................................................. 19
2.4.3 Chemical grout usage.............................................................. 20
2.4.4 Sodium silicates...................................................................... 20
2.4.5 Acrylamides and acrylates...................................................... 21
2.4.6 Lignosulfonates....................................................................... 22
2.4.7 Polyurethanes.......................................................................... 23
2.5 Groutability......................................................................................... 23
3 JET GROUTING BACKGROUND............................................................ 25
3.1 Introduction......................................................................................... 25
3.2 J et grouting variants............................................................................ 27
3.2.1 Generic systems...................................................................... 27
3.2.2 Note on historical systems...................................................... 29
3.2.3 Subvertical jet grouting........................................................... 30
3.2.4 Multiple-stem grouting........................................................... 30
3.3 J et grouting notes................................................................................ 30
3.3.1 Eroding mechanism................................................................ 31
3.3.2 Replacement versus mixing action......................................... 31
3.3.3 Air shroud............................................................................... 32
3.3.4 Airlifting effect....................................................................... 33
3.3.5 Volume versus pressure.......................................................... 33
3.3.6 Spoils return............................................................................ 33
3.4 Strengths and limitations..................................................................... 34
3.4.1 Improvement of physical properties....................................... 34
3.4.2 Wide range of soil applicability.............................................. 34
3.4.3 Low space requirements......................................................... 34
3.4.4 Minimal site disturbance......................................................... 35
3.4.5 Ability to bypass buried obstructions..................................... 35
3.4.6 Controllability, predictability, and automation....................... 35
3.4.7 Flushing requirements............................................................. 35
3.4.8 Costs........................................................................................ 36
3.5 Developments..................................................................................... 36
3.5.1 Super jet grouting.................................................................... 36
3.5.2 Cross jetting............................................................................ 36
v
3.5.3 Mechanical mixing and jet grouting....................................... 37
4 JET GROUTING PRACTICE.................................................................... 38
4.1 Introduction......................................................................................... 38
4.2 Equipment........................................................................................... 38
4.2.1 Pre-drilling versus self-jetting setups...................................... 40
4.2.2 Monitor and nozzle properties................................................ 40
4.3 Operational parameters....................................................................... 41
4.3.1 Fluid pressures and flow rates................................................. 42
4.3.2 Rod withdrawal and rotation rates.......................................... 43
4.3.3 Layout and sequencing........................................................... 43
4.4 Grouting design................................................................................... 43
4.4.1 Weak soils............................................................................... 44
4.4.2 Required soil information....................................................... 44
4.4.3 Soil testing.............................................................................. 45
4.4.4 Grouting trials......................................................................... 46
4.5 Monitoring and control ....................................................................... 46
4.5.1 Grouting control...................................................................... 46
4.5.2 Verification of results............................................................. 47
4.5.3 Monitoring of environment..................................................... 48
5 ILLUSTRATIVE APPLICATIONS........................................................... 49
5.1 Introduction......................................................................................... 49
5.2 Underpinning and support................................................................... 50
5.2.1 Quay wall stabilization works, Kingston Bridge, Glasgow.... 50
5.2.2 Excavation support for Singapore Post Center....................... 53
5.3 Tunneling............................................................................................ 54
5.3.1 Tunnels for A43 motorway in the French Alps...................... 55
5.4 Groundwater control ........................................................................... 57
5.4.1 Basement excavation for Midland Bank, J ersey..................... 57
5.5 Environmental remediation................................................................. 59
5.5.1 Cadmium treatment of an industrial site, New York.............. 59
5.6 Liquefaction control............................................................................ 60
5.6.1 Carrefour Shopping Center, Turkey....................................... 60
6 CASE STUDY: SLUDGE TREATMENT PLANT, NEGERI SEMBILAN,
MALAYSIA................................................................................................... 63
6.1 Introduction......................................................................................... 63
6.2 Site conditions..................................................................................... 64
6.3 Design................................................................................................. 66
vi
6.3.1 Surcharge................................................................................ 66
6.3.2 Material specifications............................................................ 67
6.3.3 Analysis................................................................................... 67
6.3.4 Notes on FOS calculation....................................................... 68
6.3.5 Analysis results....................................................................... 69
6.4 Implementation................................................................................... 69
6.4.1 Monitoring instrumentation.................................................... 71
6.5 Project review..................................................................................... 72
7 CASE STUDY: PROPOSED COMMERCIAL BUILDING AT JALAN
PAHANG, KUALA LUMPUR, MALAYSIA ............................................ 73
7.1 Introduction......................................................................................... 73
7.2 Site conditions..................................................................................... 74
7.3 J ustification for jet grouting................................................................ 76
7.4 J et grouting design............................................................................. 77
7.5 Encountered problems........................................................................ 78
7.6 Project review..................................................................................... 81
8 CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................... 82
8.1 State of jet grouting............................................................................. 82
8.2 Ending notes........................................................................................ 83
9 REFERENCES.............................................................................................. 84
Appendix A................................................................................................................ 88
Appendix B................................................................................................................ 90
Appendix C................................................................................................................ 93
Appendix D.............................................................................................................. 100
Appendix E.............................................................................................................. 134
Appendix F .............................................................................................................. 139

vii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1. Major chemical components of Portland cements....................................... 14
Table 2. Supplementary additives and admixtures in cement grouts.......................... 15
Table 3. Suitability of various chemical grouts in common applications (adapted from
USACE 1995)................................................................................................. 20
Table 4. Historical jet grouting methods (adapted from Xanthakos et al. 1994)........ 29
Table 5. Typical range of jet grouting parameters and soilcrete formed using the
single-, double-, and triple-fluid systems (from Kauschinger and Welsh, cited
by Xanthakos et al. 1994). .............................................................................. 42
Table 6. Typical range of air, water, and grout flow parameters (estimated from Covil
and Skinner 1994)........................................................................................... 43
Table 7. Required soil parameters for jet grouting design (adapted from J J GA n.d.).45
Table 8. Results of trial jet grouting tests in quay wall stabilization works, Kingston
Bridge, Glasgow (adapted from Coutts et al. 1994). ...................................... 52
Table 9. Operating parameters used in jet grouting basement works, Singapore Post
Center (from Ing and Teoh 2000)................................................................... 54
Table 10. Operating parameters used in jet grouting works for the eastern tube of the
Les Hurtires tunnel........................................................................................ 57
Table 11. Operating parameters used in jet grouting basement works, Midland Bank
development (from Newman et al. 1994). ...................................................... 58
Table 12. Operating parameters used in jet grouting, Carrefour site (adapted from
Olgun 2003). ................................................................................................... 61
Table 13. Excavation depths for construction of the sludge treatment facility, Port
Dickson, Negeri Sembilan. ............................................................................. 64
Table 14. Design parameters for various soil strata.................................................... 65
Table 15. Operating parameters used in jet grouting, Negeri Sembilan site. ............. 70
Table 16. Design parameters for various soil strata.................................................... 74
Table 17. Operating parameters used in jet grouting, J alan Pahang site. ................... 77
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1. Relationship of permeability to water-cement ratio (from Littlejohn 1982).
......................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 2. Relationship of bleed rate to water-cement ratio (from Littlejohn 1982). .. 17
Figure 3. Relationship of compressive strength to water-cement ratio (from Littlejohn
1982). .............................................................................................................. 18
Figure 4. Ranges of grain size in which different types of grout are useful (from
Mitchell, cited by Terzaghi et al. 1996)......................................................... 24
Figure 5. Five stages of the jet grouting process (from Covil and Skinner 1994)...... 26
Figure 6. Generic jet grouting systems....................................................................... 28
Figure 7. Relationship between the projection distance from the nozzle and pressure,
for delivery pressure of 40 MPa and nozzle diameter of 2 mm (from Shibazaki
and Ohta 1982)................................................................................................ 32
Figure 8. Collision jet for soil cutting (from Shroff and Shah 1999). ....................... 36
Figure 9. Mechanical jet combined method (from Shroff and Shah 1999). ............... 37
Figure 10. Schematic view of jet grouting equipment (from Shibazaki and Ohta
1982). .............................................................................................................. 39
Figure 11. Typical track-mounted jet grouting rig (from USDOE 1998)................... 40
Figure 12. Exposed soilcrete columns. ....................................................................... 48
Figure 13. Horizontal jet grouted umbrella for tunnel structures (from Guatteri et al.
1994). .............................................................................................................. 55
Figure 14. Cross section of jet grouting works for the eastern tube of the Les
Hurtires tunnel (from Guilloux 2000)........................................................... 56
Figure 15. Terrace housing located adjacent to the site.............................................. 65
Figure 16. Oil contaminated soil at site. ..................................................................... 66
Figure 17. Girder-mounted jet grouting rig. ............................................................... 70
Figure 18. Silo and mixing equipment........................................................................ 71
Figure 19. Site after excavation.................................................................................. 72
Figure 20. View of entire site, J alan Pahang project. ................................................. 75
ix
Figure 21. View of jet grouted slope covered with plastic sheeting........................... 76
Figure 22. Elementary school located adjacent to J alan Pahang site.......................... 78
Figure 23. ACM complex (structure with striped roof) adjacent to the J alan Pahang
site................................................................................................................... 79
x
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. J im Shiau, for guiding me. I would also like
to thank Mr. Lim Kean Hoe of APG Geo-systems Sdn. Bhd. for sparing the time to
talk to and help me with my case study. This project was not only taxing on me, but
on my family as well and I would like to thank them for their unfailing support
throughout this endeavor.
xi


1
1 BACKGROUND
1.1 Need for ground improvement
Soil, a mundane material which never crosses most peoples minds, supports many of
the structures essential to human civilization. Its importance becomes most noticeable
during its failure, when unnatural stresses imposed disrupt its equilibrium and cause
the soil particles to be rearranged in relief. Soil failures have the potential to be disas-
trous with substantial human and economic costs. One of Australias worst landslides
in recent history, the Thredbo landslide of 1997 in New South Wales, caused the
deaths of eighteen people and damage worth millions of dollars when the landslide
debris crashed into a nearby ski resort.
Guarding against soil failure is not a simple issue of avoiding weak soils. In most
countries, development tends to cluster around existing people-concentrations of cit-
ies and towns; the choice of development location is usually geographically restricted.
Furthermore, the scarcity of attractive land often causes the dual considerations of


2
availability and cost to take precedence over soil suitability. As a result, problematic
soils are often unavoidable. Fortunately, geotechnical expertise provides a viable so-
lution for most situations. Various ground improvement techniques are available to
remediate unfavorable soil characteristics.
1.2 Introduction to grouting
Grouting is a process in which fluid grout is introduced under pressure either into the
voids of a soil mass or typically inaccessible spaces (such as buried soil strata or
foundations). The grout material displaces the existing soil, water, or air as it flows
through the void matrix, eventually curing to form a composite material with en-
hanced properties; the term soilcrete refers to a soil/grout mixture of this nature. The
primary purposes of grouting are to improve the strength and durability of the soil
and/or to control the permeability of the soil.
1.3 Development of jet grouting
A steady stream of water can cut a canyon through rock with enough time. People
have long observed the erosive power of water and sought to harness it. The concept
of using high velocity fluid jets to erode and cement soil originated in J apan during
the mid1960s. Although chemical grouting methods were already well established in
geotechnical practice then, Shroff and Shah (1999) noted that those methods suffered
from the disadvantages of irregular grouted shapes and insufficient improved
strengths. The need for a better method spurred grouting research during that period,
and the idea of jet grouting was born. Initially inspired by the giant water jets used in
hydraulic mining, extensive research and development has since evolved jet grouting
from being a mere theoretical curiosity into an important soil improvement technique.
The first instances of jet grouting emerged during the early1970s. Two methods
were developed independently at the outset: the chemical churning pile (CCP)
method and the column jet grout (CJ G) method. The CCP method was a single-fluid


3
system in which chemical grouts were injected under pressure through a small nozzle
located at the end of the drill rod. The CJ G method was a triple-fluid system in which
the soil was first cut with an air-coated-water jet before being mixed with a cement
grout jet. In both methods, the simultaneous actions of lifting and rotating would re-
sult in the creation of a soilcrete column.
J et grouting quickly gained acceptance in J apan during the 1970s and spread around
the world in the following decades. Initial activity was concentrated around Germany,
Italy, France, Singapore, and Brazil (Xanthakos et al. 1994). Widespread adoption in
the United States did not occur until after 1987 (Schaefer 1997). Today, the technique
is practiced in many countries where specialist grouting contractors are available.
1.4 Areas of application
A grouting program can be designed to achieve a variety of results depending on the
method and grout type used. In general, ground treatment applications can be divided
into several groups, differentiated by objective. The primary areas of application are
mechanical property improvement, permeability and erosion control, and settlement
control. Numerous other applications exist, of which some are also described in this
section. It should be noted that the following examples are meant to be illustrative
only and offer but a partial representation of all the different ways grouting is used in
practice.
1.4.1 Mechanical property improvement
In mechanical property improvement applications, grouting is used to improve the
bearing capacity and other structural properties of a soil or rock mass. Grouted soils
typically exhibit higher strength capacities than normal soils. The grout in the void
matrix binds the soil particles together in a manner similar to how cement paste binds
aggregates together in concrete. The shear resistance of the soil is increased due to the
binding effect of the grout. The enhanced stiffness also reduces any deformations and
settlements which might arise in response to stresses.


4
Another use of grouting is for the consolidation of loose soils. For example, it is de-
sirable in tunnel construction to bore through a stable body of rock which will not
collapse into the shaft. If fragmented rocks or loose soils are encountered, grouting
can be used to consolidate the ground during the shaft-driving process (with the side
benefit of improving tunnel face stability).
1.4.2 Permeability and erosion control
In permeability control applications, grouting is used to control the effects of
groundwater. The primary areas of application include dam-, tunnel-, and foundation
construction, where deep excavations make groundwater a major construction issue.
It is intuitively obvious that grouted soils should have a lower permeability than ordi-
nary soils, as the grout material fills up the void space through which water normally
travels.
In deep excavations, grouting can be used to facilitate construction works and pro-
mote stability in excavated faces. By grouting walls and base rafts bounding the site,
the permeability of the excavated faces can be drastically reduced to decrease the
amount of groundwater flow into the site. Combined with proper pumping and drain-
age, the site can then be prepared for access by construction personnel and equipment.
In dam construction, grouting is used to reduce the seepage under a dam, either by
eliminating flow entirely or by reducing it to a point where the remainder can eco-
nomically be drained. A grout curtain, essentially a panel of grouted soil acting as an
impermeable wall, can be constructed underneath the dam to form a cutoff wall. Al-
though grouting is not the only way of constructing this barrier, the method is a viable
option which should be considered seriously. One additional benefit of reducing
groundwater flows isillustrating yet another area of applicationthat internal ero-
sion within the foundation and embankments is reduced.


