Cartographies of Time

Cartographies of Time
Cartographies of Time :
Chapter 2: Time Tables
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Cartographics ol timc / anicl Roscnbcrg and Anthony Gralton..st cd.
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!ncludcs bibliographical rclcrcnccs.
!S8N ,.6,6, (alk. papcr)
.. Chronology, Historical. a. Chronology, HistoricalMaps. . History
Philosophy. !. Gralton, Anthony. !!. Titlc.
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Covcr imagc: Historical and Biographical Chart of the United States, avid
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anicl Roscnbcrg and Anthony Gralton
Princcton Architcctural Prcss, Ncw York
Contcnts
Acknowlcdgmcnts
________________________
p. 8
Chapter 1:
Timc in Print
_______________________________
p. 10
Chapter 2:
Timc Tablcs
____________________________
p. 26
Chapter 3:
Graphic Transitions
_____________________________________________
p. 70
Chapter 4:
A Ncw Chart ol History
_______________________________________________________
p. 96
Chapter 5:
Fronticr Lincs
________________________________
p. 150
Chapter 6:
A Tinkcrcrs Art
_____________________________________
p. 180
Chapter 8:
8ig Timc
_____________________
p. 238
Chapter 7:
utsidc and !nsidc
___________________________________________
p. 210
Sclcctcd 8ibliography
_____________________________
p. 258
Notcs
________
p. 248
Crcdits
_________
p. 259
!ndcx
_______
p. 263
8
My dccp thanks go to Sina Naja, Sasha Archibald, 8rian
McMullcn, and Tal Schori, my collaborators on thc Timeline of
Timelines that appcarcd in issuc 13 ol Cabinet: A Quarterly of Art
and Culture. Tis book would surcly ncvcr havc comc to bc wcrc
it not lor thcir gcnius. Tc samc gocs lor Susan Harding, Marco
Harding, Joscph Masco, and thc cntirc Histories of the Future group.
! rst bcgan to collcct timclincs whilc participating in a scminar
that Susan organizcd at thc Univcrsity ol Calilornia Humanitics
Rcscarch !nstitutc. !n thc ycars sincc, ! havc bccn collccting dcbts
to thc Ccntcr lor Critical Analysis ol Contcmporary Culturc at
Rutgcrs Univcrsity, thc Huntington Library, thc Clark Library at
thc Univcrsity ol CalilorniaLos Angclcs, thc Clark Art !nstitutc,
MASS MoCA, Argos, thc Slought Foundation, thc Musco Runo
Tamayo, thc Ccntcr lor ightccnthCcntury Studics at !ndiana
Univcrsity, thc Max Planck !nstitutc lor thc History ol Scicncc
in 8crlin, thc National ndowmcnt lor thc Humanitics, and thc
rcgon Humanitics Ccntcr. My thanks to thc wondcrlul librar
ians who havc assistcd mc at thcsc institutions, cspccially in thc
Knight Library at thc Univcrsity ol rcgon, thc Library Company
ol Philadclphia, and thc cpartmcnt ol Rarc 8ooks and Spccial
Collcctions at Princcton Univcrsity, whcrc thc grcatcst part ol thc
rcscarch lor this projcct was conductcd, cspccially Stcphcn Fcrguson,
onald Skcmcr, AnnaLcc Pauls, Andrca !mmcl, John 8lazcjcwski,
and Charlcnc Pcacock.
! wish also to thank Allctta 8rcnncr, Tcrcsa Champ, Mikc
Vitmorc, anicl Sclccr, Jonathan Shcchan, Aricllc Saibcr, Sophia
Roscnlcld, Miryam Sas, Pamcla Jackson, Kcn Vissokcr, Amy
Grccnstadt, Stcvcn Stcrn, Jamcr Hunt, Justin Novak, Frdriquc
Prcssmann, lcna Filipovic, Pip ay, Nato Tompson, ror
Vahrman, Michcl Chaouli, Martin Jay, Randolph Starn, viatar
Zcrubavcl, John Gillis, Harold Mah, Jocl Smith, Shcila Schwartz,
Ncil dc Grassc Tyson, Maya Lin, Christoph Fink, Katic Lcwis,
Jacqui Glanz, Annc Glanz, Astrit Schmidt8urkhardt, Jim Shaw,
Stcvcn Shankman, 8arbara Altmann, Julia Hcydon, Gcorgia
8arnhill, Michacl Paulus, Roy Goodman, \icki Cutting, Jamcs
Fox, Lcsli Larson, and liz 8rcakstonc, as wcll as thc past and prc
scnt Mods ol thc Univcrsity ol rcgon, including Andrcw Schulz,
avid Castillo, Fabicnnc Moorc, ianc ugaw, Amanda Powcll,
Jamcs Harpcr, Lisa Frcinkcl, Lcah Middlcbrook, and Nathalic
Hcstcr. Mark Johnson was an insightlul cditor lor thc original pro
posal lor this projcct. Jc Ravcl did a brilliant job cditing my articlc
Joscph Pricstlcy and thc Graphic !nvcntion ol Modcrn Timc lor
Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture. Tanks to my collcagucs
in thc Robcrt . Clark Honors Collcgc, and cspccially to Joscph
Fracchia, avid Frank, and Richard Kraus, and in thc cpartmcnt
ol History at thc Univcrsity ol rcgon including Jc stlcr, Martin
Summcrs, John McColc, Gcorgc Shcridan, Randall McGowcn, and
avid Lucbkc, and to Carla Hcssc, who has guidcd mc with carc
lor many ycars. Tanks also to thc Andrcw V. Mcllon Foundation
and to thc Univcrsity ol rcgon, who togcthcr providcd mc thc
opportunity to go to Princcton Univcrsity to collaboratc on this
book, to thc Princcton Univcrsity Humanitics Council and Carol
Rigolot, Cass Garncr, and Lin cTitta, to 8arbara Lcavcy and thc
Ccntcr lor Collaborativc History and thc cpartmcnt ol History,
Acknowlcdgmcnts
and to Anthony Gralton, whosc collaboration, vision, and advicc

havc opcncd ncw vistas lor mc.
My pcrsonal thanks to Harry Roscnbcrg, 8arbara Filncr, Joshua
Roscnbcrg, Gwcndolcn Gross, Jacob Roscnbcrg, Carina Roscnbcrg,
Jack Paris, Judy Chcng Paris, SuLin Nichols, 8ill Nichols, Charlic
Nichols, Vill Nichols, and abovc all to my partncr, MaiLin Chcng,
whosc contributions to this projcct arc without mcasurc. My corts
arc dcdicatcd to thc mcmory ol Amy Jcan Kuntz.
anicl Roscnbcrg
Many bcnclactors, lricnds, and collcagucs havc madc my work on
Cartographies of Time not only possiblc but immcnscly plcasurablc.
Hcartlclt thanks to thc Andrcw V. Mcllon Foundationabovc all
to Harrict Zuckcrman, Joscph Mciscl, and Villiam 8owcnlor
thcir imaginativc and gcncrous nancial support. Funds lrom thc
Mcllon Foundation and thc Max Planck !nstitutc lor thc History
ol Scicncc in 8crlin madc possiblc thc workshop on chronology
in 8crlin at which this cntcrprisc was conccivcd. Lorrainc aston,
who cosponsorcd and hostcd thc workshop, has my warmcst
thanks, lor hcr hospitality, lor many othcr kindncsscs ovcr thc ycars,
and lor hcr cruditc and pcnctrating advicc. Furthcr lunding lrom
thc Mcllon Foundation madc it possiblc lor anicl Roscnbcrg to
spcnd thc acadcmic ycar 20067 at Princcton, and lor mc to dcvotc
much ol that ycar to working with him. Carol Rigolot, Cass Garncr,
and Lin cTitta in thc Council ol thc Humanitics and 8arbara
Lcavcy and Judy Hanson in thc cpartmcnt ol History madc thc
complcx practical arrangcmcnts lor our collaboration. Tcir c
cicncy, spccd in action, and warm hospitality arc bcyond praisc.
Tc cxtraordinary sta ol Princctons cpartmcnt ol Rarc 8ooks
and Spccial Collcctions8cn Primcr, Stcphcn Fcrguson, Paul
Nccdham, onald Skcmcr, and AnnaLcc Paulshavc asscmblcd
rcmarkablc rcsourccs in Princcton lor thc study ol chronology. Tcir
intclligcncc, rcsourcclulncss and gcncrosity madc thc bulk ol our
rcscarch possiblc, and thcy havc donc an cxtraordinary job ol pro
ducing many ol thc photographs lor this book. ur lricnd Robcrt
arnton, lormcrly dircctor ol Princctons Ccntcr lor thc Study ol
8ooks and Mcdia, allowcd us to prcscnt an carly vcrsion ol our nd
ings at a spccial mccting ol thc Ccntcrs worksinprogrcss scminar.