5
1.4.3 Settlement control
Grouting can also be used as a measure to correct excessive ground settlements and
deflections. Grout is injected into a buried stratum where settlement is to be corrected.
The grout builds up in bulk until it eventually forces the overlying soil burden up-
wards. This is sometimes used to minimize settlement effects when boring tunnels
underneath existing structures. Another example is in pavement construction where
grout may be pumped underneath pavement slabs to lift them (i.e., slab-jacking).
1.4.4 Other applications
Many other specialized applications of grouting exist in addition to those described
above. In environmental applications, grouting is used to control contaminant migra-
tion through the ground and to treat contaminated soils. These are typically extended
cases of permeability control, in which grout is used to reduce contaminant transport
through groundwater flows. Chemical grouts are usually used, mixed thoroughly into
the contaminated soil so that the neutralizing chemicals come into full contact with
the contaminants. In loose saturated sands, grouting may be used to mitigate the like-
lihood of liquefaction (a rapid loss of strength when subject to dynamic motions).
1.5 Grouting methods overview
There are many ways in which the simple action of introducing grout into soil can be
performed; this is reflected in the diversity of existing grouting methods. The broad
range of available options means that acceptable grouting solutions can be found for
nearly any ground improvement problem. Many methods have long histories of suc-
cessful application behind them and are routinely prescribed with confidence. Others
are constantly being developed and refined with the introduction of new materials and
construction techniques.
While no definitive classification system for all grouting methods exists, there are
several ways of organizing them into groups. Specific grouting methods are discussed
under the headings of these groups. It should be noted that the distinction between


6
some of these specific methods is blurred at times and a particular implementation
may be correctly classified under several titles at the same time. Nevertheless, it is
expected that the following discussion will provide an explanation of most common
grouting method terms referred to in practice.
1.5.1 Grouting methods by grout type
The simplest basis of identifying grouting methods is to note the type of grout being
used. The most common examples under this organization are chemical grouting and
cement grouting (since these are the principal grouts used in practice). As the names
imply, chemical grouting involves the use of a chemical grout while cement grouting
involves the use of a cement grout. Besides these, other references to methods using
specialized grouts exist (e.g., foam grouting, referring to the use of expansive foam
grouts). These terms do not provide extra information about the actual grouting proc-
ess being used.
1.5.2 Grouting methods by process
Grouting methods can also be grouped with a construction-process-oriented focus.
Examples include stage grouting, circuit grouting, tremie grouting, etc.
Stage grouting
In stage grouting, drilling and grouting occurs in progressive stages. In ascending-
stage grouting (or upstage grouting), drilling is first completed for all of the stages to
be treated. The hole is then flushed of cuttings, and the stage is sealed with a me-
chanical device called a packer. Grout is then pumped into the isolated stage and al-
lowed to cure before the next stage located immediately above is grouted.
In descending stage grouting (or downstage grouting), the grouting process reverses
in direction; the grouting proceeds sequentially from the upper stages to the lower
stages. After each stage is grouted, the borehole is extended to the depth of the next
stage and the process is repeated. Packers are used where necessary.


7
Circuit grouting
Circuit grouting involves the use of a dual line system in which grout is circulated
continuously. The pumped grout fills the hole and flows back up in an external vented
casing. At the top, grout which has not entered the ground is collected back and re-
circulated into the system. In practice, circulation grouting is rarely used now (Bruce
2002).
Tremie (or gravity) grouting
In tremie (or gravity) grouting, the grout flows into the borehole under the influence
of gravity. A hole is first drilled and a tremie pipe is lowered to the bottom. Grout is
subsequently pumped in at gravity pressure (i.e., under the pull of its own weight). As
the gaps are filled, pressure will start to build up in the pipe and the pipe is raised.
Various casing methods
It is common to employ some form of casing or sheathing when grouting in weak
soils so that the borehole walls will not collapse. A casing of some form may be
drilled, pushed, or otherwise placed to the full treatment depth before progressively
being withdrawn as grouting proceeds.
One common casing method is the tube--manchette system, which employs a perfo-
rated grout pipe with rings of small holes spaced at specified intervals. A rubber
sleeve fits tightly around each ring of holes to act as a one-way valve, allowing grout
to flow out of the pipe but not back in.
1.5.3 Grouting methods by mode of interaction
Another way to distinguish between grouting methods is to identify the manner in
which the grout interacts with the soil structure to achieve a function. Four methods
are briefly described below: permeation grouting, compaction grouting, hydrofracture
grouting and jet grouting. For each method, minor variations (in sequence, arrange-
ment, etc.) may exist.


8
Permeation grouting
In permeation grouting, a hole is drilled into the ground to the depth of the treatment
strata and an injection pipe is inserted. Liquid grout is then pressure-injected steadily
into the void space of the soil volume with minimal disturbance to the original soil
structure. As the grout solidifies, the soil particles are bound together to form a hard-
ened mass (akin to how cement paste binds aggregates together in concrete). The re-
sultant composite material possesses higher shear and compressive strengths than the
ungrouted soil. The increased resistance to deformations also improves the bearing
capacity and erosion resistance of the soil.
Permeation grouting also has the effect of reducing soil permeability. As the grout
advances through the soil matrix, water and gases are expelled from the pores. The
grout-filled pores considerably reduce permeability and water flow within the soil
mass. This ability to significantly modify soil permeability characteristics makes the
method useful in groundwater control applications (e.g., basement construction).
Compaction grouting
In compaction grouting, a thick grout is pumped into the soil as a contiguous mass to
displace existing soil to the sides. Due to its high viscosity, the grout expands out-
wards to form a homogeneous bulb rather than permeating into the soil voids. During
this expansion process, the adjacent soil is progressively displaced to the sides and
compacted, resulting in increased shear resistance.
Compaction grouting is most effective in loose granular soils. The primary purpose of
compaction grouting is to increase the bearing capacity of a soil mass in supporting
vertical foundation loads. The soil densification also reduces settlements and the like-
lihood of liquefaction by decreasing the void ratio and increasing frictional contact
between grains.


9
Hydrofracture grouting
In hydrofracture grouting, grout is pumped into the soil at pressures which exceed the
tensile strength of the soil. This causes local failures to materialize as fissures and
cracks within the soil. The grout subsequently flows into these crevices to form grout
lenses. Hydrofracture grouting is a form of compaction grouting because the grout
lenses compact the soil. The method is used in low permeability soil types ranging
from weak rocks to clays.
J et grouting
In jet grouting, a pressurized fluid jet hydraulically cuts into the soil before grout is
mixed into the ensuing soil slurry. The cutting jet is typically located at the tip of a
modified drill bit. As the bit rotates, soil is eroded in a radial pattern at the level of the
jet. The drill is then lifted from the bottom of the borehole and grout is injected in a
similar fashion to the cutting fluid. An approximately circular column of grouted soil
is created by this process. More details on this method are provided throughout this
paper.
1.5.4 Other grouting methods
Two grouting methods which do not readily fit into other categories are listed under
this section.
Compensation grouting
Compensation grouting, a form of compaction grouting, is a controlled displacement
method used primarily in tunneling applications. Grout is injected in precise quanti-
ties between the tunnel excavation and the foundations of surface structures so as to
reduce or offset any settlements which may occur. As the description implies, the
process needs to occur concurrently with tunnel driving. Intensive monitoring of real-
time ground and surface structure movements is required so that grouting parameters
can be continuously adjusted to keep soil deformations within prescribed limits.


10
Curtain grouting
Curtain grouting refers to the creation of a subsurface grout wall which reduces or
stops seepage. A common area where grout curtains are used is for the construction of
cutoff walls underneath dams. A series of closely-spaced holes parallel to the dam
alignment (or normal to groundwater flow) are drilled and grouted. The resultant
grouted zone forms a low-permeability barrier which arrests groundwater flows.
Grout curtain configurations may differ depending on the needs of a specific applica-
tion. It should be noted that grout curtains may be inclined (controlled by the drilling
angle) or vary dimensionally along its length. For concrete dams on sound rock, the
installation of a single grout curtain typically suffices. On weaker rocks, the installa-
tion of multiple grout curtains may be required.


11
2 GROUTS
2.1 Grout classification
Grout materials are broadly divided into particulate and solution types. Particulate
grouts, also known as suspension- or coarse-grouts, consist of particulate solids sus-
pended in a fluid medium. Examples include cement, cement-bentonite, and soil-
water grouts. Solution grouts are chemically based grouts containing a homogenous
mixture of two or more substances. Examples include silicates, acrylics, urethanes,
and resins. Many chemical grouts are toxic by nature and are unused due to handling
difficulties or environmental regulations.


12
The distinction between cement and chemical grouts is increasingly being blurred as
new grout types are introduced. Microfine cements exist with suspended-particle di-
ameters less than 10 m. Chemical grouts with particle diameters of 10 to 15 nm have
also been developed (USACE 1995).
2.2 Grout properties
Various chemical, mechanical, and rheological properties of a grout must be exam-
ined in order to evaluate its suitability for a particular soil and/or application. Some of
the properties by which grouts are assessed are listed below.
Viscosity
Viscosity is the property of a grout to resist deformation when subject to shear
stresses. It is commonly embodied in the concept of thickness; a syrupy fluid has high
viscosity while a runny fluid has low viscosity. Viscosity is one of the main factors
affecting the ability of a grout to flow through a soil.
Thixotropy
Thixotropy is the property of a grout to exhibit a decrease in viscosity when subject to
prolonged shear stresses. In other words, a thixotropic grout may normally be of a
thick consistency, but will turn fluid when subject to agitation.
Gel/set time
Gel time refers to the time between the initial mixing of the components of a chemi-
cal grout and the formation of a viscous gel. Gel time determines when a grout thick-
ens and loses its ability to flow. A good grout should have a gel time which lies
within a narrow range. The gel time should be long enough for the grout to penetrate
the soil, but short enough such that it will not be washed away by groundwater flows.


13
Suspended particle size
The size of suspended particles in a grout affects its ability to penetrate into a particu-
lar soil. In general, cement grouts are effective in coarse-grain-sized soils while
chemical grouts are effective in fine-grain-sized soils.
Strength
The unconfined compressive strength of grout-treated soil samples should be tested in
order to estimate the strength of the eventual grouted soil. Both dry and saturated
samples should be tested.
Durability
Durability refers to the ability of the grout to withstand hostile environmental condi-
tions such as repeated drying and wetting or freeze-thaw cycles.
Cohesion
Cohesion refers to the ability of the grout to maintain integrity. In cohesive particulate
grouts, the suspended particles remain in suspension when at rest. Minimal segrega-
tion and bleeding (the development of free water at the surface of a grout at rest) oc-
curs.
Stability/sensitivity
Certain chemical grouts may become unstable under environmental conditions such
as extreme temperature changes, presence of other substances in groundwater, etc.
Such irregular conditions are to be identified and grouts sensitive to these conditions
should be avoided.


14
2.3 Cement grouts
The most common particulate grouts are mixes using ordinary Portland cement, due
to the familiarity, economy, and widespread availability of the material. In contrast to
concrete mixes, cement grout mixes typically do not contain aggregate materials.
Fluid or hardened mixtures of cement and water are sometimes referred to as neat
cements.
2.3.1 Review of Portland cements
Portland cements are hydraulic cements which harden via reaction with water (i.e.,
hydration). These cements contain varying proportions of five principal chemical
compounds, which are listed in Table 1. When the cement compounds come into con-
tact with water, they react to form a calcium-silicate-hydrate gel (3CaO2SiO
2
3H
2
O,
commonly abbreviated C-S-H) with binding properties.
Table 1. Major chemical components of Portland cements.
Compound Chemical formula Abbreviation Notes
Tricalcium silicate 3CaOSiO
2
C3S
Hardens rapidly;
contributes to initial set
and early strength.
Dicalcium silicate 2CaOSiO
2
C2S
Hardens slowly;
contributes to strength
gains beyond first week.
Tricalcium aluminate 3CaOAl
2
O
3
C3A
Generates high heats of
hydration; low C3A
contents give sulfate
resistance
Tetracalcium
aluminoferrite
4CaOAl
2
O
3
Fe
2
O
3
C4AF
Assists manufacturing
process; contributes
little to strength
Calcium sulfate
dihydrate
(Gypsum)
CaSO
4
2H
2
O -
Slows C3A reaction rate;
controls set time

Major categories of Portland cement include ordinary cement, high-early-strength
cement, low-heat-of-hydration cement, and sulfate-resistant cement. The distinguish-
ing properties of these cements derive from varying the proportions of the major


15
chemical components. Detailed information on the specific mix proportions can be
obtained from cement suppliers or cement-standards references.
2.3.2 Supplementary additives and admixtures
Besides the primary cement compounds, additional chemicals and materials may be
added to a grout mix to modify its fluid and set properties (i.e., strength, penetrability,
and other grout characteristics). A list of supplementary materials which may be
added to a grout mix is shown in Table 2. A well designed grout mix creates a stable
suspension with high penetrability. By optimizing grout performance and effective-
ness, economy can be realized through smoother grouting operations.
Table 2. Supplementary additives and admixtures in cement grouts.
Material Function(s) Notes
Pozzolans
(fly ash, silica fume,
natural pozzolans,
etc.)
React with calcium hydroxide
(Ca(OH)
2
), a byproduct of hydration,
to form additional
cementitious products.
Fly ash, the most common pozzolan,
is a byproduct of burning coal.
Bentonite
Improve stability;
improve workability;
reduce shrinkage and bleeding
Bentonite is a natural clay composed
largely of a mineral called
montmorillonite. It can absorb a lot of
water and will expand significantly.
Retarders Delay setting time.
May be used under
hot weather conditions.
Accelerators Accelerate setting time.
May be used under
cold weather conditions.
Water reducers,
superplasticizers
Increase workability;
reduce water content;
improve strength; and
reduce porosity and permeability.
-
Shrinkage-reducing
agents / expanders
Moderate or eliminate
shrinkage effects.
Shrinkage is not normally a problem
in wet underground conditions.
Anti-washout agents
Increases grout viscosity to
reduce grout permeability and
possible dilution by groundwater
May be used in high-soil-permeability
or high-groundwater-flow conditions.
Air-entraining and
air-detraining
agents
Adjust air content of cement. Rarely used.



16
2.3.3 Filler materials
Fine sands are sometimes added as filler material to neat cement for reasons of econ-
omy. As in concrete, the presence of aggregates improves strength (by lowering wa-
ter-cement ratio requirements), durability, and shrinkage performance. In general,
uniformly graded sand with high sphericity (i.e., rounded as opposed to angular or flat)
is preferable as pumpability increases. Littlejohn (1982) recommends a range of 5
mm75 m diameter particles, but suggests that the maximum diameter be reduced to
0.5 mm for long pumping distances of over 300 m to avoid segregation.
Studies by the U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station (USACE 1984)
have indicated that a mixture of two parts sand to one part cement can be pumped
without the aid of admixtures at normal temperatures. Small amounts of clays may
also be added to improve the sand-carrying capacity, in addition to providing minor
benefits such as reduced bleeding and improved workability.
2.3.4 Water-cement ratio
One of the most important parameters of a grout mix is the water-cement ratio. A low
water-cement ratio will have wide-reaching effects such as reducing bleeding, reduc-
ing workability (related to viscosity and pumpability), improving strength and dura-
bility, etc. Water-cement ratios today typically have a maximum value of two to three
(Bruce 2002). Where strength is a prime criterion, a water-cement ratio of around
0.51.0 may be used.
Critical design properties such as bleeding, fluidity, strength, and permeability of neat
cement mixes can be correlated with the water-cement ratio. Littlejohn (1982) pre-
sents a concise discussion of the major design parameters of cement mixes and some
of the theoretical relations behind them (interested readers are referred to his paper
for more detailed information). Some of the effects of the water-cement ratio on ce-
ment are shown in Figures 1 to 3. The permeability of a grout increases at a roughly
exponential rate with the water-cement ratio, increasing gently until a ratio of around
0.5 before it suddenly rockets. The bleed capacity of a grout also increases with the
water-cement ratio; this is logical as high water contents would suggest more poten-
tial for bleeding. The compressive strength of grouts also tends to increase with lower
water-cement ratios.

Figure 1. Relationship of permeability to water-cement ratio (from Littlejohn 1982).



Figure 2. Relationship of bleed rate to water-cement ratio (from Littlejohn 1982).



17

Figure 3. Relationship of compressive strength to water-cement ratio (from Littlejohn 1982).

2.4 Chemical grouts
Chemical grouts are chemically reactive solutions which solidify into a gel after a pe-
riod of time. While chemical grouts may contain solid and liquid phases as particulate
grouts do, it is assumed that any solid phase will be on such a small scale that overall
behavior will essentially be that of a liquid. Chemical grouts typically exhibit very
low viscosities, which enable them to flow through finer-grained soils with pore sizes
that cannot accommodate conventional particulate grouts.


18


19
2.4.1 Chemical grout systems
A complete chemical grout system comprises of several typically-aqueous constitu-
ents, including a base, a reactant/catalyst, possibly accelerators/activators or inhibitors,
and other optional additives. The base material is the chemical(s) which reacts to
form the gel. The reactant initiates reaction with the base material. Accelerators and
inhibitors may be added to alter the rate of reaction, speeding or slowing it down re-
spectively. Depending on the compounds used, the mix will set and harden at a prede-
termined rate matched to the requirements of a particular application.
Chemical grout systems may be one-step or two-step processes. In one-step processes,
all ingredients of the system are mixed before being injected, relying on the delay in
gel time to achieve sufficient permeation into the soil. Gel time control is obviously
critical in such processes. In two-step processes, the ingredients are injected sepa-
rately and mixed in-situ. The components will react to form a gel mass after a set pe-
riod of time.
2.4.2 Chemical grout classification
Chemical grouts may be divided into the following categories (adapted from USACE
1995):
1. Sodium silicates
2. Acrylates (and acrylamides)
3. Lignosulfonates
4. Polyurethanes
5. Others
As many chemical grout formulations are highly toxic in nature, environmental and
safety considerations limit field usage to only select types. Of the grouts listed above,
sodium silicates and certain acrylics are the most common by far. It is estimated that
in the United States alone, these two materials have a combined market share of
around 85% to 90% (Karol 2003).


20
2.4.3 Chemical grout usage
The suitability of different chemical grout types for use in common applications is
shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Suitability of various chemical grouts in common applications (adapted from USACE
1995).
Type
Application
S
o
d
i
u
m

s
i
l
i
c
a
t
e
s

A
c
r
y
l
a
t
e
s

L
i
g
n
o
s
u
l
f
o
n
a
t
e
s

P
o
l
y
u
r
e
t
h
a
n
e
s

Adding strength C
1
C C R
Reducing water flow C C C U
Load transfer and support U U U C
Anchor installation R R R U
1
C = commonly used; U = used; R = rarely used

2.4.4 Sodium silicates
Sodium silicate (SiO
2
Na
2
O) is an alkali silicate which is soluble in water (hence its
generic name water glass). Commercial formulations typically come in aqueous form.
Sodium silicates are the most popular chemical grouts in practice because their negli-
gible toxicity lends to safety and environmental compatibility.
Sodium silicate systems operate on the basis of precipitating the silicate component
via the pH-neutralization of the solution. The system remains aqueous because the
alkaline sodium oxide (Na
2
O) maintains the pH at a level where the weakly acidic
silica (SiO
2
) can be dissolved (PQ Co. 2005). Lowering or neutralizing the pH re-
duces the solubility of the silica so that it precipitates and polymerizes (i.e., combine
repeated units of smaller molecules to create a larger one) to form a gel. The silica-to-
alkali ratio is particularly important because ratios of three to four will yield gels with
adhesive properties suitable for grouting (Karol 2003).


21
Properties of the grout and grouted soil can be adjusted by varying the different pro-
portions of grout constituents. The gel time of the grout is controlled by the amount of
reactant or catalyst material present. Higher concentrations (with respect to the base)
will speed up the rate of gel formation; this has important implications in gel-time
control for singe-step processes. The viscosity (which affects the penetrability) of the
grout is directly proportional to the sodium silica concentration; i.e., more sodium
silicate in water will produce a thicker solution. Grouted soil strength also varies di-
rectly with the silica content, with higher concentrations producing stronger results.
Problems with silica gels
There are two main problems associated with silica gels which may raise questions
about the performance and durability of sodium-silicate-grouted soils. The first is a
phenomenon known as syneresis, referring to a tendency of fresh silica gels to expel
water and shrink. The severity of syneresis is dependent on silica content and setting
time, and the phenomenon generally diminishes with age (Karol 2003). Syneresis
causes a slight increase in grouted-soil permeability which may be an issue in perme-
ability-control applications.
Another problem is the loss of strength in grouted soils under water, which may vary
from negligible to complete dependent upon the grout chemistry (Karol 2003). The
silica gel undergoes a dissolution reaction which reverses gel formation and dissolves
the bonds holding the soil together. The severity of the dissolution increases with the
amount of unreacted soda, with low-reactant-concentration and long-set-time mix-
tures being particularly aggravating (Karol 2003).
2.4.5 Acrylamides and acrylates
Acrylamides were developed in the 1950s as a successful grout with high penetrabil-
ity, good strengths, and good gel-control times. Viscosity also displays a near-ideal
pattern of remaining constant from initial mixing till a sudden rapid increase at set
time. Acrylamide grouts consist of a base mixture containing acrylamide monomers
(which polymerize to form long molecular chains) and a cross-linking agent (which


22
binds the acrylamide chains together). The stiffness of the grout is varied by altering
the ratio of the acrylamide to the cross-linking agent; lower acrylamide proportions
will yield stiffer gels with higher strengths (Karol 2003). Gel formation is initiated by
the addition of a reactant and optional additives.
Despite the excellent grout characteristics of acrylamide, usage has been tempered by
its neurotoxic properties (i.e., it damages the nervous system). In grouting operations,
the risk of acrylamide poisoning can be minimized to negligible levels with basic
handling and safety precautions. As the grout enters a gel form, the free-acrylamide
concentration becomes diluted to such a degree that it may be considered non-
hazardous. (Karol 2003)
Acrylates were introduced in the early1980s in response to the need for a less toxic
alternative to acrylamides. Acrylates behave similarly as acrylamides, although they
possess higher viscosity, lower strength, and poorer gel-time control (Karol 2003).
The most important difference is that acrylates have much lower toxicities are not
neurotoxic.
2.4.6 Lignosulfonates
Lignosulfonates are produced as waste byproducts of the paper (and other wood-
processing) industry. The chemistry of lignosulfonates is complex as the specific con-
tent of a mix will vary depending on tree source, paper mill, etc. However, there is
common agreement between most experts that lignosulfonates contain benzene-type
molecules of some type (Karol 2003). A chromium compound (typically sodium di-
chromate Na
2
Cr
2
O
7
2H
2
O) is used to oxidize the lignosulfonate so that an insoluble
gel is formed.
The hexavalent chromium and the benzene components in lignosulfonates grouts are
highly toxic. Due to the potential dangers of these chemicals being leached into the
environment, lignosulfonate grouts are generally not recommended for use in ground
improvement.


23
2.4.7 Polyurethanes
Polyurethane is a rubbery foam material created by the reaction between certain
chemicals. Different forms exist, but all depend on reacting isocyanates (a chemical
group of nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen atoms) with hydroxyl-containing compounds
(hydroxyl is the oxygen-hydrogen anion OH

) to form a polymer with a cross-linked

structure. In grouting applications, the use of prepolymers (an intermediate form be-
tween a monomer and a polymer) with partially-reacted isocyanates is useful (Karol
2003). Other additives may be also included in a mix for various purposes; for in-
stance, a blowing agent may be incorporated to modify foam-bubble sizes.
Polyurethane grouts are generally divided into one-component and two-component
systems. One-component systems (also known as water-reactive polyurethanes) use
prepolymers which are reacted with water to complete the polymerization process and
produce polyurethane foam (USACE 1995). Two-component systems use other hy-
droxyl-containing compounds to produce polyurethane foam.
Cured polyurethane foam is an inert material generally considered nontoxic. The pri-
mary risk lies within the isocyanate component, which may have varying levels of
toxicity depending on its exact chemical formulation (USACE 1995). Some polyure-
thane materials may pose a flammability hazard.
2.5 Groutability
In many types of grouting where a chemical or cement grout is to be injected into the
ground, the groutability of the soil must be considered. The concept of groutability
refers to how well a soil is able to accept grout. It is a function of the relative size of
the soil pore space to the maximum size of suspended particles in the grout. The US
Army Corps of Engineers (1984) expresses groutability as a ratio of percentage-
passing sieve sizes of a cement, sand, or gravel. As an approximate guide, the grain
sizes for which various grouts are applicable are shown in Figure 4.
Groutability is not as significant an issue in jet grouting as compared to other methods
because jet grouting destroys the soil structure as part of the process. Any soil which
can be eroded can potentially be jet grouted.


Figure 4. Ranges of grain size in which different types of grout are useful (from Mitchell, cited
by Terzaghi et al. 1996).



24


25
3 JET GROUTING BACKGROUND
3.1 Introduction
J et grouting is a technique characterized by the use of a pressurized fluid jet to hy-
draulically erode soil either before or concurrent with the addition of grout materials.
Considerable flexibility in the final grouted configuration can be achieved through
varying different parameters such as insertion angle, rotation and lifting rates, layout
and arrangement, etc. The most common grouted shape is the columnar element pro-
duced by controlled lift and rotation. If rotation is omitted, a panel element may be
produced. More complex shapes such as curtain walls, foundation rafts, and gravity
mass walls may be formed through an interlocking combination of the aforemen-
tioned basic elements. These elements constitute the building blocks of the geotechni-
cal engineer, to be arranged and combined imaginatively into a coherent geotechnical
solution.
Figure 5 below gives a visual overview of the triple-fluid jet grouting process, divided
into five steps labeled ae. (a) A borehole is first drilled into the ground to the base
depth of the treatment strata. Typically a rotary drill of some type is used for this pur-
pose. (b) J etting is then initiated with the air-coated water jet cutting into the soil. The
jet destroys the soil structure and creates a slurry which is then flushed out as grout-
ing progresses. (c) As the rod is lifted and rotated at controlled rates, a grout jet fills
the columnar void and replaces the soil slurry. (d) Once the target column height is
achieved, the rod is extracted and grouting begins anew at a new location. (e) Grout-
ing in immediately-adjacent areas usually does not begin until the grout column has
had some time to cure. Different column elements can be merged into a single struc-
ture by grouting the spaces in between.

Figure 5. Five stages of the jet grouting process (from Covil and Skinner 1994).


26


27
3.2 Jet grouting variants
A number of different jet grouting variants have been developed since the seventies.
The original chemical-churning-pile and column-jet-grout methods are still in use to-
day in evolved forms.
3.2.1 Generic systems
Modern jet grouting methods are broadly divided into three generic classes: single-,
double-, and triple-fluid systems (see Figure 6).
Single-fluid system
In single-fluid systems, grout is jetted directly to cut and mix with the soil. Of the
three systems, this is the simplest method. Mixing action dominates as only part of
the soil is removed effectively. Single-fluid systems produce the smallest-diameter
columns, but the columns are also the strongest for the same amount of cement used.
Double-fluid system
Double-fluid systems are a refinement of single-fluid systems in that a conical shroud
of compressed air is added around the grout jet. The air shroud enhances the cutting
ability of the grout jet by reducing the amount of energy losses; friction is reduced as
the grout is isolated from the surrounding soil environment. Double-fluid systems
produce larger-diameter columns than single-fluid systems (roughly double in diame-
ter). However, the columns produced by this system are also the weakest due to the
high amounts of air entrained into the cement.
Triple-fluid system
In triple-fluid jet grouting, the job of soil erosion is shifted to an additional water jet
located above the grout jet. Similar to the double-fluid system, a compressed air
shroud is applied to the water jet to minimize energy losses. In a typical setup, an air-
shrouded-water jet will first cut into the soil to form a cavity while grout is jetted in
through a lower nozzle to replace the fluidized soil mass. This system produces the
largest column diameters (since the air-water jet cuts soil more effectively than the
air-grout jet) which are roughly triple those of the single-fluid system.