Tosc in attcndancc rcspondcd with warm cnthusiasm and hclplul
criticism to what turncd out to bc thc vcry rst dralt ol this book:
thc chronologists whom wc study in this book would havc rccordcd
that occasion in capital lcttcrs and rcd ink.
Tanks, nally, to scholars around thc world who takc an
intcrcst in thc crcativity and quirks ol carly modcrn crudition,
and whosc advicc, criticism, and cxcmplary scholarship havc bccn
crucial: anicl Roscnbcrg, primus inter pares, lor thc curiosity, pas
sion, and storc ol lcarning that havc madc our collaboration such
a joy, and Ann 8lair, Jcd 8uchwald, Max ngammarc, Mordcchai
Fcingold, Pctcr Millcr, Philipp Nothalt, Nick Poppcr, !ngrid
Rowland, Vilhclm Schmidt8iggcmann, Jc Schwcgman, Nancy
Siraisi, 8cnjamin Stcincr, Valtcr Stcphcns, Nocl Swcrdlow, and thc
latc Joscph Lcvinc.
Anthony Gralton
Acknowledgments
+o
Vhat docs history look likc: How do you draw timc:
Vhilc historical tcxts havc long bccn subjcct to critical anal
ysis, thc lormal and historical problcms poscd by graphic
rcprcscntations ol timc havc largcly bccn ignorcd. Tis is
no small mattcr: graphic rcprcscntation is among our most
important tools lor organizing inlormation.
+
Yct, littlc has
bccn writtcn about historical charts and diagrams. And,
lor all ol thc cxccllcnt work that has bccn rcccntly pub
lishcd on thc history and thcory ol cartography, wc havc
lcw cxamplcs ol critical work in thc arca ol what viatar
Zcrubavcl has callcd time maps.
:
Tis book is an attcmpt to
addrcss that gap.
!n many ways, this work is a rccction on lincs
straight and curvcd, branching and crossing, simplc and
cmbcllishcd, tcchnical and artisticthc basic componcnts
ol historical diagrams. ur claim is that thc linc is a much
morc complcx and colorlul gurc than is usually thought.
Historians will probably apprcciatc this aspcct ol thc book
lairly casily. Vc all usc simplc linc diagrams in our class
roomswhat wc usually call timclincsto grcat ccct.
Vc gct thcm, our studcnts gct thcm, thcy translatc won
dcrlully lrom wcighty analytic history books to thrilling
narrativc oncs.
8ut simplc and intuitivc as thcy sccm, thcsc timclincs
arc not without a history thcmsclvcs. Tcy wcrc not always
hcrc to hclp us in our lccturcs, and thcy havc not always
takcn thc lorms that wc unthinkingly givc thcm. Tcy arc
such a lamiliar part ol our mcntal lurniturc that it is somc
timcs hard to rcmcmbcr that wc cvcr acquircd thcm in thc
rst placc. 8ut wc did. And thc story ol how is worth tcll
ing, bccausc it hclps us undcrstand whcrc our contcmpo
rary conccptions ol history comc lrom, how thcy work, and,
cspccially, how thcy rcly on visual lorms. !t is also worth
tclling bccausc its a good story, lull ol twists and turns and
uncxpcctcd charactcrs, soon to bc rcvcalcd.
Anothcr rcason lor thc gap in our historical and thco
rctical undcrstanding ol timclincs is thc rclativcly low sta
tus that wc gcncrally grant to chronology as a kind ol study.
Tough wc usc chronologics all thc timc, and could not do
without thcm, wc typically scc thcm as only distillations
ol complcx historical narrativcs and idcas. Chronologics
work, andas lar as most pcoplc arc conccrncdthats
cnough. 8ut, as wc will show in this book, it wasnt always
so: lrom thc classical pcriod to thc Rcnaissancc in uropc,
chronology was among thc most rcvcrcd ol scholarly pur
suits. !ndccd, in somc rcspccts, it hcld a status highcr than
thc study ol history itscll. Vhilc history dcalt in storics,
Timc in Print
Chapter 1:
++
chronology dcalt in lacts. Morcovcr, thc lacts ol chronology
had signicant implications outsidc ol thc acadcmic study
ol history. For Christians, gctting chronology right was thc
kcy to many practical mattcrs such as knowing whcn to
cclcbratc astcr and wcighty oncs such as knowing whcn
thc Apocalypsc was nigh.
Yct, as historian Haydcn Vhitc has argucd, dcspitc thc
clcar cultural importancc ol chronology, it has bccn dicult
to inducc Vcstcrn historians to think ol it as anything morc
than a rudimcntary lorm ol historiography. Tc traditional
account ol thc birth ol modcrn historical thinking traccs
a path lrom thc cnumcratcd (but not yct narratcd) mcdi
cval datc lists callcd annals, through thc narratcd (but not
yct narrativc) accounts callcd chroniclcs, to lully narrativc
lorms ol historiography that cmcrgc with modcrnity itscll.

According to this account, lor somcthing to qualily as his
toriography, it is not cnough that it dcal in rcal, rathcr than
mcrcly imaginary, cvcnts, and it is not cnough that |it rcprc
scnt| cvcnts in its ordcr ol discoursc according to thc chron
ological lramcwork in which thcy originally occurrcd. Tc
cvcnts must bc. . . rcvcalcd as posscssing a structurc, an ordcr
ol mcaning, that thcy do not posscss as mcrc scqucncc.

Long thought ol as mcrc scqucnccs, in our historics ol
history, chronologics havc usually bccn lclt out.
8ut, as Vhitc argucs, thcrc is nothing mcrc in thc
problcm ol asscmbling cohcrcnt chronologics nor thcir
visual analogucs. Likc thcir modcrn succcssors, traditional
chronographic lorms pcrlormcd both rotc historical work
and hcavy conccptual lilting. Tcy asscmblcd, sclcctcd, and
organizcd divcrsc bits ol historical inlormation in thc lorm
ol datcd lists. And thc chronologics ol a givcn pcriod may
tcll us as much about its visions ol past and luturc as do its
historical narrativcs.
Vhitc givcs thc cxamplc ol thc lamous mcdicval
manuscript chronology callcd thc Annals of St. Gall, which
rccords cvcnts in thc Frankish kingdoms during thc cighth,
ninth, and tcnth ccnturics in chronological ordcr with datcs
in a lclt hand column and cvcnts on thc right. [ gs. 23] To
a modcrn cyc, annals such as thcsc appcar strangc and antic,
bcginning and cnding sccmingly without rcason, mashing
up catcgorics hcltcrskcltcr likc thc lamous Chincsc cncy
clopcdia conjurcd by Jorgc Luis 8orgcs. Hcrc, lor cxamplc,
is a scction covcring thc ycars o to .
o. Hard wintcr. ukc Gottlricd dicd.
+o. Hard ycar and dccicnt in crops.
++.
+:. Flood cvcrywhcrc.
[ 1]
_______________________________
+:+o calcndar, Saul Stcinbcrg,
Untitled, +o
__________
!nk, collagc, and colorcd pcncil on papcr, +
x : inchcs, 8cincckc Rarc 8ook and
Manuscript Library, Yalc Univcrsity Tc
Saul Stcinbcrg Foundation/Artists Rights
Socicty (ARS), Ncw York
Chapter 1: Time in Print
+:
+.
+. Pippin, mayor ol thc palacc dicd.
+.
+6.
+.
+8. Charlcs dcvastatcd thc Saxon with grcat dcstruction.
+.
:o. Charlcs lought against thc Saxons.
:+. Tcudo drovc thc Saraccns out ol Aquitainc.
::. Grcat crops.
:.
:.
:. Saraccns camc lor thc rst timc.
o.
+. 8lcsscd 8cdc, thc prcsbytcr, dicd.
:. Charlcs lought against thc Saraccns at Poiticrs on Saturday.
.
.
From a historiographical point ol vicw, thc tcxt sccms

to bc missing a grcat dcal. Tough it mccts a vcry mini
mal dcnition ol narrativc (it is rclcrcntial, it rcprcscnts
tcmporality), it posscsscs lcw or nonc ol thc charactcristics
that wc normally cxpcct in a story, much lcss a history. Tc
Annals makc no distinction bctwccn natural occurrcnccs
and human acts, thcy givc no indication ol causc and ccct,
no cntry is givcn morc priority than anothcr. 8clow thc
lcvcl ol ycars, rclcrcnccs to timc arc strangcly gnomic: in
thc ycar :, lor cxamplc, thc tcxt indicatcs that Charlcs
Martcl lought thc Saraccns on Saturday, but it docs not
spccily which Saturday. Abovc thc lcvcl ol thc ycar, thcrc is
no distinction among pcriods, and lists bcgin and cnd as
namclcss chroniclcrs pick up and put down thcir pcns. 8ut
this should not bc takcn to suggcst that thc St. Gall manu
scripts arc without mcaninglul structurc. To thc contrary,
Vhitc argucs, in thcir vcry lorm, thcsc annals brcathc with
thc lilc ol thc Middlc Agcs. Tc Annals of St. Gall, Vhitc
argucs, vividly gurc a world ol scarcity and violcncc, a
world in which lorccs ol disordcr occupy thc lorclront
ol attcntion, in which things happen to pcoplc rathcr than
onc in which pcoplc do things.