Figure 6. Generic jet grouting systems.


28


29
3.2.2 Note on historical systems
Table 4 summarizes a few jet grouting methods which have been historically notable.
The methods originated in J apan throughout the seventies and eighties. The research
and development work for these methods was primarily performed by two groups,
one headed by Nakanishi and the other headed by Yahiro (Xanthakos et al. 1994).
Table 4. Historical jet grouting methods (adapted from Xanthakos et al. 1994).
Original
Japanese
name
Principle of
operation
Jetting
pressure
Nozzle
diameter
Rotation
rate
Anticipated
column
diameter
(MPa) (mm) (rpm) (cm)
Chemical
churning pile
(CCP)
Single grout jet 2040 1.23.0 20 3060
J umbo
special grout
(J SG)
Single air-coated
grout jet
20 3.03.2 6 80200
Column
jet grout
(CJ G)
Upper air-coated
water jet and
lower grout jet
4050
1.83.0
(upper)

3.05.0
(lower)
5 150300
Super soil
stabilization
management
(SSS-Man)
Air-coated
water jet used to
excavate; grout
tremied in
2060 2.02.8 37 200400

It can be seen that the CCP, J SG, and CJ G methods are the precursors of the modern
single-, double-, and triple-fluid systems respectively. The last method, SSS-Man, is
different from the others in that after the air-water jet is used to erode a cavity, a sonic
transducer is used to survey the hole and further jetting is conducted if required (Xan-
thakos et al. 1994). Grout is backfilled in subsequently. While expensive and slow,
the procedure does ensure that column dimension specifications are met strictly and
that there is a high degree of soil replacement.


30
3.2.3 Subvertical jet grouting
Subvertical jet grouting refers to the grouting operations in which the drill rod is ori-
ented at angles up to a horizontal alignment (i.e., non-vertical). Any of the methods
described previously may be used. It is a feature of jet grouting that inclined colum-
nar elements can be constructed easily; this becomes useful in urban applications
where grouting works may have to be carried out in congested underground areas, or
in tunneling works where a supporting roof structure may be required. It is noted that
for near-horizontal alignment applications, nearly all jet grouting is carried out using
the single-fluid system as the benefits of using air shrouds become reduced. Schaefer
et al. (1997) recommends that air should not be used in jet grouting works where the
rod angle is inclined beyond 30 from vertical, as it tends to fracture the ground and
cause heave.
3.2.4 Multiple-stem grouting
In multiple-stem grouting, two or more parallel jet grout rods are used in close prox-
imity. The idea is to improve the control of grouted dimensions and consistency by
overlapping the influence zones of adjacent rods. As the jets from adjacent rods come
into contact with each other, their fluid energies are dispersed to create a turbulent
zone of high mixing. Examples of twin-stem systems are given in Andromalos and
Gazaway (1989), which describes the construction of retaining wall of a pier in Vir-
ginia, and in Schaefer et al. (1997), which describes the grouting of a permeability
barrier for Philadelphia International Airport.
3.3 Jet grouting notes
An array of diverse issues concerning the physical mechanisms behind jet grouting is
presented in this section. The discussion is intended to promote the understanding of
jet grouting processes through collating the experience and knowledge published by
grouting contractors and researchers.


31
3.3.1 Eroding mechanism
Soil is cut by the kinetic energy of the high-pressure fluid jet. While the mechanism
of destruction is not completely clear, the following actions are believed to be in-
volved, either singly or in combination (J J GA n.d.):
1. Dynamic pressure
2. Intermittent load of jet water
3. Water wedge effect
4. Impact force of water
5. Cavitation
As the impact from the water jet breaks up the soil particles, a vacuum effect is cre-
ated around the jet. Adjacent particles are pulled into the area and accelerated to high
speeds.
3.3.2 Replacement versus mixing action
In the formation of grouted elements, only two types of action take place: replace-
ment or mixing. Replacement refers to the displacement of existing soil by grout; per-
fect replacement would suggest that soil is completely replaced by the cement grout.
By contrast, mixing refers to the grout being mixed into the soil; there are no sugges-
tions being made as to the exact proportions or the degree of homogeneity.
For practical purposes, a combination of both generally occurs. The different jet
grouting methods are characterized by different relative proportions. For single-fluid
systems, the jetted soil tends to be stiffer and more mixing than replacement occurs.
In triple-fluid systems, the jetted soil is fluidized by the air and water jets so that the
grout is more easily able to displace the slurry mass, leading to higher degrees of re-
placement.
3.3.3 Air shroud
As jet grouting typically occurs underground below the water table, significant energy
dissipation occurs as a water jet is ejected into submerged soils. Shibazaki and Ohta
(1982) have shown that the addition of a conical shroud of compressed air improves
the cutting efficiency of a water jet; the projection distance is increased slightly to a
value between that of the jet in water and that of the jet in air (see Figure 7). It is ob-
served that a water jet may have an effective distance of more than 2 meters in air,
while this distance becomes extremely diminished when the jet is under water. Sur-
rounding the water jet with air enables the effective distance to increase nearly five-
fold under submerged conditions.

Figure 7. Relationship between the projection distance from the nozzle and pressure, for delivery
pressure of 40 MPa and nozzle diameter of 2 mm (from Shibazaki and Ohta 1982).

Shroff and Shah (1999) undertook a theoretical study of a two-phase model of a water
jet sandwiched between two air jets to attempt to understand the phenomenon. It was
confirmed that the shear force at the outer boundaries is reduced for a two-phase fluid


32


33
(as compared to a single-phase fluid), thus enabling the air-coated water jet to travel
further.
3.3.4 Airlifting effect
The use of a jetted air shroud creates tiny air bubbles in the eroded soil slurry which
imparts a buoyant lifting effect that aids the removal of spoils from the borehole. As
rod angles become inclined and approach horizontal alignments, this lifting effect be-
comes diminished. This is the main reason why single-fluid systems (which do not
contain an air stream) are used almost exclusively in horizontal jet grouting.
3.3.5 Volume versus pressure
A 1982 study by Brazilian specialist contractor firm Novatecna showed that the most
important parameter influencing the size of jet grouted columns is the jet momentum
(Covil and Skinner 1994). As momentum is defined as the product of mass and veloc-
ity, two apparent approaches to boosting jet momentum are immediately suggested.
The first is to concentrate on the velocity component by increasing jetting pressures.
The second is to concentrate on the mass component by increasing the volume flow
rate. Shroff and Shah (1999) argue that while both approaches have been shown to
improve cutting ability, the latter approach of increasing the flow rate is safer as the
dangers of working with extreme pressures are avoided. Covil and Skinner (1994)
also note that while a high-volume approach may be more efficient in terms of energy,
it does have drawbacks such as more wastage and the need to dispose of a corre-
spondingly higher volume of spoils.
3.3.6 Spoils return
The return of eroded cuttings is an important consideration in jet grouting works. The
borehole is typically drilled slightly wider (typically around 150 mm diameter) than
the drill rod such that an annulus through which excess spoils can escape is formed.
During jetting operations, a steady flow of return spoils is maintained to ensure that
excessive pressure does not build up to cause undesirable fracturing and heave in the


34
ground. Various measures such as pre-drilling, cased-hole drilling, etc. may be used
to aid this function.
3.4 Strengths and limitations
The jet grouting method possesses a number of unique properties which differentiates
it from other geotechnical solutions. Some of the strengths and limitations of the
method are presented below.
3.4.1 Improvement of physical properties
J et grouting can be carried out to modify various properties of a soil mass, including
strength, permeability, density, liquefaction resistance, etc. Besides the inherent mate-
rial property differences in the composite soilcrete material, several other factors im-
part positive effects to adjacent soil mass. The impact of high pressure jets compacts
adjacent soils within a zone of certain radii. In addition, the erosive process creates a
highly irregular soilcrete surface with good side-frictional resistance.
It should also be noted that a soilcrete element will provide several of the aforemen-
tioned improvements simultaneously (e.g., strength and permeability). The ability of
jet grouting to solve multiple problems with a single elegant solution often creates
room for economic savings and elevates it as a technically superior option.
3.4.2 Wide range of soil applicability
The most outstanding feature of jet grouting is its ability to uniformly mix cement
grout with a wide range of soils. Its flexibility derives from its unique property of de-
stroying the soil fabric before grout is introduced; soil structure is not as significant a
factor as in other injection or permeation grouting methods. J et grouting can be em-
ployed in most soil types (cohesive or granular) and stratigraphy.
3.4.3 Low space requirements
The relatively small size of jet grouting equipment means the method may be used in
situations of limited area or headroom. This is important in underpinning applications,


35
which frequently take place in urban settings with limited free space. Furthermore, it
should not be overlooked that the treatment of a relatively large area of soil (columns
up to one or two meters in diameter) can be accomplished with only a small borehole
(with diameters of 10 to 20 cm) drilled into the ground.
3.4.4 Minimal site disturbance
Minimal noise and vibration occurs during jet grouting. Little settlement or heave
occurs as spoils are constantly removed from the borehole.
3.4.5 Ability to bypass buried obstructions
As the process relies on breaking down soils into slurry form before grout is mixed in,
jet grouting can work around buried obstructions such as boulders, utilities, pipelines,
etc. and incorporate these into the eventual grouted mass. Soil around these obstruc-
tions are fluidized by the erosive jet and mixed with grout. In this manner, buried ob-
structions which are not able to be eroded are bypassed, in the process becoming em-
bedded in the soilcrete to form part of the structural system.
3.4.6 Controllability, predictability, and automation
In comparison to other grouting methods, jet grouting may be considered relatively
controllable. The high-pressure water and cement jets are able to accurately cut and
erode the soil within a radial zone. Adjustment of various operational parameters (e.g.,
rotation and lift rate of drill rod, pressure and volume adjustments of grout and water)
can be automated as well to improve reliability. The feedback from pressure gauges
and other instruments can be used to make real-time adjustments to ensure a consis-
tent quality of soilcrete.
3.4.7 Flushing requirements
One of the disadvantages of jet grouting methods is that continuous flushing must be
maintained. If clogging occurs, significant pressures may build up rapidly and cause
heave and fracturing in the soil. Also, as the jet grouting is a high velocity method, a
large volume of spoils must be handled.
3.4.8 Costs
J et grouting may be considered expensive relative to some other methods. As men-
tioned before however, the methods ability to solve multiple problems may render it
an economic (although still expensive) option in certain situations.
3.5 Developments
As with many other geotechnical methods, research on jet grouting is still ongoing as
people search for improvements and better understanding. Schaefer (1997) describes
several developments which are relatively new in the field.
3.5.1 Super jet grouting
Recall the earlier discussion of increasing fluid energy by boosting the grout flow rate.
High grout flow rates have been used to create new jet grouting systems capable of
column diameters up to five meters.
3.5.2 Cross jetting
Instead of using a single water jet for cutting, two water jets inclined slightly so they
intersect at some distance away from the drill rod are used (see Figure 8). At the point
of intersection, the fluid energy of the colliding jets dissipates rapidly and effectively
terminates the jets for better diameter control.

Figure 8. Collision jet for soil cutting (from Shroff and Shah 1999).



36
3.5.3 Mechanical mixing and jet grouting
J et grouting has been adapted to mixing blade systems so that hydraulic erosion com-
pliments the mechanical mixing action (see Figure 9). The hybrid system is intended
for use in ground stabilization applications where large clear swathes of land need to
be treated.

Figure 9. Mechanical jet combined method (from Shroff and Shah 1999).


37


38
4 JET GROUTING PRACTICE
4.1 Introduction
A complete jet grouting program involves many steps before, during, and after the
grouting works. As with any geotechnical problem, a preliminary site investigation
should be performed to ascertain the soil properties of the area. The information can
then be used to select the appropriate materials and equipment, as well as to design
operational parameters. As grouting works progress, continuous monitoring of operat-
ing variables is necessary to ensure that everything goes as expected. Finally, after the
grouting is complete, tests are carried out to check that the soilcrete meets perform-
ance specifications.
4.2 Equipment
J et grouting equipment may be divided into two parts: a fixed station which prepares
the grout and a mobile rig which performs the grouting (see Figure 10). A typical sta-
tion consists of cement storage, a mixing plant, and a high pressure pump. For dou-
ble- and triple-fluid systems with air and water components, additional equipment and
storage for those fluids may be present (e.g., water storage, air compressor). The rig
unit consists of a wheel- or track-mounted body with a drilling rod attachment (see
Figure 11). The rod contains the pipelines which convey the high-pressure grout, air,
and water. At the end of the drill string, there is a section called the monitor which
contains the nozzles.

Figure 10. Schematic view of jet grouting equipment (from Shibazaki and Ohta 1982).



39

Figure 11. Typical track-mounted jet grouting rig (from USDOE 1998).
4.2.1 Pre-drilling versus self-jetting setups
Before grouting can be performed, a borehole must be drilled in the ground. This is
commonly accomplished either by drilling and switching to a grouting rig, or in one
step via a self-jetting setup. A self-jetting setup is one in which a pressurized water jet
ejected from the bit is used to excavate the hole in the ground. After jetting to the re-
quired depth, a check ball (a spherical valve device) or some other special valve may
be used to block off flow to the bit and redirect water to the side nozzles.
4.2.2 Monitor and nozzle properties
The monitor is the section which contains the grout, water, and air nozzles. It is lo-
cated at the end of the drill string right before the bit. In triple-fluid systems, the dis-
tance between the water and grout jets is referred to as the monitor height. This dis-
tance has significant implications on the properties of the eventual soilcrete; smaller
heights lead to a higher degree of mixing and larger heights lead to a higher degree of
replacement (Covil and Skinner 1994).


40


41
Nozzle characteristics are also important factors which affect grouting performance.
Shibazaki and Ohta (1982) have noted that the shape and dimensions of the jet noz-
zles are extremely important in maximizing the energy of the water jet. The nozzle
length and angle are particularly important to ensure that the water stream does not
become diffused (J J GA n.d.). The nozzle must be manufactured precisely such that
air is released coaxially around the water jet to form a uniform envelope. Nozzles are
made of abrasion-resistant material (such as tungsten carbide) capable of withstand-
ing the rigors of high pressure fluids without deforming (Mosiici 1994). The number
and sizes of nozzles will vary from application to application, depending on the re-
sults of trial tests. Typical nozzle arrangements include single and double (where
nozzles are located diametrically opposite to each other) jets. Typical nozzle diame-
ters range roughly from 2 to 4 mm.
4.3 Operational parameters
Xanthakos et al. (1994) give a good account of the operational parameters which must
be determined for different jet grouting systems (summarized in Table 5 below). For
single-fluid systems, parameters which must be considered include: grout pressure,
grout flow rate, rod withdrawal rate, and rod rotation rate. For double-fluid systems,
parameters due to the air component are added: air pressure and air flow rate. For tri-
ple-fluid systems, parameters due to the water component are added: water pressure
and water flow rate. The lists are meant to be representative rather than comprehen-
sive, as there may be other important parameters such as the grout water-cement ratio,
number and size of nozzles, grouting angles, etc. which need to be considered.


42
Table 5. Typical range of jet grouting parameters and soilcrete formed using the single-, double-,
and triple-fluid systems (from Kauschinger and Welsh, cited by Xanthakos et al. 1994).
Jetting
parameter
Units
Single-fluid
system
Double-fluid
System
Triple-fluid
system
Injection pressure
water jet
grout jet
compressed air

(MPa)
(MPa)
(MPa)

-
3055
-

-
3055
0.71.7

3055
14
0.71.7
Flow rates
water jet
grout jet
compressed air

(L/min)
(L/min)
(m
3
/min)

-
60150
-

-
100150
13

70100
150250
13
Nozzle sizes
water jet
grout jet
#water jets
#grout jets

(mm)
(mm)

-
1.83.0
-
26

-
2.43.4
-
12

1.82.6
3.56.0
12
1
Cement
grout w/c ratio
consumption


(kg/m)
(kg/m
3
)

0.82.0
200500
4001000

0.82.0
3001000
150550

0.82.0
5002000
150650
Rod
withdrawal rate
Rotation rate

(min/m)
(rpm)

38
1030

310
1030

1025
38
Column diameter
coarse-grained soils
fine-grained soils

(m)
(m)

0.51.0
0.40.8

1.02.0
1.01.5

1.53.0
1.02.0
Soilcrete strength
sandy soils
Clayey soils

(MPa)
(MPa)

1030
1.510

7.515
1.55

1020
1.57.5

4.3.1 Fluid pressures and flow rates
The pressures of various fluids being supplied by the pump to the jetting rig must be
monitored and controlled closely during groutinga sudden jump in pressure would
indicate blockage. These also relate to the volume flow rates of the fluids, thus giving
the operator information such as the cement consumption rate. Mosiici (1994) re-
marks that in general, it is acceptable for pressures to inch a little higher than speci-
fied (which would cause slightly higher cement consumption) but not lower (which
would cause undersized diameters). Table 6 lists typical ranges of air, water, and
grout pressures and flow rates. It is observed that some of these parameters have a
wide range of possible values; the exact values of operating pressures are highly de-
pendent on the specific site and application.


43
Table 6. Typical range of air, water, and grout flow parameters (estimated from Covil and
Skinner 1994).
Air
pressure
Air
flow rate
Water
pressure
Water
flow rate
Grout
pressure
Grout
flow rate
(MPa) (L/min) (MPa) (L/min) (MPa) (L/min)
0.60.8 10003000 150 30150 0.530 60180

4.3.2 Rod withdrawal and rotation rates
During grouting, the rod undergoes rotation and lifting actions. The rate of rotation
must be slow enough such that the water jet has time to erode the soil fully and for
sufficient grout to be ejected into the space. After a circular slice of the soilcrete col-
umn is completed, the rod is lifted slightly to a new height and the action begins anew;
this lifting action may be continuous or stepped in terms of syncing with the rotation.
4.3.3 Layout and sequencing
Grouting works are normally sequenced in a way that allows grouted columns suffi-
cient time to cure and stiffen before adjacent columns are formed. Within the treat-
ment area, a layout and spacing plan detailing the location of boreholes is first estab-
lished. Boreholes are typically arranged in a triangular pattern with overlapping zones.
A sequence plan is then set up to identify the number of grouting phases (e.g., pri-
mary, secondary, tertiary).
4.4 Grouting design
Some form of site investigation has usually occurred by the time jet grouting has been
selected and the program is being designed. A detailed profile of the soil types and
conditions, stratum depths and locations, geological features, etc. is needed to mini-
mize the possibility of encountering unexpected conditions. In-situ and laboratory
testing may be carried out to assess the material properties of dominant soils.
Groundwater flow properties may also be important. Based on the above information,
estimates of soil properties can be obtained for use in an initial design.


44
4.4.1 Weak soils
Weak is a relative term implying that a soils capacity is inadequate in some manner
when compared to expected loads. Any soil can thus be weak, but it is intuitively
clear that softer soils are more likely to be problematic. It should also be recognized
that soil is found in a variety of states in the field. Events from rainstorms to earth-
quakes can also significantly alter soil properties through imposing atypical condi-
tions like rising groundwater levels or dynamic loading.
In general, soils containing large fractions of fine-grained soils or organic substances
(e.g., peat) are considered as soft. Loose sands and silts may also be considered soft
under saturated conditions. Under the Unified Soil Classification System, fine-
grained soils are grouped based on grain-size characteristics and plasticity. General
physical properties can then be deduced for the grouping, although specific properties
may still vary wildly depending on the field state of the soil (Terzaghi et al., 1996). In
cohesive soils, softness is expressed as consistency. This property is most directly de-
termined by the unconfined compressive strength. In coarse soils, softness is ex-
pressed as relative density or compactness. Compactness is correlated with the Stan-
dard Penetration Test N-value.
4.4.2 Required soil information
A list of basic soil information required for jet grouting design in various types of soil
is shown in Table 7. The assessed soil conditions are then compared against require-
ments to form a set of improvement specifications.


45
Table 7. Required soil parameters for jet grouting design (adapted from JJGA n.d.).
Soil condition Soil type Required information
Cohesive soils N-value, cohesion, water
content
General
Sandy soils N-value, granular composition
Gravels N-value, permeation
coefficient, granular diameter,
granular composition
Special
Humus (organic) pH, organic compound content,
resolution

For general soil conditions, surveys and laboratory experiments are necessary to as-
sess the soil quality. Important information to be determined include soil composition,
water table levels, physical properties (e.g., water content), strength characteristics
(e.g., N-value, cohesion), etc.
Special soil conditions may require additional information to be determined. For in-
stance, humus soil (soils containing accumulated vegetable matter which has under-
gone chemical reaction) presents special issues as cutting efficiency is reduced due to
the cushioning effect of the highly-compressible, resilient, fibrous structure.
4.4.3 Soil testing
In-situ tests such as the Cone Penetration Test (CPT) or Standard Penetration Test
(SPT) can be carried out to estimate the soil consistency, cohesiveness, and relative
density of the soil (which properties being relevant depending on the nature of the
soil). Tests for other soil properties of interest may be carried out as well.
Various laboratory tests can be carried out to estimate grain-size distribution, com-
pressive strength, water content, bulk density, Atterberg limits, etc. Again, specific
tests would depend on which parameters are required, which in turn would depend on
the particulars of a specific grouting application.


46
4.4.4 Grouting trials
Trial soilcrete columns may be grouted to check operational parameters and provide
design feedback. These may be carried out for example with varying pressures, lift
rates, rotation rates, nozzle arrangements, etc. Grouted columns would then be ex-
humed and tested to see if their properties meet specifications. Selection of a particu-
lar set of parameters may then be made based on criteria such as optimizing diameter
with respect to cement consumption.
For design purposes, certain guidelines are followed to account for the variable nature
of the soilcrete columns. Only the material within a certain radial zone of the column
centerline will be considered effective; irregular surface portions beyond this bound-
ary due to permeation or veining effects will not be considered. In addition, it should
be recognized that soilcrete diameter is related to the properties of different soil strata
through which the column passes (weaker strata will have larger diameters). As a rule,
the critical strata with the smallest improvement diameter will need to be identified.
4.5 Monitoring and control
Although working with soils almost invariably involves a degree of unpredictability,
jet grouting can be counted as one of the most controllable among grouting tech-
niques due to the grouted outcome being dependent to a large degree on the various
operating parameters. Quality control of the various aspects of jet grouting is thus
very important in ensuring an effective execution. In general, monitoring and control
focus on areas such as parameter control during grouting, verification of results, and
effects of grouting on the immediate environment.
4.5.1 Grouting control
Vigilant control of the operating parameters (such as jetting pressures, grout flow, lift
and rotation rates, etc.) during jet grouting is crucial to the quality of the final result.
For instance, if unexpected occurrences like annulus blockage occur, a quick response
is required to prevent the grout from hydrofracturing the ground and causing heave. A


47
proper set of operating parameters will ensure that the grouted columns attain speci-
fied dimensions and that the grout is distributed evenly within the soil. The actual
column dimensions and properties achieved are highly situational (see Table 5 for
representative values).
In addition to assessment purposes, the time, pressure, and consumption data gathered
from gauges, flow-meters, and other instrumentation are extremely useful for provid-
ing feedback so that corrections can be made. In modern systems, adjustments are
usually made automatically via electronic systems featuring real-time data collection,
processing, and storage. Of course, as the sophistication of such computer systems
have not yet reached the level of complete trustworthiness, the system should be sup-
plemented by periodic manual checking by an operator.
In situations where multiple columns are overlapped to create a single massive struc-
ture, the accurate placement of pre-drilled boreholes is very important (especially if
the column diameters are small). Column diameters, spacing, and possible deviations
should be taken into account when designing a layout plan.
4.5.2 Verification of results
A vital step in any jet grouting operation is the verification that the grouted soilcrete
columns meet the original specified requirements. Various geophysical surveying
techniques (e.g., seismic, electrical, etc.) or test pits which expose the grouted col-
umns (see Figure 12) may be used to assess the dimensions and integrity of the soil-
crete formation. Core samples may be retrieved and tested in a laboratory to confirm
its weight, strength, and permeability characteristics. These tests may confirm expec-
tations or warn of inadequacies; either way, they give the geotechnical engineer con-
fidence in making an assessment of the design characteristics of the jet grouted soil.

Figure 12. Exposed soilcrete columns.

4.5.3 Monitoring of environment
As grouting works have the potential of creating heave or settlements, it is necessary
to monitor the effects of grouting on adjacent ground and structures. A typical moni-
toring program may include the installation of instrumentation such as inclinometers,
piezometers, observation wells, pressure cells, etc.


48


49
5 ILLUSTRATIVE APPLICATIONS
5.1 Introduction
Select case histories from within the past fifteen years are presented to illustrate the
varied uses of jet grouting. These brief summaries are organized roughly according
by application. Where available, the operating parameters used are listed to provide
an idea of the configurations used in each type of soil environment. Through perusing
published case histories in literature, the amount of the jet grouting activity and pur-
poses for which they are used in different countries can be roughly estimated. Al-
though not all cases examined are presented, it was found that jet grouting was most
common in Europe, J apan, and Singapore.


50
5.2 Underpinning and support
Underpinning refers to the strengthening of an existing structures foundations. In
many cases, jet grouting also serves to improve the bearing capacity of the soil and
limit lateral and vertical settlements. This is one of the most common applications in
which jet grouting is applied, perhaps due to built-up confidence in the area. Such ap-
plications typically occur in urban areas where both aboveground and underground
spaces may be congested with structures such as buildings, utilities, and pipelines.
The properties of jet grouting make it uniquely suitable for such conditions: works
can be carried out with minimal disturbance to site, grouting can be carried out
around buried obstacles, etc. As modern cities age, the need for strengthening the
foundations of existing buildings grows (perhaps to halt deterioration or to cater to
additional loads). Underpinning and support applications will likely continue to be a
strong field for jet grouting in the future, especially as more contractors become fa-
miliar with the technique.
5.2.1 Quay wall stabilization works, Kingston Bridge, Glasgow
Carruthers et al. (1994) and Coutts et al. (1994) describe an application in which jet
grouted piles were used to stabilize the pier foundations under Kingston Bridge, the
busiest motorway bridge in the U.K. Refurbishment works were started after the dis-
covery that the north main piers were out of alignment, the main bridge span was flat-
tening, and the quay wall in front of the northwest pier foundation was bulging; the
indicators seem to suggest that the foundation was failing. One possible explanation
was that the original design projections of vehicle flow were off target. In 1970, when
the bridge was built, the predicted traffic flow for 1990 was 120,000 vehicles per day;
the actual recorded vehicle flow in 1990 was 154,000 vehicles per day.
After a detailed investigation, ground improvement work under the northwest pier
and in the area between the foundation and quay wall was prescribed. The ground at
the site consists of a 7 m thick layer of medium dense grey ash, brick, concrete, and
rubble fill resting atop a 30 m layer of loose alluvial sand. Soil materials range from


51
slightly clayey sandy silts to medium sands. Analysis indicated that the stability of the
foundation was highly dependent on the lateral support provided by the quay wall,
which itself possessed inadequate resistance against passive failure. Any remedial
option must therefore be sensitive to the quay wall weakness and not initial collapse.
A program to gradually build up a stable gravity block of soilcrete using jet grouting
was selected as the solution. The soil materials were near ideal for jet grouting; their
granular nature leads to high erodibility and the lack of a coarse component will pro-
mote good mixing and minimize blockage of flushing. Grouting works could be car-
ried out with minimal disturbance to the existing pier foundation and quay wall. Fur-
thermore, jet grouting was able to cope with a complex maze of underground obstruc-
tions consisting of ties, timber piles, steel piles, etc. which have been built up since
the 1830s, some of which have undocumented locations.
The delicate nature of the site highlights some of the features of jet grouting works, in
particular the lateral forces exerted during grouting. Blockage of spoils had to be con-
sidered carefully as grouting would have to be stopped quickly to prevent damage to
buried tie rods or foundations. Any heave or excessive lateral movements may also
initiate collapse of the quay wall. Furthermore, underground voids have been discov-
ered in the past due to the soil erosion by a cyclical flow from tides. If jet grouting
encounters a pocket of weak soil or void, the erosive jets may temporarily enlarge the
void and cause the collapse of overlying soil or structures. Another consideration was
that jet grouting may alter the density of soils adjacent to the column and unintention-
ally affect other ground works in the area.
A triple-fluid system was chosen by the contractor on account that it provided more
flexibility in operating parameters and that spoil flows were more easily extracted.
Trial columns were grouted to confirm the rate of extraction (which controlled col-
umn diameter) and the rate of grout injection (which controlled column density and
strength). The results from the test program are shown in Table 8.