6
As such, thcy rcprcscnt a
lorm closcly calibratcd to both thc intcrcsts and thc vision
ol thcir uscrs.
Parallcl obscrvations havc bccn madc by scholars ol
nonVcstcrn historiography such as thc grcat !ndian his
torian Romila Tapar. Tapar has long cmphasizcd that
gcncalogy and chroniclc arc not primitivc corts to writc
what would bccomc history in othcr hands, but powcrlul,
[ 23]
_______________________________
Annals of St. Gall, Monastcry ol
St. Gall, Switzcrland, midclcvcnth
ccntury
+
graphically dcnsc ways ol dcscribing and intcrprcting thc
past.
And in rcccnt ycars, historians ol prcmodcrn uropc

likc Robcrto 8izzocchi, Christianc KlapischZubcr, and
Rosamond McKittcrick havc bcgun to pay duc attcntion
to thc graphically sophisticatcd ways in which gcncalogi
cal lormscspccially thc trcchavc dcvclopcd and bccn
uscd in thc historiography ol both thc prcmodcrn and thc
modcrn Vcst.
8
Addrcssing thc problcm ol chronology, and cspccially
thc problcm ol visual chronology, mcans going back to thc
linc, to undcrstand its ubiquity, cxibility, and lorcc. !n rcp
rcscntations ol timc, lincs appcar virtually cvcrywhcrc, in
tcxts and imagcs and dcviccs. Somctimcs, as in thc timc
lincs lound in history tcxtbooks, thc prcscncc ol thc linc
couldnt bc morc obvious. 8ut in othcr instanccs, it is morc
subtlc. n an analog clock, lor cxamplc, thc hour and min
utc hands tracc lincs through spacc, though thcsc lincs arc
circular, thcy arc lincs noncthclcss. As thc linguist Gcorgc
Lako and thc philosophcr Mark Johnson havc argucd, thc
lincar mctaphor is cvcn at work in thc digital clock, though
no linc is actually visiblc. !n this dcvicc, thc linc is prcscnt
as an intcrmcdiatc mctaphor: to undcrstand thc mcaning
ol thc numbcrs, thc vicwcr translatcs thcm into imagincd
points on a linc.
ur idca ol timc is so wrappcd up with thc mctaphor ol

thc linc that taking thcm apart sccms virtually impossiblc.
According to thc litcrary critic V. J. T. Mitchcll, Tc lact
is that spatial lorm is thc pcrccptual basis ol our notion ol
timc, that wc litcrally cannot tcll timc without thc mcdia
tion ol spacc.
+o
Mitchcll argucs that all tcmporal languagc
is contaminatcd by spatial gurcs. Vc spcak ol long and
short timcs, ol intcrvals (litcrally, spaccs bctwccn), ol
bclorc and altcrall implicit mctaphors which dcpcnd
upon a mcntal picturc ol timc as a lincar continuum. . . .
Continuity and scqucntiality arc spatial imagcs bascd in
thc schcma ol thc unbrokcn linc or surlacc, thc cxpcricncc
ol simultancity or discontinuity is simply bascd in dicrcnt
kinds ol spatial imagcs lrom thosc involvcd in continuous,
scqucntial cxpcricnccs ol timc.
++
And it may wcll bc that
Mitchcll is right. 8ut rccognizing this can only bc a bcgin
ning. !n thc cld ol tcmporal rcprcscntation, thc linc can bc
cvcrywhcrc bccausc it is so cxiblc and its congurations
so divcrsc.
Tc historics ol litcraturc and art lurnish an abun
dant storc ol cxamplcs ol thc complcx intcrdcpcndcncc ol
tcmporal conccpts and gurcs. Andas in thc casc ol thc
digital clockin many instanccs mctaphors that appcar to
draw thcir lorcc lrom a dicrcnt sourcc in lact contain an
+
implicit lincar gurc. Tis is thc casc cvcn in thc lamous
passagc lrom Shakcspcarc whcrc Macbcth comparcs timc
to an cxpcricncc ol languagc lragmcntcd into mcaning
lcss bits:
Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow,
Crccps in this pctty pacc lrom day to day,
To thc last syllablc ol rccordcd timc,
And all our ycstcrdays havc lightcd lools
Tc way to dusty dcath. ut, out, bricl candlc!
Lilcs but a walking shadow, a poor playcr,
Tat struts and lrcts his hour upon thc stagc,
And thcn is hcard no morc: it is a talc
Told by an idiot, lull ol sound and lury,
Signilying nothing.
+:
As thc critic J. Hillis Millcr writcs, For Macbcth, timc
is a scqucncc ol days that strctchcs out in a linc lcading to
its ccssation at dcath, gurcd as a scrics ol syllablcs making
a scntcncc or strings ol scntcnccs, lor cxamplc a spccch by
an actor on thc stagc. Timc, lor Macbcth, cxists only as it
is rccordcd. !t is a mad nonscnsical talc, an incohcrcnt nar
rativc. Such a narrativc is madc ol picccs that do not hang
togcthcr, a scrics ol syllablcs that do not cohcrc into words
and scntcnccs.
+
Yct cvcn lor Macbcth, though thc past and
thc luturc havc lost all mcaning, thc passagc ol timc is ordcrly
and lincar, and cach mcaninglcss human lilc covcrs a prc
ciscly mcasurablc scgmcnt ol it, an hour upon thc stagc.
!n thc graphic arts, thc samc holds truc: lrom thc
most ancicnt imagcs to thc most modcrn, thc linc scrvcs
as a ccntral gurc in thc rcprcscntation ol timc. Tc lincar
mctaphor is ubiquitous in cvcryday visual rcprcscntations
ol timc as wcllin almanacs, calcndars, charts, and graphs
ol all sorts. Gcncalogical and cvolutionary trccslorms ol
rcprcscnting tcmporal rclationships that borrow both thc
visual and thc vcrbal gurc ol lincagcarc particularly
promincnt.
+
And, ol coursc, similar obscrvations may bc
madc about our ways ol rcprcscnting history.
Tc timclinc sccms among thc most incscapablc mcta
phors wc havc. And yct, in its modcrn lorm, with a singlc
axis and a rcgular, mcasurcd distribution ol datcs, it is a
rclativcly rcccnt invcntion. Undcrstood in this strict scnsc,
thc timclinc is not cvcn :o ycars old. How this could bc
possiblc, what altcrnativcs cxistcd bclorc, and what com
pcting possibilitics lor rcprcscnting historical chronology
arc still with us, is thc subjcct ol this book.
!t should bc said lrom thc bcginning that thc rclativc
youth ol thc timclinc has littlc to do with tcchnological
[ 4]
_______________________________
Tc Parian Marblc is thc oldcst
surviving Grcck chronological tablc:
this piccc ol it, callcd thc Marmor
Purim, has bccn in xlord sincc thc
latc scvcntccnth ccntury. Tc unknown
author, working in :6/ ncv, traccd
thc ccntral cvcnts in history sincc
thc acccssion ol King Cccrops in
Athcns in, by his computation, +8+/o
ncv. Tc Marblc ocrs datcs lor thc
Flood (that ol cucalion, not Noah),
thc introduction ol agriculturc by
cmctcr, and thc lall ol Troy, as wcll
as many morc rcccnt cvcnts. Vrittcn
tablcs which covcrcd a similar pcriod
and rangc ol topics wcrc among thc
chicl sourccs lrom which uscbius
drcw his matcrial lor ancicnt Grcck
history.
+
constraints. Tough tcchnology plays an important rolc in
our story, it docsnt drivc it. Tc principal issucs hcrc arc
conccptual. !n thc latc cightccnth ccntury, whcn thc timc
linc bcgan to ourish in uropc, sophisticatcd tcchnologics
ol printing and cngraving had long bccn availablc, as had
tcchniqucs lor gcomctrical plotting and projcction lar morc
complcx than wcrc ncccssary lor such simplc diagrams.
Vhat is morc, by thc cightccnth ccntury thc problcm
ol giving visual lorm to chronological inlormation had also
bccn around lor a vcry, vcry long timc. [ g. 4] From thc
ancicnt pcriod to thc modcrn, cvcry historical culturc has
dcviscd its own mcchanisms lor sclccting and listing signil
icant cvcnts. Tc Jcws and Pcrsians had thcir king lists, thc
Grccks, thcir tablcs ol lympiads, thc Romans, thcir lists
ol consuls, and so lorth. Tc oldcst surviving Grcck chron
ological tablc, a list ol rulcrs, cvcnts, and invcntions, was
carvcd on marblc in :6/ ncv. Tc most claboratc Roman
onc, a sct ol lists ol consuls and triumphs crcatcd undcr
Augustus, stood in thc Forum. And, just as Lako and
Johnson would havc us bclicvc, among thcsc many dcviccs
thc linc appcars rcpcatcdly as both a visual lorm and a vcr
bal mctaphor. And yct, in all ol thcsc culturcs, amid all ol
thcsc lorms, thc simplc, rcgular, mcasurcd timclinc that is
so sccond naturc today, rcmains in thc background. As a
norm, as an idcal standard ol what history looks like, thc
timclinc docs not appcar until modcrnity.
Ancicnt and mcdicval historians had thcir own tcch
niqucs ol chronological notation. [ gs. 56] From thc lourth
ccntury, in uropc, thc most powcrlul and typical ol thcsc
was thc tablc. Tough ancicnt chronologics wcrc inscribcd
in many dicrcnt lorms, among scholars thc tablc lorm had
a normativc quality much as thc timclinc docs today. !n part,
thc importancc ol thc chronological tablc altcr thc lourth
ccntury can bc crcditcd to thc Roman Christian scholar
uscbius. Alrcady in thc lourth ccntury uscbius had
dcvclopcd a sophisticatcd tablc structurc to organizc and
rcconcilc chronologics drawn lrom historical sourccs lrom
all ovcr thc world. To clcarly prcscnt thc rclations bctwccn
Jcwish, pagan, and Christian historics, uscbius laid out
thcir chronologics in parallcl columns that bcgan with thc
patriarch Abraham and thc lounding ol Assyria. Tc rcadcr
who movcd through uscbiuss history, pagc by pagc, saw
cmpircs and kingdoms risc and lall, until all ol thcmcvcn
thc kingdom ol thc Jcwscamc undcr Romcs univcrsal
rulc, just in timc to makc thc Saviors mcssagc acccssiblc to
all ol humanity. 8y comparing individual historics to onc
anothcr and thc unilorm progrcss ol thc ycars, thc rcadcr
could scc thc hand ol providcncc at work.
[ 56]
_______________________________
Tc Mcrton Collcgc copy ol thc
Chronicle ol uscbius, as translatcd
into Latin and adaptcd by Jcromc,
transcribcd in thc midlth ccntury
in !taly in rcd, grccn, and black ink
on +6 lcavcs. !t is bound with thc
Chronicle ol Marccllinus Comcs.
Cartographies of Time +6
uscbius crcatcd his visually lucid Chronicle just whcn
hc and othcr Christians wcrc rst adopting thc codcx, or
bound book, in placc ol thc scroll. Likc othcr Christian
innovations in book dcsign, thc parallcl tablcs and lucid,
ycarbyycar, dccadcbydccadc ordcr ol thc Chronicle
rccctcd thc dcsirc ol carly Christian scholars to makc thc
8iblc and thc sourccs vital lor undcrstanding it availablc
and rcadily acccssiblc lor quick rclcrcncc. Tc Chronicle
was widcly rcad, copicd, and imitatcd in thc Middlc Agcs.
And it catcrcd to a dcsirc lor prccision that othcr popular
lormslikc thc gcncalogical trcccould not satisly.
uscbiuss chronological tablcs provcd rcmarkably
durablc, and as humanists in thc ltccnth and sixtccnth
ccnturics took a ncw intcrcst in cstablishing chronologi
cal intcrvals, thcy won rcncwcd attcntion. [ g. 7] Modcrn
cditions ol uscbius wcrc among thc rst printcd books,
and thcy wcrc among thc most important rclcrcncc works
in thc collcction ol any carly modcrn humanist scholar.
+

Tc ltccnthccntury Florcntinc bookscllcr \cspasiano
da 8isticcia brilliant imprcsario ol scribal book produc
tionmarkctcd a rcviscd lorm ol uscbiuss work with
grcat succcss to scholars and gcncral rcadcrs. Humanists likc
Pctrarch bccamc lascinatcd by thc historical and cultural
distanccs that scparatcd thcm lrom ancicnt writcrs whom
thcy admircd and lrom thcir own postcrity. Pctrarch carc
lully indicatcd thc prcscnt datc in lcttcrs hc addrcsscd to thc
ancicnts Ciccro and \irgil and to luturc rcadcrs to cmpha
sizc thc lcngth ol thc intcrval that scparatcd him lrom thcm:
Vrittcn in thc land ol thc living, on thc right bank ol thc
Adigc, in \crona, a city ol Transpadanc !taly, on thc +6th ol
Junc, and in thc ycar ol that God whom you ncvcr kncw thc
+th. And, in sctting thcsc chronological distanccs, hc
lound hclp in thc ancicnt modcl givcn by uscbius.
+6
uring thc Rcnaissancc, scholars dcvclopcd ncw kinds
ol visual organization, and adaptcd old lorms, somctimcs
long ncglcctcd, lor thc lormat ol thc printcd book. 8ut until
thc midcightccnth ccntury, thc uscbian modcla sim
plc matrix with kingdoms listcd across thc top ol thc pagc
and ycars listcd down thc lclt or righthand columns
was dominant. Tis visual structurc suitcd thc conccrns ol
Rcnaissancc scholars wcll. !t lacilitatcd thc organization
and coordination ol chronological data lrom a widc varicty
ol sourccs. !t providcd a singlc structurc capablc ol absorb
ing ncarly any kind ol data and ncgotiating thc dicul
tics incvitablc whcn dicrcnt civilizations historics, with
thcir dicrcnt assumptions about timc, wcrc luscd. !t was
casy to producc and corrcct and allowcd lor quick acccss to
datawhich thc printcrs improvcd by adding alphabctizcd
[ 7]
_______________________________
Fall ol Troy, Chronicle ol uscbius,
ltccnth ccntury
+
indiccs and othcr aids. Abovc all, it still scrvcd as a dctailcd
diagram ol providcntial timc. From a graphic point ol vicw,
it was a chronological Wunderkammer, prcscnting Christian
world history in many small drawcrs.
Still, cxpcrimcnts continucd. Somc wcrc graphic, likc
thc cort to lay out all thc main historical cvcnts on a cal
cndar that strctchcd not lrom thc Crcation or Abraham
to thc prcscnt but lrom January + to cccmbcr +, with
important cvcnts in thc past stackcd up day by day, through
thc ycar. Somc wcrc tcchnical. !n antiquity and thc Middlc
Agcs, chronologcrs acccptcd oldcr lists ol rulcrs and cvcnts
and did thcir bcst to intcgratc thcm into largcr wholcs. !n
thc Rcnaissancc, historians bccamc morc ambitious and
critical. Tcachcrs and thcorists claimcd, ovcr and ovcr again,
that chronology and gcography wcrc thc two cycs ol his
tory: sourccs ol prccisc, unqucstionablc inlormation, which
introduccd ordcr to thc apparcnt chaos ol cvcnts.
!n gcography, thc visual mctaphor t bcautilully.
Armcd with ncw knowlcdgc about thc arths surlacc,
Rcnaissancc mapmakcrs updatcd thc ancicnt maps crc
atcd by Ptolcmy in thc sccond ccntury to includc thc
Amcricas, thc !ndian ccan, and much clsc. At thc samc
timc, tcchniqucs ol mapping madc advanccs, with striking
rcsults lor both scicncc and politics. 8y thc scvcntccnth
ccntury, thc map had bccomc a kcy symbol not only ol thc
powcr ol monarchs but ol thc powcr ol knowlcdgc itscll.
Cartography was a modcl ol thc ncw applicd scicnccs, at
oncc complcx and prccisc, it also gavc an imprcssion ol
immcdiacy and rcalism.
At thc lcvcl ol dctail, chronology lollowcd a similar
path. !n thc samc pcriod, astronomcrs and historianssuch
as Gcrardus Mcrcator, now lamous as a cartographcr
bcgan collccting astronomical cvidcnccrccords ol datcd
cclipscs and othcr cclcstial cvcnts mcntioncd by ancicnt
and mcdicval historians. Tcy bcgan to plot cvcnts not
just against long scrics ol ycars, but against lunar and solar
cclipscs that could bc datcd prcciscly to thc day and thc hour.
Chronologics bccamc prccisc and tcstablc in a ncw scnsc,
and thc ncw passion lor cxactitudc was rccctcd in corts
to rcprcscnt timc in novcl ways. Tc carly modcrn world saw
somc rcmarkablc, il oltcn shortlivcd, cxpcrimcnts in thc
crcation ol graphic history, lrom thc vivid imagcs ol wars,
massacrcs, and troublcs produccd as a cohcrcnt scrics by
cntrcprcncurs and artists in Gcncva in +6o to thc mas
sivcly illustratcd historics and travcl accounts turncd out by
thc housc ol Tcodorc dc 8ry in Franklurt.