52

Table 8. Results of trial jet grouting tests in quay wall stabilization works, Kingston Bridge,
Glasgow (adapted from Coutts et al. 1994).
Column W/C ratio Lift rate Observed
diameter
28-day slurry
strength
Core
strength
(cm/min) (m) (MPa) (MPa)
1 0.53 25 1.37
1.34
8.56 22.5
19.5
11
2 0.53 15 1.66 18.07 12.5
6
9
3 0.52 25 1.3 13.7 -
4 0.53 20 1.4 15.5 23.5
5
5 0.52 15 1.65 8.6 20
8
7
6 0.52 25 1.41
1.38
1.42
10.95 20
18
7.5
7 0.53 20 1.4 14.5 -
8 0.53 20 1.25 8.8 12.5
21
15
9 0.56 25 1.25 7.9 16
23

Monitoring of the site was carried out using a program comprising rotating lasers (for
translation and heave) and electrolevels (for tilt), supplemented with manual survey-
ing with total stations and other instruments. The electronic instrumentation provides
continuous feedback and will automatically stop jetting if certain parameters are ex-
ceeded. During the start of grouting works, it was discovered that grouting was caus-
ing unacceptable levels of movement in the quay wall. This was corrected by reorder-
ing certain steps of the construction work and dividing the grouting of each column
into two phases, with the lower half grouted first and allowed to harden before the
upper half was grouted.


53
J et grouting works were completed in May 1992. Subsequent core tests reveal that
target specifications had been achieved, and the performance of the gravity wall was
considered satisfactory. In total, 628 columns (5858 linear meters of column) were
grouted, using a total weight of cement/granulated-ground-blast-furnace slag of 3500
tons.
5.2.2 Excavation support for Singapore Post Center
Ing and Teoh (2000) and Ho et al. (2002) describe the application of jet grouting to
limit retaining wall deflections and ground settlements caused by the 912 m deep
excavation for constructing the basement of the 14-story Singapore Post Center. Sin-
gapore is dominated by the occurrence of soft marine clays which pose particular
challenges for deep excavations. The small area of available land often means that
excavations will occur near existing structures which are sensitive to settlements and
deflections. Traditional diaphragm walls alone have proven insufficient for limiting
ground movements caused by deep excavations; there is need for other measures, and
jet grouting has been used successfully in this aspect before in several Singaporean
projects (e.g., Newton MRT Station, Singapore Arts Center, etc.). In addition, the site
was located near to an existing MRT (mass rail transit) station. Additional constraints
were imposed that movements in MRT structures be limited to 15 mm and the
groundwater level not be lowered more than 1 m.
The soil profile of the site consists of loose to medium dense, sandy, clayey fill of
several meters thickness overlying deposits of soft marine and other clays extending
to a depth of 31 m. J et grouting in soft clays can be problematic, in that the clay soil
is more susceptible to blockage of return spoils (since the clay tends to remain in
small chunks after being eroded). This in turn can cause significant ground displace-
ments as pressures build up underground.
A jet grouted raft slab of 3 to 4 m thick was grouted at a depth of 13 to 14 m below
ground. On the side of the site which faces a mass transit railway station, 9 m thick jet
grouted blocks were installed for enhanced support. Columns were 1.8 m in diameter


54
and arranged in a triangular grid pattern at an equal spacing of 1.55 m. A triple-fluid
system was specified for better ground displacement control. Operating parameters
for production grouting are shown in Table 9. Using these settings, an unconfined
compressive strength of 2.3 MPa was achieved.
Table 9. Operating parameters used in jet grouting basement works, Singapore Post Center
(from Ing and Teoh 2000).
Operating parameter Range
Water injection pressure 40 to 45 MPa
Water flow rate 60 to 70 L/min
Grout injection pressure 8 to 12 MPa
Grout flow rate 80 to 90 L/min
Compressed air pressure 0.7 to 1.0 MPa
Rod withdrawal rate 110 to 125 mm/min
Rod rotation rate 8 to 9 rpm
Water-cement ratio 1 : 1
Cement content 750 kg/m
3
grout

It was interesting to note the interactions between various components of the support
system. During grouting, deflections in the diaphragm wall ranged from 9.7 to 36.4
mm, and heave was generally limited to below 10mm. In the project, piles were
driven through the slab, essentially joining them as one mass with overall behavior
resembling a piled raft system. The significantly improved axial stiffness of the piles
will likely reduce pile- and differential settlements. Additional resistance due to the
jet grouted layer should also add to pile capacity.
5.3 Tunneling
Tunneling is another area where jet grouting has been used extensively. An umbrella
forepole structure, which is essentially a curved roof over the upper portion of the
tunnel, may be created by a series of horizontally-jet-grouted columns placed adjacent
to each other (see Figure 13). Stresses from overlying burden become distributed
across the face of the umbrella and are transferred to the base of the structure near the
sides where additional piles may be constructed to take up the loads (incidentally,
these piles can also be constructed using jet grouting). Another way jet grouting has
been used is in full-face applications where an entire area is improved via jet grouting
before a tunnel is bored through the stabilized mass.


Figure 13. Horizontal jet grouted umbrella for tunnel structures (from Guatteri et al. 1994).

5.3.1 Tunnels for A43 motorway in the French Alps
Guilloux (2000) describes the problems encountered during the construction of the
1200 m long double-track tunnel Les Hurtires in the French Alps. While most of the
tunnel was to be excavated through metamorphic rocks, geological investigations
have revealed the presence of unique paleo-valleys filled with alluvial material. Con-
struction through the rock mass typically involves blasting and shotcreting. During
the construction of the western tube of Les Hurtires, progress was halted by two vio-
lent water and mud flows which broke through the tunnel and deposited nearly 2000
m
3
of debris. Subsequent investigations showed the presence of an extremely deep,
complexly-shaped canyon (6080 m) filled with alluvium. The valley runs much
deeper on the side of the eastern tube, intersecting a length of nearly 50 m of the tube,
including 15 m where the tunnel is completely inside the saturated sand material.
It was decided that the soil would be reinforced using jet grouting due to safety and
reliability (to minimize further delays) considerations. An umbrella was constructed
consisting of two layers of 15 m long, 0.6 m diameter, horizontally jet grouted col-
umns spaced at 0.6 m. At the base of the umbrella and along the base of the tunnel,
seven jet grouted micropiles with the same dimensions as the umbrella columns were


55
constructed to transfer the loads into the surrounding soils. The grouting is also ex-
pected to fill any existing voids and compact soft spots. A diagram showing the
works to be carried out is shown in Figure 14. Note that some of the jet grouted col-
umns are reinforced with steel tube reinforcement. The shells and piles were repeated
once for every 7 m advanced.

Figure 14. Cross section of jet grouting works for the eastern tube of the Les Hurtires tunnel
(from Guilloux 2000).

The operating parameters used for jet grouting works are shown in Table 10. It is
noted that the single-fluid system, the predominant variant used in horizontal jet
grouting, was used. The compressive strengths of the resultant soilcrete ranged from
10 to 77 MPa, with an average of 30 MPa. Performance exceeded expectations as de-
formations during excavation did not exceed a few millimeters.


56


57
Table 10. Operating parameters used in jet grouting works for the eastern tube of the Les
Hurtires tunnel.
Operating parameter Range
Grout injection pressure 4045 MPa
Grout flow rate 80120 L/min
Rod withdrawal rate 2.54 min/m
Rod rotation rate -
Water-cement ratio 0.70.8
Cement content 8001000 kg/m
3

Approximately 6200 m of jet grouted columns were installed, and tunnel excavation
within the 50 m zone through the paleo-valley was completed within 7 months. The
project showed that jet grouting can be reliably be used to work in difficult ground
conditions to create stiff cohesive zones and that it was flexible enough to cater to the
many demands encountered in tunneling applications.
5.4 Groundwater control
J et grouting has been used in many applications for the purpose of creating a seepage
barrier or cutoff wall against groundwater flows. Common areas of application in-
clude dams and excavations.
5.4.1 Basement excavation for Midland Bank, Jersey
Newman et al. (1994) report on the use of jet grouting to create a seepage barrier
around a 4 m deep basement which was to be constructed as part of Midland Banks
redevelopment of its Library Place property in J ersey. An existing building was to be
demolished and in its place a single level utility basement the main problems encoun-
tered include highly compressible soils and the close proximity of historical buildings
located just adjacent to the site.
The ground profile consists of a 7 m layer of alluvium (a fine silt with approximately
10% clay content) and peat sitting atop a head deposit layer of dense clayey gravel.


58
Water pressure in the alluvium layer was hydrostatic, while groundwater in the head
deposit was sub-artesian. The challenges presented by excavation at this site include
dealing with the uplift pressures created by sub-artesian flows, maintaining ground-
water levels around site (to prevent drawdowns and subsequent settlements), and to
minimize ground movements in general. There is also danger of liquefaction unset-
tling the base of the excavation as seepage pressures build up against the base. Any
temporary works should have minimal ground movements that do not adversely af-
fect nearby properties, roads, or services. Additional constraints on equipment sizes
were imposed by the small dimensions of the site, which measured 13.5 m by 7.5 m.
It was proposed that a semi-impermeable box be created by jet grouting a horizontal
base raft combined with vertical retaining walls formed with secant mini-piles. This
would decrease groundwater inflows into the excavation sufficiently that it can be
drained for construction works. A triple-fluid system was used to grout multiple 1.2
m diameter columns to form a 1.5 m deep base raft. The operating parameters used
for jet grouting are shown in Table 11. During grouting, a three stage sequencing plan
was used (with the formation of primary, secondary, and tertiary columns) to ensure
sufficient overlap and proper bonding between columns.
Table 11. Operating parameters used in jet grouting basement works, Midland Bank
development (from Newman et al. 1994).
Operating parameter Range
Water injection pressure 40 MPa
Water flow rate 90 L/min
Grout injection pressure 1.5 MPa
Grout flow rate 105 L/min
Compressed air pressure 0.5 MPa
Rod withdrawal rate 1017 cm/min
Rod rotation rate 10 rpm
Water-cement ratio 0.6
Cement content 1.75 kg/L



59
Cube tests of grout flushings exhibit an average unconfined compressive strength of
about 3 MPa. Although this was lower than the specified 5 MPa, the stiffness of the
grouted layer was not a critical factor. Core tests and SPT tests of the final raft show
that the soilcrete was not homogeneous and that soft and hard zones existed.
Overall, the raft performed well. Vertical seepage of 1 to 4 L/min was measured dur-
ing excavation, which could be handled easily by the drainage blanket. Permeability
was reduced by an order of approximately 10
-3
m/s to a final permeability of 6 x 10
-8

m/s.
5.5 Environmental remediation
The containment and remediation of contaminants in soils is an area where jet grout-
ing has been applied to with some success. Large areas are typically required to be
treated, so in many cases jet grouting is used with shallow soil mixing techniques.
There are typically several strategies one can use. Permeability barriers may be con-
structed to prevent the travel of contaminants off a site. Alternatively, grout can be
mixed into the soil to hold the contaminants on a site. Treatment is also possible with
the introduction of chemical additives to neutralize contaminants.
5.5.1 Cadmium treatment of an industrial site, New York
Day et al. (1997) describe how jet grouting was used to remedy a cadmium-
contaminated industrial site in New York. The facility has been active in producing
various chemicals since the early 1990s and uses various heavy metals in its proc-
esses. Cadmium and other contaminants are removed using a specialized wastewater
treatment system, but several leaks and spills over time have resulted in the contami-
nation of the surrounding land, principally by cadmium. Investigations by the owner
have revealed that a total of 4100 m
3
of subsurface soil needs to be treated. Leachable
cadmium levels were more than double those of regulatory limits.
The site comprises mainly of dense sands and gravels. In-situ treatment was pre-
scribed because of difficulties associated with excavation. The site was located at the


60
base of a high slope on which a public road sat; excavation may cause slope stability
problems. In addition, numerous utility lines ran through the contaminated area, mak-
ing any options involving excavation prohibitively expensive. J et grouting with a spe-
cially formulated reagent grout was selected as the solution because of small equip-
ment size, ability to work with minimal site disturbance, ability to work around ob-
structions, etc.
A reagent formula consisting of cement, blast furnace slag, flyash, and potassium
permanganate was created to neutralize the contaminant. In contrast to the other jet
grouting applications where rotation and lift times were primarily dictated by the time
it took to create the desired column size, the primary factor in deciding rod rotation
and lift rates was the time it took to fully mix and treat the soil. During trial tests, a
rate of 60 to 90 rpm was applied for approximately 1 to 2 min for visual homogeneity
to be achieved.
Over a period of three months, 429 columns (approximately 3000 m) varying from 3
to 11.6 m in depth were grouted to create a monolithic mass of 4100 m
3
. A single-
fluid system using the specially-formulated reagent grout was used to promote mixing.
Column diameters of 0.9 to 1.2 m were achieved. Treated soils showed that nearly all
of the cadmium had been removed, with no traces detected in eleven of seventeen
samples taken and minimal traces in others.
5.6 Liquefaction control
Liquefaction control is a relatively new field of application in which jet grouting can
be used. The potential is enormous however, as the following case history shows.
5.6.1 Carrefour Shopping Center, Turkey
Olgun (2003) has conducted a study on the performance of improved ground during
earthquakes, and in it he examines one case history in Turkey in which jet grouting
was used. On August 17, 1999, the Kocaeli Earthquake (rated 7.4 on the Mercalli
scale, with peak ground accelerations of 0.24 g) struck the Izmit Bay area in north-


61
west Turkey, causing major damage to a number of urban areas along the coast. At
the time of the earthquake, the Carrefour Shopping Center, a 55000 m
2
complex, was
being constructed. The soil profile at the site consisted of alluvial marine sediment
with alternating strata of soft to medium clays, loose sands, and silts. J et grouted col-
umns at close spacing were being installed to reduce the settlements in the clay layers
and to lower the liquefaction potential of the silty sand layers.
Grouting works were only two-thirds complete when the earthquake hit, providing a
unique opportunity to observe and compare the liquefaction performance of grouted
and ungrouted soils. Instrumentation originally placed to monitor in-situ settlement
was able to record direct measurements of earthquake-induced settlement. It was
noted that this was the only case history known which documents the performance of
jet grouting for liquefaction mitigation using a grid pattern as opposed to an enclosed
cell (to hold liquefiable materials).
The jet grouted columns were installed with variable spacing and depths across the
site, adapted to the local loads. A typical layout plan consists of two sets of 0.6 m di-
ameter columns, with primary columns 9 m long and secondary columns 2.5 m long,
arranged in overlapping 4 m grids. A single-fluid system was used, with the operating
parameters shown in Table 12.
Table 12. Operating parameters used in jet grouting, Carrefour site (adapted from Olgun 2003).
Operating parameter Range/Value
Number of nozzles 2
Nozzle diameter 2 mm
Grout injection pressure 450 bars
Grout flow rate -
Rod withdrawal rate 50 cm/min
Rod rotation rate 20 rpm
Water-cement ratio 1.0
Cement content -



62
Several interesting observations were made. The effectiveness of the jet grouted col-
umn grid was proven in a graphic manner as the improved areas suffered nearly no
damage while the unimproved areas experienced liquefaction-related settlements of
up to 10 cm. Also, it was noted that under the load of surcharge fill, saturated silt and
clay strata which normally are considered non-liquefiable will display liquefaction
settlements.