+
To many writ
crs ol thc pcriod, such as Valtcr Ralcigh, thc chronological
dimcnsion ol history was ccntral. As Alcxandcr Ross put it
[ 8]
_______________________________
Tis small chart, on thc modcl ol his
pathbrcaking A Chart of Biography
(+6) appcarcd in Joscph Pricstlcys
Te History and Present State of
Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light,
and Colours (+:). !t allows thc rcadcr
to scc at a glancc which scicntists livcd
whcn and givcs an ovcrall vicw ol
scicntic activity in thc arca ol optics
sincc thc ycar +ooo.
+
in his +6: continuation ol Ralcighs History of the World,
History, indccd is thc 8ody, but Chronologic thc Soul ol
Historical Knowlcdgc, lor History without Chronologic, or
a Rclation ol things past, without mcntioning thc Timcs in
which thcy wcrc Actcd, is likc a Lump or mbryo without
articulation, or a Carcass without Lilc.
+8
Toward thc cnd ol thc scvcntccnth ccntury, tcchnical
dcvclopmcnts in printing spurrcd lurthcr innovation, whilc
ncw tcchniqucs ol cngraving madc practical largcr and morc
dctailcd book illustrations. Somc chronologists bcgan to takc
cucs lrom cartographcrs, with bcautilul rcsults. Ultimatcly,
though, thc dircct application ol thc gcographic mctaphor
in thc cld ol chronology provcd awkward. cspitc grcat
advanccs in rcscarch tcchniqucs and thc cxploration ol
many ncw lorms, rcprcscntations ol timc mostly continucd
to look vcry much as thcy had a millcnnium carlicr whcn
thc chronographic tablc was rst cmploycd.
!t was not until thc middlc ol thc cightccnth ccntury
that a common visual vocabulary lor timc maps caught
on. 8ut thc ncw lincar lormats ol thc cightccnth ccntury
wcrc so quickly acccptcd that, within dccadcs, it was hard
to rcmcmbcr a timc whcn thcy wcrc not alrcady in usc. Tc
kcy problcm in chronographics, it turncd out, was not how
to dcsign morc complcx visual schcmcsthc approach ol
many wouldbc innovators in thc scvcntccnth ccntury
but, rathcr, how to simplily, how to crcatc a visual schcmc
to clcarly communicatc thc unilormity, dircctionality, and
irrcvcrsibility ol historical timc.
Among thc most important cvcnts ol this pcriod was
thc publication in +6 ol thc Chart of Biography by thc
nglish scicntist and thcologian Joscph Pricstlcy. [ g. 8] At
thc lcvcl ol basic tcchniquc, thcrc was littlc that was ncw
in Pricstlcys chart. !t was a simplc mcasurcd cld with
datcs indicatcd along thc top and bottom likc distanccs on
a rulcr. Vithin thc main cld ol thc chart, horizontal lincs
showcd whcn lamous historical gurcs wcrc born and dicd:
thc lcngth and position ol cach pcrsons lilc was indicatcd
by a mark that bcgan at thcir datc ol birth and cndcd at
thcir datc ol dcath. Tc Chart of Biography was a strikingly
simplc diagram, and yct it provcd a watcrshcd.
+
Tough it
lollowcd ccnturics ol cxpcrimcntation, it was thc rst chart
to prcscnt a complctc and lully thcorizcd visual vocabulary
lor a timc map, and thc rst to succcsslully compctc with
thc matrix as a normativc structurc lor rcprcscnting rcgular
chronology. And it camc just at thc right timc. Pricstlcys
chart was not only ccctivc in displaying datcs, it also pro
vidcd an intuitivc visual analoguc lor conccpts ol historical
progrcss that wcrc bccoming popular during thc cightccnth
Cartographies of Time :o
ccntury. !n Pricstlcys chart, historical thought and ncw
lorms ol graphic cxprcssion camc into dialoguc, and cach
had much to ocr thc othcr.
8ut as Pricstlcy rccognizcd, his innovations poscd
problcms too: historical narrativc is not lincar. !t movcs
backward and lorward making comparisons and contrasts,
and branchcs irrcgularly lollowing plots and subplots. Part
ol thc advantagc ol thc matrix lorm was that it lacilitatcd
thc scholars undcrstanding ol thc many intcrsccting tra
jcctorics ol history. Tc lorm ol thc timclinc, by contrast,
cmphasizcd ovcrarching pattcrns and thc big story. Tis
provcd a grcat advantagc in somc rcspccts, but not all. And
Pricstlcy rcadily admittcd this. For him, thc timclinc was a
most cxccllcnt mcchanical hclp to thc knowlcdgc ol his
tory, not an imagc ol history itscll.
:o
Nor was Pricstlcy thc only cightccnthccntury writcr
to rccct on thc limits ol thc lincar mctaphor. [ g. 9]
uring thc samc ycars that Pricstlcy publishcd his Chart
of Biography and its scqucl, A New Chart of History, thc
novclist Laurcncc Stcrnc was publishing his rcmarkablc
satirc on lincar narrativc, Te Life and Opinions of Tristram
Shandy, Gentleman, rcplctc with cookcd diagrams mapping
thc coursc ol Tristrams lilc story. Likc Pricstlcy, Stcrnc
undcrstood thc lincar rcprcscntation ol timc as a complcx
and articial construction. 8ut lor Stcrnc, its problcms out
wcighcd its advantagcs. Stcrnc writcs:
Could a historiographcr drivc on his history, as a mulctccr
drivcs on his mulc,straight lorward,lor instancc, lrom
Rome all thc way to Loretto, without cvcr oncc turning his
hcad asidc cithcr to thc right hand or to thc lclt,hc might
vcnturc to lorctcll you an hour whcn hc should gct to his
journcys cnd:but thc thing is, morally spcaking, impos
siblc, lor, il hc is a man ol thc lcast spirit, hc will havc lty
dcviations lrom a straight linc to makc with this or that
party as hc gocs along, which hc can no ways avoid. Hc will
havc vicws and prospccts to himscll pcrpctually soliciting
his cyc, which hc can no morc hclp standing still to look at
than hc can y.
:+
For all ol thcir dicrcnccs, thc works ol both Pricstlcy and
Stcrnc point to thc tcchnical ingcnuity and thc intcnsity ol
thc labor rcquircd to support a lantasy ol lincar timc.
Tc timclinc ocrcd a ncw way ol visualizing history.
And it lundamcntally changcd thc way that history was
spokcn ol as wcll. Yct it in no way closcd o othcr visual and
vcrbal mctaphors and mcchanisms ol rcprcscntation. Tc
ninctccnth ccntury, which saw thc cxtcnsion ol thc timclinc
[ 9]
_______________________________
Laurcncc Stcrnc publishcd his lamous
satirical novcl, Te Life and Opinions of
Tristram Shandy, Gentleman, in ninc
volumcs ovcr thc coursc ol thc +6os,
just as Joscph Pricstlcy was publishing
his grcat historical timclincs. Tc novcl
is purportcdly thc autobiography ol
its ccntral charactcr, Tristram Shandy,
but thc narration hingcs on Tristrams
inability to tcll thc story without
digrcssion. Likc Pricstlcy, Stcrnc was
intcrcstcd in thc graphic rcprcscnta
tion ol timc: in thc novcl, Tristram
ocrs a sct ol diagrams rcprcscnting
thc narrativc pattcrn ol thc rst lour
volumcs ol his story.
:+
into many ncw arcas ol application, also saw thc rcsurgcncc
ol othcr tcmporal gurcs that had intcractcd and com
pctcd with lincar imagcry lor many ccnturics. Troughout
thc mcdicval and carly modcrn pcriods, lor cxamplc, thc
statuc that Ncbuchadnczzar drcamcd ol in Chaptcr : ol
thc book ol anicl, and that anicl cxplicatcd as dcpicting
thc lour grcat cmpircs that would rulc thc world in turn,
could and did scrvc as an armaturc lor world history. And
with thc rcligious rcvivals ol thc cightccnth and ninctccnth
ccnturics, gurcs ol Ncbuchadnczzars statuc sprcad again
likc wildrc. 8ut, in this ncw rcsurgcncc, somcthing was
dicrcnt. Ninctccnthccntury visionarics uscd timclincs to
clucidatc thcir allcgorics and to givc thcm prccision. Tcy
bccamc cxpcrts in visual codc shilting, translating back and
lorth bctwccn thc barc lincs ol Pricstlcy and his cmulators
and thc vivid imagcs ol thc apocalyptic traditions.
uring thc midninctccnth ccntury, a strong positiv
ist tcndcncy also cmcrgcd in chronography, cspccially in
thc arcas whcrc tcchnical dcviccs could bc uscd to mca
surc and rccord cvcnts ol historical signicancc. [ g. 10] Tc
dcvclopmcnt ol photography, lm, and othcr imaging
tcchnologics in thc ninctccnth and twcnticth ccnturics pcr
mittcd thc rccording ol timcscqucnccd phcnomcna, and
cvcr morc prccisc instrumcnts and mcthods, such as thc
chronophotographic apparatuscs ol ticnncJulcs Marcy
and adwcard Muybridgc on thc onc hand and thc trcc
ring analysis ol Andrcw llicott ouglass on thc othcr,
madc visiblc lor thc rst timc cvcnts taking placc at vcry
high and low spccds. Rcscarchcrs such as thcsc opcncd ncw
possibilitics lor thc study ol thc past. Tcy also in somc ways
cncouragcd pcoplc to think that historical cvcnts might bc
rccordcd and rcprcscntcd in truly objcctivc ways.