63
6 CASE STUDY: SLUDGE TREATMENT
PLANT, NEGERI SEMBILAN, MALAYSIA
6.1 Introduction
A temporary non-strut retaining system was constructed by jet grouting to facilitate
the construction of a sludge treatment plant at Port Dickson, Negeri Sembilan in Ma-
laysia. Excavations ranging from 4 to 11 meters deep were to be carried out for the
construction of various structures (see Table 13 for more details). J et grouting was
used to stabilize the soil around the perimeter and bottom of the excavation. The
RM3.2 million project was carried out by APG Geo-systems Sdn. Bhd., a local geo-
technical specialist firm with expertise in ground improvement.


64
Table 13. Excavation depths for construction of the sludge treatment facility, Port Dickson,
Negeri Sembilan.
Structure Excavation depth (m)
Sludge digester 11.0
Raw sludge storage tank 7.0
Return liquor storage tank 8.0
Pumping station 4.08.0

6.2 Site conditions
The bore logs from the soil investigation are presented in Appendix B. Several soil
strata were identified, described below in order from surface to bottom:
1. Very soft sandy silty CLAY is present in the upper 3.0 to 7.5 m, with SPT N-
values ranging from 0 to 2 blows/300 mm.
2. Stiff clayey sandy SILT and/or medium dense clayey silty SAND, containing
some sand and gravel, are present from 7.5 to 12.0 m, with SPT N-values
ranging from 5 to 20 blows/300 mm.
3. Very stiff to hard clayey SILT, containing traces of sand and gravel, is present
from 12.0 to 16.0 m, with SPT N-values ranging from 20 to 40 blows/300 mm.
4. Very hard clayey SILT (weathered schist) and very dense clayey silty SAND,
containing a lot of gravel, are present from 16.0 m to the investigated depth,
with SPT N-values exceeding 50 blows/300 mm.
The design soil parameters for each stratum are presented in Table 14. These were
used to build the models used in further analysis.
Table 14. Design parameters for various soil strata.
Layer
Depth
(m)
Thick-
ness
(m)
Unit wt.
(kN/m
3
)
Friction
angle
Cohesion
c
u
(kN/m
2
)
SPT N-
value
(blows/
300mm)
Youngs
modulus
E
(kN/m
2
)
1 3.07.5 7.5 17 0 10 02 4000
2 7.512.0 4.5 18 10 30 520 12000
3 12.016.0 4.0 19 10 200 2040 80000
4 16.0 on - 20 20 400 50 160000

The site is located on a clear plot of land with a Shell oil refinery on one side and ter-
race houses on the other (see Figure 15). Minor contamination of the soil by oil
sludge was observed on site (see Figure 16), but this was not considered to pose any
serious problems to the jet grouting works.


Figure 15. Terrace housing located adjacent to the site.


65

Figure 16. Oil contaminated soil at site.
6.3 Design
Talks with a senior design engineer, Mr. Lim Kean Hoe, at APG Geo-systems con-
firmed that the design of jet grouting work is heavily experience-dependent. Two ma-
jor cases had to be considered: (1) general excavation outside the proposed tank areas
and (2) excavation within the proposed tank areas where there were different depths.
The lengths and depths of the jet grout columns were selected on a trial-and-error ba-
sis based on computer analysis. The final optimal configurations are shown in the de-
sign drawings in Appendix C.
6.3.1 Surcharge
Adjacent buildings were considered far enough from the excavation site to have neg-
ligible effect on the excavation works. However, a nominal surcharge of 10 kN/m
2

was assumed in the design analysis.


66


67
The stockpiling of excavated materials in areas adjacent to excavated trenches was
strictly prohibited. All exposed excavated surfaces were covered by plastic sheets to
prevent surface erosion during rain.
6.3.2 Material specifications
Specifications for the grouted soil to be achieved were made after taking into account
the soil properties on site:
Undrained shear strength, c
u
= 300 kN/m
2
Youngs modulus, E = 120000 kN/m
2
Bulk density, = 1820 kN/ m
3
The stiffness value of 120000 kN/m
2
was obtained by multiplying the undrained shear
strength c
u
by 400. This was deemed a conservative value as field measurements at
other projects performed by APG Geo-systems under similar soil conditions suggest
that much higher shear strengths will probably be obtained. Note that total undrained
conditions prevail and the unconfined compressive strength is equal to double the
undrained shear strength; i.e., the unconfined compressive strength of the grouted soil
equals 600 kN/m
2
. Values were later confirmed with tests on extracted samples.
6.3.3 Analysis
The stability of the soil during different stages of excavation was studied using
PLAXIS v.7.1, a two-dimensional finite element analysis program for geotechnical
engineering. Displacements around the excavation and the stresses and strains in both
untreated and treated soil elements were determined. The analysis was divided into
three stages:
1. The excavation to formation level and the lowering of the groundwater level;
2. the application of 10 kN/m
2
surcharge adjacent to excavated trenches; and
3. the calculation of factors of safety for excavated trenches.
The analysis assumes that jet grout columns have already been placed in the ground.
The drilling and installation of jet grout columns is a complex process, and it was
considered unnecessary to model this. Excavation was simulated by the removal of
appropriate elements from the finite element mesh. The groundwater table is initially
simulated at the existing ground level. When the final excavation depth is reached,
the groundwater table is lowered to the final excavation depth.
Results of the analysis indicate that wall deflections associated with excavation are
under 150 mm, which is considered acceptable. The corresponding shear stress in the
treated soil is also under the allowable shear stress of c
u
/FOS (with FOS =1.25).
6.3.4 Notes on FOS calculation
PLAXIS uses a phi-c reduction approach to compute the factor of safety, in which the
strength parameters tan and c of the soil are successively reduced until failure occurs.
A quantity called the total multiplier Msf is defined as:
reduced
input
reduced
input
c
c
Msf = =

tan
tan

The parameters with the subscript input refer to properties entered in the material set
and those with the subscript reduced refer to the reduced values used in the analysis.
At the start of analysis, Msf is set to 1.0 so that all material strengths are at unre-
duced values. The parameters are then successively reduced until failure occurs. At
this point, the factor-of-safety is given by:
failure at Msf of value
failure at strength
strength available
FOS = =
Displacements are also generated in this process. The total displacements do not have
a physical meaning, but the incremental displacements of the final step (i.e., at failure)
may give an indication of the failure mechanism.


68


69
6.3.5 Analysis results
Factor-of-safety analyses were carried out for the cases of untreated soil and jet
grouted soil. For the untreated soil, three cases with excavation depths of 5 m, 8 m,
and 11 m were analyzed. Assuming that open excavations with 45 slopes could be
made, factors-of-safety were calculated for each of the scenarios. Computer results
indicate that for all of these cases, the factor-of-safety is below unity. In other words,
failure will occur if excavation were to proceed in the untreated soil.
For the jet grouted soil, three cases of 5 m, 8 m, and 11 m were again considered, this
time with grouted column elements supporting the sides and base. The factor-of-
safety is calculated after the excavation reaches the final excavation level and the
groundwater level is lowered. Computer results indicate that for all of these cases, the
factor-of-safety is above the required value of 1.25.
The finite element analyses results for the six cases are included in Appendix D.
6.4 Implementation
A series of 1.41.6 m diameter columns placed in a 1.4 m c/c square grid were
grouted using a dual-fluid system, following the layout plans in Appendix C. The
columns forming the base raft are typically 2 m long. The columns lining the slopes
have variable lengths, ranging from 2 m to 8 m. The jet grouting machines were
girder-mounted (see Figures 17 and 18 for grouting equipment used); i.e., they rested
upon two girders laid in parallel which act as tracks. The operating parameters used to
form the jet grout columns are given in Table 15.
Table 15. Operating parameters used in jet grouting, Negeri Sembilan site.
Operating parameter Range/Value
Number of nozzles -
Nozzle diameter 2.84.0 mm
Grout injection pressure 200 bars
Grout flow rate 0.050.06 m
3
/min
Air flow rate 23 m
3
/min
Rod withdrawal rate 1214 min/m
Rod rotation rate 510 rpm
Water-cement ratio -
Cement content 600 kg/m
3
grout


Figure 17. Girder-mounted jet grouting rig.


70

Figure 18. Silo and mixing equipment.
6.4.1 Monitoring instrumentation
A monitoring program was established to track soil behavior before, during, and after
grouting works, so that warning signs which might indicate failure in the soil or
nearby buildings might be observed. Instrumentation was required to detect any
ground movements, settlements, water table changes, etc. caused by the construction
activities so that areas near the site (i.e., the Shell oil refinery and the residential areas)
are minimally affected.
Instrumentation which was installed include:
1. Inclinometers These determine the magnitude, direction, and rate of lateral
slope displacements. These offer an early warning should there be a potential
slope instability problem during excavation or later construction activities.
2. Water standpipes These monitor the levels and changes of the existing
groundwater table. These are positioned strategically across the site to provide
an overall picture of the groundwater table profile.


71
3. Settlement markers These are rods or nails attached to a firm ground sur-
face. Their elevation levels are determined by surveying techniques using a
fixed benchmark. Rates and magnitudes of any settlement movement can then
be obtained by taking regular readings.
6.5 Project review
Overall, the project was executed fairly smoothly and no major problems were en-
countered. Works started in April 2002 and were completed by August over a period
of four months. This was not APG Geo-systems first jet grouting job of this nature,
and its experience suggests that jet grouting can be reliably used for the construction
of retaining walls in the Malaysian environment. Indeed, the senior design engineer
Mr. Lim has expressed confidence in the method when applied to this type of work
and has indicated that the company will further promote jet grouting in retaining wall
construction and other geotechnical projects.

Figure 19. Site after excavation.


72


73
7 CASE STUDY: PROPOSED COMMERCIAL
BUILDING AT JALAN PAHANG, KUALA
LUMPUR, MALAYSIA
7.1 Introduction
In late 1996, APG Geosystems Sdn. Bhd. won an earthworks and foundation contract
for a proposed office and shopping complex development on Lot 436, Section 85,
J alan Pahang in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The site was located in an urban area and
had several buildings bordering the site, including a school. The tight space con-
straints and other considerations had led to APGs proposal of jet grouting plus mi-
cropiles (cast in-situ piles typically of low diameters below 350 mm) being selected
over other bids. The entire contract value was around RM15.5 million, of which jet
grouting works took up around RM4 million.


74
7.2 Site conditions
The soil at the site consists of a roughly 7 m deep layer of medium to stiff clayey silt
near the surface. Below this is a roughly 11 m deep layer of soil varying from loose
sand to slime/very soft clay. Further on down lies a bedrock layer of karstic limestone,
which is commonly found in the Kuala Lumpur area. The soil parameters for each
stratum are presented in Table 16.
Table 16. Design parameters for various soil strata.
Layer
Depth
(m)
Thick-
ness
(m)
Unit wt.
(kN/m
3
)
Friction
angle
Cohesion
c
u
(kN/m
2
)
SPT N-
value
(blows/
300mm)
Youngs
modulus
E
(kN/m
2
)
1 0.07.0 7.0 18 - 25 510 6250
2 7.018.0 11.0 18 2830 0 410 3000
3 18.0 on - 22 42 - - 200000

The subsurface limestone was problematic because it was susceptible to cavity forma-
tion (due to dissolution), discontinuities (joints and fractures), and weathering prob-
lems. From soil investigation reports, it was found that the eastern part of the site was
sounder, while the western part appeared to be underlain by pinnacle limestone with a
few cavities and signs of weathering. Detailed investigation employing seismic tech-
niques were initially proposed. However, the local firm with expertise in seismic sur-
veying was not available during the time due to prior engagements. To avoid unnec-
essary delays to the project, the geological input was assembled from available data
from the soil investigations and detailed examination of the SPT samples and drill
cores.
The zone of slime and soft clay was the legacy of prior mining activities in the area.
There were concerns as this soft layer was located at the pilecap level. Heaving or
lateral soil movements may occur and displace the micropiles during construction.
The site was located in a congested urban area with neighboring buildings bordering
on its edges. In particular, there was a school on the northern side and an administra-
tive building owned by the Automotive Corporation Malaysia (ACM) on the southern
side. A plan of the site and various cross-sectional views of the jet grouting works are
included in Appendix E. Photos of the site after grouting works were completed are
shown in Figures 20 and 21.


Figure 20. View of entire site, Jalan Pahang project.



75

Figure 21. View of jet grouted slope covered with plastic sheeting.

7.3 Justification for jet grouting
J et grouting along the sides and bottom of the excavation was proposed to prevent
upheaval and other undesired soil movements. This would create a firm base upon
which the micropiling machines may be seated subsequently.
Although sheet piles are commonly used as retaining structures, the congested nature
of the site had to be taken into consideration. When combined with deep excavation,
sheet piles require anchors to be installed in order to prevent lateral movements. As
these anchors may extend into neighboring properties, various problems can crop up.
Permission must be obtained from the owners of the affected properties, and extra
measures may need to be taken to minimize any adverse effects. If the anchors extend
under existing buildings, installation may not be feasible at all.
As an alternative, APG proposed that jet grouting along the sides and base of the ex-
cavation be carried out. Company engineers noted that the soil conditions at this site


76


77
were similar to a Kallang River widening project in Singapore, where the soft marine
clay of the river basin there mirrors the soft zone of soil here. The concept was essen-
tially to jet grout an inverted arch structure to resist the upheaval forces in the soft soil.
This solution avoids the aforementioned boundary constraint problems associated
with sheet piling. The grouted soil is also expected to provide a better base for mi-
cropile installation since lateral forces are reduced.
7.4 Jet grouting design
The design of the jet grout columns followed essentially the same process as de-
scribed in Section 6.3 (pp.6669). Finite element analyses were carried out using
various column configurations until displacements and stresses were deemed accept-
able or possessing a sufficiently high factor-of-safety against failure. Detailed analy-
ses results are included in Appendix F.
A series of 1.21.6 m diameter columns placed in a 1.4 m c/c square grid were
grouted using a dual-fluid system. Columns range from 2.6 m to 10 m in length. The
operating parameters used to form the jet grout columns are given in Table 17. Ap-
proximately 9000 linear meters of columns were grouted in total for the project.
Table 17. Operating parameters used in jet grouting, Jalan Pahang site.
Operating parameter Range/Value
Nozzle diameter 2.84.0 mm
Grout injection pressure 200 bars
Grout flow rate 0.050.06 m
3
/min
Air flow rate 23 m
3
/min
Rod withdrawal rate 1214 min/m
Rod rotation rate 510 rpm
Water-cement ratio 0.5
Cement content 600 kg/m
3
grout

7.5 Encountered problems
There were two major problems which cropped up after the project had been executed.
One, the formation of sinkholes in the nearby elementary school (see Figure 22), was
attributed to micropiling activities and will not be discussed further here. The other
involved the ejection of excess grout on the property of the adjacent Automotive Cor-
poration Malaysia (ACM) complex (see Figure 23) during the jet grouting works.


Figure 22. Elementary school located adjacent to Jalan Pahang site.



78

Figure 23. ACM complex (structure with striped roof) adjacent to the Jalan Pahang site.

The grout spillage issue illustrates one of the potential problems of jet grouting in
limestone ground. It was suspected that the limestone formation within the local area
was either extremely porous or contained fissures or cavities. As part of the jet grout-
ing activity was located adjacent to the boundary line between the site and the ACM
property, the pressurized grout had flowed through these subterranean channels which
conducted the grout into the adjacent area. Unfortunately, part of the ACM building
and its parking lot was located along the affected boundary as well. The excess grout
penetrated through the subsoil to cause minor damage along a zone of roughly 5 m
along the edge. A partial list of affected items is shown below:
1. Grout had overflowed into the toilet and storeroom area, causing minor crack-
ing and inconvenience.
2. A nearby water well had been filled with grout, disrupting the water supply to
ACMs toilet system.


79


80
3. An air compressor of the air-conditioning unit suffered damage from over-
heating after grout had seeped into the discharge pipe.
4. Heaving occurred around several offices and the vehicle showroom area. The
chain-link fence delineating the boundary was also damaged due to heave. In
many cases the heave had caused cracking or distortions in the walls, floors,
and other fixtures (door frames, window frames, etc.).
5. The parking zone could not be used as the grout would break up the surface
and stain parked vehicles.
These problems had resulted in prompt complaints and claims against APG, adding a
remedial dimension to the project. Meetings were arranged and access clearance to
the ACM complex had to be secured. Temporary measures to minimize further dam-
age had to be taken, including:
1. Pre-drilling jet grouting points to minimize heave and spillage.
2. Assigning two general workers to clean up and remove spilled grout on the
ACM complex.
3. Propping the fencing and walls along the edge to avoid further tilting.
4. Provision of temporary toilets.
5. Supplying ACMs toilet system with water from APGs site, as well as pro-
viding potable water to ACM.


81
By the time the grouting works were completed, a lot of the damage had been done
already. Not all of the proposed temporary measures were carried out as there were
difficulties in coordination and securing access from ACM. The removal of hardened
grout was particularly problematic as ACM did not want dump trucks entering the
compound due to the narrow access area. After many negotiations, final remedial ac-
tions were agreed to, including:
1. Reinstallation of a water well.
2. Repair of the piping system.
3. Removal of hardened grout to restore the ground profile to its original state.
4. Repair of structural cracks and restoration of door and window frames.
7.6 Project review
The jet grouting works were executed over a period of 13 weeks spanning from April
1997 to J une 1997. The jet grouted blanket worked as expected and there were no ma-
jor problems aside from the spillage issue. The only other major technical problem
encountered was the formation of sinkholes during the micropiling stage.


82

8 CONCLUSIONS
8.1 State of jet grouting
From being a relatively new technique in the nineties, the jet grouting method has
matured to a sufficient degree that contractors are comfortable with prescribing it rou-
tinely under certain circumstances. The evolution has come with the passage of time
and the accumulation of experience. Projects using jet grouting in various types of
soils and for various purposes have been performed, and their records form a knowl-
edge base upon which future studies and works can draw and build upon. From the
many case histories examined, jet grouting has received good reviews of being able to
perform well under extremely demanding geotechnical conditions. As knowledge
spreads and more contractors experiment with the technique, it is expected that jet
grouting will be elevated to the status of a primary design solution offered by many.


83
8.2 Ending notes
A review of the jet grouting method has been completed. Background theory covering
jet grouting operation, the different types of jet grouting, the design of jet grouting
works, etc. has been presented. Select case histories presenting jet grouting used in
different settings have also been described, with two case studies of jet grouting in the
Malaysian environment examined in detail. As good jet grouting design involves an
intricate web of practical and theoretical considerations, actual figures from studies
and case histories have been presented where possible.
The effectiveness of jet grouting is very dependent on the selection of correct operat-
ing parameters, making it a method in which practical experience is crucial. It is ex-
pected more interest will be generated as increasing numbers of geotechnical contrac-
tors see the value of investing in the technique. J et grouting is still in a growth stage,
and the future should only see more development as construction community become
more familiar and comfortable with the technique.


84
9 REFERENCES
1. Andromalos, K.B. and Gazaway, H.N. (1989) J et grouting to construct a
soilcrete wall using a twin stem system (online pdf). ASCE Geotechnical and
Construction Divisions Special Conf., J une 2529, 1989. Available:
<http://www.geocon.net/pdf/paper13.pdf>[Accessed: J uly 16, 2005]
2. Bruce, D.A. (2002) Anchors, micropiles, rock grouting and deep mixing: a
decade of progress in the United States (online pdf) Available:
<http://www.geosystemsbruce.com/v20/biblio/z167_2002_anchorsGroutingD
MM_decade.pdf>[Accessed: August 15, 2005]
3. Carruthers, D. et al. (1994) Background to the design of quay wall stabilisa-
tion works at Kingston Bridge, Glasgow. Grouting in the Ground: Proc. of
the Conf. organized by the Institute of Civil Engineers, London, November
2526, 1992, Paper 25. Thomas Telford, London, pp.417432.


85
4. Coutts, D. et al. (1994) Specification, planning & construction of quay wall
stabilisation works at Kingston Bridge, Glasgow. Grouting in the Ground:
Proc. of the Conf. organized by the Institute of Civil Engineers, London, No-
vember 2526, 1992, Paper 26. Thomas Telford, London, pp.433453.
5. Covil, C.S. and Skinner, A.E. (1994) J et groutinga review of some of the
operating parameters that form the basis of the jet grouting process. Grouting
in the Ground: Proc. of the Conf. organized by the Institute of Civil Engineers,
London, November 2526, 1992, Paper 36. Thomas Telford, London, pp.605
627.
6. Day, S.R. et al. (1997) Stabilization of cadmium-impacted soils using jet-
grouting techniques (online pdf). ASCE Specialty Conf., Minneapolis, Octo-
ber 48, 1997. Available: <http://www.geocon.net/pdf/paper33.pdf> [Ac-
cessed: J uly 16, 2005]
7. Guatteri, G. et al. (1994) Application of jet grouting to tunnel portals and top
headings in N.A.T.M. tunneling: Brazilian experience. Grouting in the
Ground: Proc. of the Conf. organized by the Institute of Civil Engineers, Lon-
don, November 2526, 1992, Paper 27. Thomas Telford, London, p.465.
8. Guilloux, A. (2000) Facing a major geological hazard for a highway tunnel
in the French Alps. Proc. of the Int. Symp. on Geotechnical Aspects of Un-
derground Construction in Soft Ground, Tokyo, J uly 1921, 1999. Balkema,
Rotterdam, pp.8792.
9. Ho, C.E. et al. (2002) Characteristics of bored piles installed through jet
grout layer. J ournal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, November
2002. ASCE, pp.160168.


86
10. Ing, H.W. and Teoh, Y.P. (2002) Effects of jet grouting on adjacent ground
and structures. J ournal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
February 2005. ASCE, pp.178186.
11. J apan J et Grout Association (n.d.) J et grout: technique materials. Technical
manual.
12. Karol, R.H. (2003) Chemical grouting and soil stabilization. 3
rd
ed., Marcel
Dekker, New York, chapter 8.
13. Liao, H.J . et al. (1994) Grouting for retaining wall movement control of a
deep excavation in soft clay. Grouting in the Ground: Proc. of the Conf. or-
ganized by the Institute of Civil Engineers, London, November 2526, 1992,
Paper 24. Thomas Telford, London, pp.403416.
14. Littlejohn, G.S. (1982) Design of cement based grouts. Proc. of the Conf. on
Grouting in Geotechnical Engineering, New Orleans, Feb 1012. ASCE,
pp.3547.
15. Mosiici, P. (1994) J et grouting quality control. Grouting in the Ground:
Proc. of the Conf. organized by the Institute of Civil Engineers, London, No-
vember 2526, 1992, Paper 14. Thomas Telford, London, pp.227235.
16. Newman, R.L. et al. (1994) J et grouting to enable basement construction in
difficult ground conditions. Grouting in the Ground: Proc. of the Conf. or-
ganized by the Institute of Civil Engineers, London, November 2526, 1992,
Paper 23. Thomas Telford, London, pp.385402.
17. Olgun, C.G. (2003) Performance of improved ground and reinforced soil
structures during earthquakes case studies and numerical analyses (online
thesis). PhD thesis, Chapter 4. Available: <http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/
available/etd-01162004-154238/>[Accessed: September 3, 2005]


87
18. PQ Corporation (2005) Soluble silicates in geotechnical grouting applica-
tions (online pdf). PQ Corporation Industrial Chemicals Division. Available:
<http://www.pqcorp.com/literature/bulletin_52-53.pdf> [Accessed: J une 18,
2005]
19. Schaefer, V. et al. (eds.). (1997) Ground improvement, ground reinforcement,
ground treatment: developments 19871997. ASCE, pp.113125.
20. Shibazaki, M. and Ohta, S. (1982). A unique underpinning of soil solidifica-
tion utilizing super-high pressure liquid jet. Proc. of the Conf. on Grouting in
Geotechnical Engineering, New Orleans, Feb 1012. ASCE, pp.680693.
21. Shroff, A.V. and Shah, D.L. (1999). Grouting technology in tunneling and
dam construction. 2
nd
ed., A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam, pp.547574.
22. Terzaghi K. et al. (1996). Soil mechanics in engineering practice. 3
rd
ed.,
J ohn Wiley & Sons, New York, pp.2829, 324.
23. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1984). Grouting technology (online pdf).
Publication No. EM 1110-2-3506. Available: <http://www.usace.army.mil/
inet/usace-docs/eng-manuals/cecw.htm>[Accessed: May 2, 2005]
24. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1995). Chemical grouting (online pdf). Pub-
lication No. EM 1110-1-3500 Available: <http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/
usace-docs/eng-manuals/cecw.htm>[Accessed: May 2, 2005]
25. U.S. Department of Energy (1998). Innovative grouting and retrieval (online
pdf). Available: <http://apps.em.doe.gov/OST/pubs/itsrs/itsr63.pdf> [Ac-
cessed: May 12, 2005]
26. Xanthakos, P.P. et al. (1994). Ground control and improvement. J ohn Wiley
& Sons, New York, pp.580683.


88
APPENDIX A


89
University of Southern Queensland
Faculty of Engineering and Surveying

ENG 4111/4112 Research Project
PROJECT SPECIFICATION

FOR: Richard Fun Yiu CHOI
TOPIC: Review of the J et Grouting Method
SUPERVISOR: Dr. J im Shiau
PROJ ECT AIM: To investigate the current state of the jet grouting ground im-
provement technique.
PROGRAM: Final Issue, October 2005
1. Collect background information relating to the historical development of jet
grouting.
2. Review the current state of jet grouting design and practice.
3. Describe the design of a jet grouting program.
4. Analyze and present the experience of researchers and contractors.
As time permits:
5. Locate local specialists in jet grouting if possible to tap into local experience
with the technique.
6. Review current research in jet grouting and identify directions of future re-
search.

AGREED:

_________________ (Student) _________________ (Supervisor)
(Dated) ____ / ____ / ____


90
APPENDIX B


91
92



93
APPENDIX C



94



95



96



97



98


99


100
APPENDIX D


101
Factor of safety analysis results for untreated soil
Excavation depth not exceeding 11.0 m



102


103


104
Factor of safety analysis results for untreated soil
Excavation depth not exceeding 8.0 m


105


106


107
Factor of safety analysis results for untreated soil
Excavation depth not exceeding 5.0 m


108


109


110
Soil deformations/stresses and FOS analysis results for jet grouted soil
Excavation depth not exceeding 11.0 m


111


112


113


114


115


116


117


118
Soil deformations/stresses and FOS analysis results for jet grouted soil
Excavation depth not exceeding 8.0 m


119


120


121


122


123


124


125


126
Soil deformations/stresses and FOS analysis results for jet grouted soil
Excavation depth not exceeding 5.0 m


127


128


129


130


131


132



133


134
APPENDIX E



135



136



137



138


139
APPENDIX F



140



141



142



143



144



145



146



147



148



149