8ut, whilc thc convcntion ol thc timclinc camc to sccm
morc and morc natural, its dcvclopmcnt tcndcd also to raisc
ncw qucstions. [ g. 11] !n somc cascs, lling in an idcal timc
linc with morc and bcttcr data only pushcd it toward thc
absurd. Jacqucs 8arbcuubourgs + Chronologie univer-
selle, mountcd on a scroll and cncascd in a protcctivc box,
was lcct long. Latcr attcmpts to rcanchor thc timclinc in
matcrial rclcrcncc, as in thc casc ol Charlcs Joscph Minards
lamous +86 diagram, Carte gurative des pertes successives en
hommes de larme franaise dans la campagne de Russie 1812
1813 (Tcmatic map displaying thc succcssivc casualtics
ol thc Frcnch army in thc Russian campaign +8+:+8+),
produccd rcsults that wcrc bcautilul but ultimatcly put into
qucstion thc promisc ol thc straight linc.
Tc visual simplicity ol Minards diagram is paradig
maticas is thc numbing pathos ol its articulation across
[ 10]
_______________________________
Cross scction ol a giant scquoia at thc
Amcrican Muscum ol Natural History
in Ncw York City, photographcd in
thc +os. Vhcn thc trcc was lcllcd
in Calilornia in +8+, it stood + lcct
tall and mcasurcd o lcct around at
thc basc. Tis scction contains +,:
annual rings, dating thc trcc to thc
midsixth ccntury. As currcntly cxhib
itcd, thc rings arc markcd at intcrvals
ol +oo ycars and inscribcd with
notablc historical cvcnts including thc
invcntion ol thc rclracting tclcscopc
uscd by Galilco (+6oo), thc lounding
ol Yalc Collcgc (+oo), and Napolcon
scizing powcr in Francc (+8oo).
:: Cartographies of Time
[ 11]
_______________________________
!n thc +86os, thc Frcnch cnginccr
Charlcs Joscph Minard dcviscd a num
bcr ol ncw and inucntial inlographic
tcchniqucs. Among thc most lamous ol
his charts lrom this pcriod is thc +86
Carte gurative des pertes successives
en hommes de larme franaise dans la
campagne de Russie 18121813 com-
pares celle dHannibal durant la 2me
Guerre Punique. Tc two diagrams,
publishcd togcthcr, show thc sizc and
attrition ol thc armics ol Hannibal in
his cxpcdition across thc Alps during
thc Punic wars and ol Napolcon during
his assault on Russia. Tc colorcd band
in thc diagrams indicatcs thc armys
strcngth ol numbcrsin both charts,
onc millimctcr in thickncss rcprc
scnts tcn thousand mcn. Tc chart ol
Napolcons march includcs an indica
tion ol tcmpcraturc as wcll.
:
thc spacc ol thc Russian wintcr. At thc samc timc, through
color, anglc, and shapc, Minards chart marks thc ccntrality
ol thc idca ol reversal in thc thinking and tclling ol his
tory. Minards chart may bc morc accuratc than Pricstlcys,
not bccausc it carrics morc or bcttcr historical dctail but
bccausc it rcads in thc complcx, somctimcs paradoxical
way in which a rcal story is told. Tc samc could bc said
lor thc branching timc map in Charlcs Rcnouvicrs +86
Uchronie (l utopie dans l histoire): Esquisse historique apocry-
phe du dveloppement de la civilisation europenne tel quil na
pas t, tel quil aurait pu tre (Uchronia |utopia in timc|:
An outlinc ol thc dcvclopmcnt ol uropcan civilization,
not as it was, but as it could havc bccn), which dcpicts
both thc actual coursc ol history and altcrnativc paths that
might havc bccn il othcr historical choiccs and actions had
bccn takcn. [ g. 12] thcr philosophcrs took an cvcn morc
critical position. At thc cnd ol thc ninctccnth ccntury, thc
Frcnch philosophcr Hcnri 8crgson dccricd thc mctaphor
ol thc timclinc itscll as a dccciving idol.
::
Rccction on thc qucstion ol dccp timc, too, cngcndcrcd
scllconsciously cstranging lorms ol tcmporal mapping, as in
thc scvcral billion ycar long timclinc ol luturc history that
thc philosophcr and scicncc ction writcr lal Staplcdon
uscd as thc structurc lor his mctahistorical parablc, Last and
First Men, lrom +o.
:
[ g. 13] Staplcdon kncw that it is
hard to cnvision human history in tcrms ol billions ol ycars.
Hc also kncw that projcctcd on a timclinc, his vision would
look almost natural. Staplcdon cmploycd thc intuitivc
lorm ol thc timclinc to shakc up his rcadcrs assumptions
about thc valucs implicd in thc vcry scalc ol our historical
narrativcs. And in rcccnt ycars similar dcviccs havc bccn
uscd ccctivcly by cnvironmcntalist groups such as thc
Long Now Foundation. [ g. 14] Troughout thc past two
ccnturics, lrom Francis Picabia to n Kawara and lrom J.
J. Grandvillc to Saul Stcinbcrg, visual artists havc intcrro
gatcd and pokcd lun at our prcsuppositions about graphic
rcprcscntation ol historical timc. Vorks such as thcirs point
to both changc and pcrsistcncc in thc problcm ol chrono
logical rcprcscntationto thc vitality ol thc lorms crcatcd
by uscbius and Pricstlcy and to thc conccptual dicultics
that thcy continuc to prcscnt.
!n Cartographies of Time, wc ocr a short account ol how
modcrn lorms ol chronological rcprcscntation cmcrgcd and
how thcy cmbcddcd thcmsclvcs in thc modcrn imagination.
!n doing so, wc hopc to shcd somc light on Vcstcrn vicws
ol history, to clarily thc complcx rclationship bctwccn idcas
and modcs ol rcprcscntation, and to ocr an introductory
grammar ol thc graphics ol historical rcprcscntation.
[ 12]
_______________________________
Charlcs Rcnouvicr, diagram in which
uppcrcasc lcttcrs rcprcscnt actual
cvcnts, lowcrcasc lcttcrs cvcnts that
did not happcn, lrom +86
[ 13]
_______________________________
Manuscript timclinc lor lal
Staplcdons classic +o scicncc ction
novcl, Last and First Men: A Story of
the Near and Far Future. Staplcdons
book givcs an cvolutionary history ol
humanity ovcr two billion ycars and
cightccn grcat biological and cultural
rcvolutions. Tc publishcd work
includcs a sct ol timclincs drawn to
dicrcnt scalcs, lrom thc historical
to thc cosmological. His manuscript
timclinc works thc samc way: thc
vcrtical black lincs rcprcscnt timc, thc
linc at thc lar lclt is drawn to a scalc ol
oo ycars to thc inch, thc ncxt is ,ooo
ycars to thc inch, and cach succcssivc
scalc is tcn timcs thc prcvious. Colorcd
diagonal lincs projcct cach scalc onto
thc lollowing oncs. \crtical purplc
stripcs rcprcscnt agcs without human
culturc. \crtical grccn stripcs indicatc
succcssivc raccs ol mcn.
__________
Spccial Collcctions and Archivcs, Univcrsity
ol Livcrpool Library. Courtcsy ol John
Staplcdon.
[ 14]
_______________________________
Tc Long Now Foundation, compara
tivc timc scalcs ol thc conccpt ol thc
long now, +
:6
Tc story ol thc timclinc bcgins in thc ancicnt world. [ g. 1]
Grcck and Roman scholars drcw up lists ol pricsts,
lympic winncrs, and magistratcs, somc ol which wcrc
carvcd in stonc, othcrs rccordcd in books. 8ut it was thc
lourthccntury Christian thcologian uscbius ol Cacsarca
who dcsigncd and composcd thc Chronicle that bccamc thc
modcl lor latcr timclincs lor ccnturics to comc. uscbius
sct out to cstablish thc placc ol Christianity in thc his
tory ol thc world told, in part, by thc Jcwish and Christian
scripturcs. 8ut hc also planncd to synchronizc with this
ccntral narrativc thc historics ol scvcral othcr nations that
had maintaincd thcir own rccords and had thcir own con
vcntions ol chronology, and that had gurcd promincntly
in thc history ol ancicnt !sracl or thc modcrn church.
uscbius, who rcad thc 8iblc in Grcck, kncw and
uscd thc Hexapla, a sixcolumn polyglot 8iblc that anothcr
Christian scholar, rigcn, had compilcd in thc third ccn
tury. 8y lining up thc original Hcbrcw, word lor word, with
othcr columns that providcd a Grcck translitcration and
lour dicrcnt Grcck translations, rigcn cnablcd Christian
rcadcrs to scc whcrc thcir Grcck 8iblc, which thcy had
inhcritcd lrom thc Grcckspcaking Jcws ol Alcxandria,
dicrcd lrom thc Hcbrcw 8iblc uscd by Jcws in Palcstinc.
Tis vcry long, vcry lamous cdition probably llcd twcnty
complctc manuscripts. !t provcd thc critical potcntial ol
rows and columnslormats that had bccn much hardcr
to usc in rolls, thc original books ol thc ancicnts, than thcy
wcrc in thc codcx books that Christians lavorcd. Tis lor
mat providcd uscbius, as it had rigcn, with a simplc
dcvicc lor proccssing complcx inlormation. Ninctccn par
allcl columns, onc to a nation, traccd thc risc and lall ol thc
ancicnt Assyrians, gyptians, and Pcrsians, as wcll as thc
Grccks and thc Romans, who still rulcd thc world.
uscbius coordinatcd all thcsc historics, making clcar,
lor cxamplc, that thc Grcck philosophcr Talcs and thc
Hcbrcw prophct Jcrcmiah had bccn ncar contcmporarics.
+
8y working down and across his tablcs, thc rcadcr could nd
out cxactly which cvcnts ol scripturc history wcrc contcm
porary with particular cvcnts in pagan Grcck or gyptian
antiquity. Ancicnt rcadcrs, who wcrc lamiliar with illus
tratcd tcxts ol many kinds, lrom cpic pocms to mathcmati
cal works, rccognizcd this lcaturc as what madc uscbiuss
work distinctivc. !n thc sixth ccntury, Cassiodorus, a latc
Roman scholar, dcscribcd thc Chronicle as an imagc ol
historya gcnrc that combincd lorm and contcnt, pagc
layout and lcarning, in a ncw way.
:
uscbiuss imagc ol history taught onc ccntral lcsson.
vcr timc, thc multiplc kingdoms that had rulcd parts ol
Timc Tablcs
Chapter 2:
[ 1]
_______________________________
Tc lall ol Troy dominatcs this
opcning in thc Chronicle ol uscbius.

:
thc world disappcarcd. History lunnclcd down into a singlc
story, that ol how Romc unicd thc world just in timc to
givc thc Mcssiah acccss to all pcoplcs. Tc Chronicle, in
othcr words, was morc than a highly lcgiblc rccord. !t was a
dynamic hicroglyph ol providcntial history.
Translatcd into Latin and rcviscd by Jcromc in thc
lth ccntury, thc Chronicle lound a long scrics ol copyists,
continuators, and imitators through latc antiquity and thc
Middlc Agcs. [ g. 2] vcr and ovcr again, scholars brought
thc contcnt ol thc Chronicle up to datc, whilc scribcs madc
adjustmcnts in its lormat. Tc ltccnthccntury Florcntinc
citizcnscholar Mattco Palmicri is now bcst rcmcmbcrcd
lor his trcatisc on thc dutics ol citizcns. !n his own day,
as thc grcat bookdcalcr \cspasiano da 8isticci rccallcd, his
additions to thc Chronicle madc his namc: !n Latin hc
addcd to thc De Temporibus ol uscbius thc cvcnts ol morc
than a thousand ycars, taking up thc work whcrc S. Jcromc
and Prospcr had lclt it. !t is cvidcnt that hc must havc had
grcat troublc in his rcscarchcs to givc an account ol what
happcncd in thosc agcs ol obscurc writcrs. 8oth hc and his
work bccamc lamous. Hc madc many copics ol it so that it
was lound in all parts ol thc world.
!n thc ltccnth and sixtccnth ccnturics, printcrs addcd

lcaturcs that manuscript vcrsions had lackcd. !n thc lront
mattcr ol thc rst cdition ol uscbiuss work, thc Milancsc
publishcr 8oninus Mombritius boastcd that no scribc
could copy such an intricatc and cxtcnsivc work accuratcly,
kccping thc tablcs in ordcr and putting all thc kings in thcir
placcs. rhard Ratdolt, who printcd his cdition in \cnicc
in +8, addcd a spccial dcvicc madc possiblc by thc uni
lorm pagination ol printcd books: an indcx ol namcs. !n
thc words ol a pocm by thc prcss corrcctor who drcw up
thc indcx,
So you wont wandcr, hclplcss, through this book,
Unablc to nd cvcnts and history,
Vcvc madc an indcx. Just go thcrc and look,
Tc pagc you nccd wont bc a mystcry.

!n ++: thc Paris publishcr Robcrt sticnnc assigncd
onc ol his corrcctors, Jchan dc Mouvcaux, to makc a ncw
cdition cvcn morc appcaling. Mouvcaux alphabctizcd thc
Ratdolt cditions indcx and addcd a pocm ol his own claim
ing crcdit lor thc innovationonly to losc it six ycars latcr,
whcn sticnnc rcprintcd thc cdition with Mouvcauxs indcx
but without his namc. A vast scribal databasc, thc Chronicle
rcgularly attractcd thc attcntions ol pcoplc likc Mouvcaux,
whom wc would now call contcnt providcrsanonymous
[ 2]
_______________________________
Jcrusalcm lalls, and Romc unics thc
world. From this pagc ol thc Chronicle
on, only onc cmpirc appcars.
Cartographies of Time :8
or littlcknown gurcs who still playcd important rolcs in
rcconguring and cxtcnding thc tcxt.
Mouvcaux also cmulatcd thc mcdicval chroniclcrs and
scribcs who had updatcd thc Chronicle, adding a printcd
supplcmcnt containing such hcadlinc ncws as thc discovcry
ol thc Ncw Vorld. [ gs. 35] Yct, likc prcvious continu
ators, hc madc no cort to rcprcscnt thc prolilcration ol
kingdoms in thc last lcw ccnturics in thc dcsign ol his ncw
matcrial. !nstcad ol starting ncw parallcl columns, hc col
lapscd thc historics ol modcrn kingdoms and citics into
a singlc scqucncc with thc carlicr history ol thc Roman
mpirc. Mouvcaux uscd no visual convcntionscxccpt rcd
ink to indicatc ncw popcs and cmpcrorsto convcy thc
dramas hc rcportcd, which includcd cvcrything lrom thc
dcaths ol scholars and thc risc and lall ol prophcts to wars
and invasions.
Tc ncw dcviccs did not all work wcll. [ gs. 610]
cpicting timc on papcr poscd complcx and dcmanding
problcms lor printcrs, as it had lor thc scribcs who workcd
with uscbius, and thcy did not always rcspond as crcativcly.
For all thc improvcmcnts that thc Chronicle rcccivcd in
print, it also lookcd morc mcchanical, and bccamc hardcr to
rcad, than its handwrittcn prcdcccssors. Vhcrc thc scribcs
had arrangcd lists ol rulcrs and tcxts about cvcnts on an
opcn cld, thc printcrs uscd horizontal and vcrtical lincs to
dividc cach pagc into small boxcs. Tcsc did morc to lrag
mcnt and obscurc inlormation than to show thc conncc
tions bctwccn cvcnts. Tough thc Chronicle wcnt through
many cditions, its latcr cditors did littlc to makc it morc
striking or morc uscrlricndly. Tcy did, howcvcr, bring thc
work to many morc rcadcrs, making thcm lamiliar with thc
parallclcolumn lormat.
Yct somc ol thc chroniclcs composcd altcr printing
was invcntcd, including Carthusian Vcrncr Rolcvincks
bcstsclling Fasciculus temporum (8undlc ol datcs) ol
+ and Nurcmbcrg humanist Hartmann Schcdcls lav
ishly illustratcd + Nuremberg Chronicle, ocrcd rcad
crs morc complcx and vivid imagcs ol thc past. Schcdcl
and Rolcvinck both kncw, as rcadcrs ol uscbius did, that
lrom thcir inccption univcrsal historics wcrc conccivcd as
graphic cntcrpriscs.
Tcy uscd a widc rangc ol graphic

dcviccs, old and ncw, to portray thc coursc ol history.
Tc Fasciculus temporum, a ltypagc lincar chart that
movcd lrom thc Crcation to thc prcscnt, sct out to givc
rcadcrs an ovcrvicw ol world history: a rcadablc visual
prcscntation that thcy could trcat as both a mcmory sys
tcm and as thc spark lor rcligious mcditation. [ g. 11]
Rolcvinck uscd a systcm ol coordinatcd circlcs to locatc
[ 35]
_______________________________
Trcc dicrcnt cditions ol uscbiuss
Chronicle appcar hcrc. Jcan dc
Mouvcaux, who cditcd thc sccond
onc in ++:, cannibalizcd thc indcx
ol thc rst. !ts anonymous crcator
was avcngcd whcn Mouvcauxs own
publishcr, sticnnc, rcprintcd his indcx
in a ++8 cdition but rcmovcd thc
pocm in which Mouvcaux had claimcd
crcdit lor thc innovation.
Chapter 2: Time Tables :
[ 67]
_______________________________
Tc cnd ol Mattco Palmicris
ltccnthccntury supplcmcnt to
uscbiuss work and thc bcginning
ol Jcan dc Mouvcauxs ++: addition.
8oth mcn assumcas uscbius
hadthat thc world was now a singlc,
[ 810]
_______________________________
Jcan dc Mouvcauxs supplcmcnt
includcd rcports ol many kinds: lrom
crosscs that lcll lrom thc sky onto
pcoplcs garmcnts to thc arrival ol
Roman onc, cvcn though Palmicri
livcd in Tuscany, a rcgion split among
mcdicval citystatcs, and Mouvcaux
in thc proudly indcpcndcnt kingdom
ol Francc.
mcn lrom thc ncw island across
thc Atlantic to thc Frcnch invasion
ol !taly in + and thc cxccution ol
Savonarola in Florcncc lour ycars latcr.
Cartographies of Time o
[ 11]
_______________________________
Vcrncr Rolcvincks ltccnthccntury
Fasciculus temporum.
+ Chapter 2: Time Tables
biblical, classical, and modcrn rulcrs and writcrs in thc ow
ol historical timca systcm so complicatcd that thc rst
printcr who grapplcd with it botchcd thc job, producing an
unintclligiblc tcxt, latcr printcrs rcassurcd rcadcrs that thcy
had lollowcd thc authors manuscript. And thc rcsults wcrc
most imprcssivc: a ncatly dcsigncd, powcrlully horizontal
linc ol timc plunging lorward lrom thc Crcation to thc
prcscnt. Around it ncatly arrangcd and coordinatcd namc
bubblcs and cxtracts lrom historical tcxts put mcat on thc
books numcrical boncs.
6
Schcdcl, by contrast, portraycd many ol his hundrcds
ol actors as thc litcral lruit ol claboratc gcncalogical trccs.
[ gs. 1213] Hc illustratcd his work with a Ptolcmaic map
ol thc world, dazzling pcrspcctivc rcndcrings ol ancicnt
and modcrn citics, and cvcn handsomc comicstrip imagcs
ol thc wild raccs ol cannibals and doghcadcd mcn that
had bccn rcportcd in !ndia sincc ancicnt timcs. Tough his
book could not match thc visual clarity and prccision ol
Rolcvincks, it ocrcd lar morc dctailcd visual and vcrbal
dcscriptions ol thc past.
Tough both Rolcvinck and Schcdcl composcd thcir
works with print in mind, both drcw dcsign clcmcnts lrom
thc world ol mcdicval manuscripts. [ gs. 1418] Many schol
ars and scribcs had addcd ncw cxpcdicnts to thosc dcviscd
by uscbius. !n thc latc twcllth ccntury, thc Parisian
tcachcr Pctcr ol Poiticrs composcd a vividly colorcd visual
history ol thc ld Tcstamcnt lor thc usc ol studcnts. Hc
uscd a systcm ol lincs and circlcs to clarily thc tcmporal
and gcncalogical rclations bctwccn thc Hcbrcw patriarchs
and kings. Vrittcn not in normal codiccs but on handsomc
parchmcnt scrolls, copics ol Pctcrs work could run ninc
or morc lcct long and wcrc dcsigncd to bc displaycd in
classrooms.
Vith its illustrations ol Noahs Ark, thc Towcr ol

8abcl, and thc city ol Nincvch, thc Fasciculus temporum
rcproduccd thc convcntions ol oldcr world chroniclcs and
biblical commcntarics. [ g. 19] 8ut Rolcvinck luscd this
lorm with Pctcr ol Poiticrs systcm, turning thc vcrtical lor
mat o and chopping what had bccn continuous lincs ol
dcsccnt into thc normal pagc brcaks ol a codcx. Hc thcn
intcrspcrscd morscls ol tcxt, altcr thc manncr ol uscbius,
so that thc rcadcr could x thc datcs lor passagcs lrom thc
8iblc and thc historians that, rcad on thcir own, oatcd in
a chronological vacuum.
Tc Middlc Agcs saw multiplc vcrsions ol biblical
gcncalogy takc shapc, cspccially thc socallcd Trcc ol Jcssc,
bascd on !saiah ++:+, which traccd thc anccstry ol Jcsus.
[ gs. 2021] !n thc samc ccnturics, noblc lamilics bcgan to
[ 1213]
_______________________________
Tc ccntral visual mctaphor ol thc
carly scctions ol Hartmann Schcdcls
Nuremberg Chronicle was thc trcc, to
which hc axcd imagcs ol thc Jcwish
patriarchs, thc rulcrs ol Grcccc and
Romc, and many othcrs. Tis pagc
dcpicts thc dcsccndants ol Noahs
son Japhct. Yct Schcdcl livcd in a
world buctcd by rcports ol strangc,
cvcn monstrous pcoplcs lar to thc
astrcports that wcnt back to
ancicnt Grcck sourccs. Hc lound room
lor thcm, but could not placc thcm
on part ol thc trcc that wcnt back to
Adam, sincc thc 8iblc did not givc
thcm a placc in its gcncalogics.
[ 1418]
_______________________________
Pctcr ol Poiticrs splcndid latctwcllth
ccntury scroll shows thc gcncalogy
ol thc Savior, who appcars at thc top,
supportcd by a grcat scvcnbranchcd
candlcstick and ankcd by cxplana
tory tcxt.
[ 19]
_______________________________
Tc clcgancc ol Vcrncr Rolcvincks
layout in Fasciculus temporum is clcar
lrom this opcning imagc, which shows
Noahs Ark and thc rainbow that lol
lowcd thc Flood.
[ 2021]
_______________________________
!n contrast to Pctcr ol Poiticrs work,
Princcton MS , crcatcd in thc mid
thirtccnth ccntury, is wholly sccular.
A visually sparc, clcgant rccord ol
nglish history lrom Allrcd thc Grcat
(8+) to Hcnry !!! (+:+6:),
it includcs twcntythrcc roundcl
portraits ol nglish kings as wcll as a
rangc ol tcxts. Tc scams show how
such rolls wcrc crcatcd lrom two or
morc skins (thrcc, in this casc). Vhcrc
Pctcr ol Poiticrs work was dcsigncd as
a visual aid lor usc in thc classroom,
this roll might havc hung in a noblc
mans grcat hall.
Cartographies of Time 6
structurc thcmsclvcs as vcrtical lincagcs, asscrting thcir
purity ol blood and dcsccnt. Soon scholars bcgan to pro
ducc scrolls that rcprcscntcd thcsc lamily lincs. Likc thc
biblical oncs, thcy oltcn adoptcd thc trcc as a lramcwork,
and hung thc gcncrations ol lamilics mcmbcrs likc lruit
lrom its branchcs.
8
Tcsc trccs could bccomc complcx, cvcn
chaotic: As gcncalogics wcrc amplicd in thc coursc ol thc
twcllth ccntury, pushing out in cvcry dircction, lling in
cach scqucncc with morc dctail, adding namcs ol youngcr
sons, daughtcrs, and anccstors not prcviously mcntioncd,
thc prolc ol thc lamily trcc bccamc a skclcton ol aristo
cratic socicty, rcvcaling thc multiplc thrcads which crosscd
and rccrosscd, binding rcgional nobilitics into cvcr morc
intcgratcd congcrics ol lamily rclations.
Still, somc ol thc

scrolls that rccord thcm rcvcal thc lucidity and bcauty ol
thc lormat.
Schcdcl cmulatcd thc arborcal lormat ol thc gcncalo
gics, though hc choppcd thc trccs into irrcgular scgmcnts
to t thc pagc opcnings in his book. Hc thus uscd thc gcn
crations ol patriarchs and kings, rathcr than a simplc timc
linc, as thc armaturc lor his history. [ gs. 2229] Schcdcl also
luscd cvcn oldcr biblical and chronological convcntions with
thc gcncalogy lormat. !n his Nuremberg Chronicle, hc illus
tratcd thc crcation ol thc world through a striking scrics ol
scvcn pancls rcprcscnting thc days ol Crcation. Manuscript
illuminators in mcdicval Paris had uscd tiny, clcgant imagcs
to idcntily thc days ol Crcation in Gcncsis, but Schcdcl
simplicd, cnlargcd, and dramatizcd thcsc imagcs in a way
that rccctcd his undcrstanding ol thc acsthctics ol print.
8oth Rolcvinck and Schcdcl dcviscd ingcnious graphic
solutions lor problcms that had conlrontcd chronologcrs
lor ccnturics. [ gs. 3031] Unhappily awarc that thc ancicnt
vcrsions ol thc 8iblc in Hcbrcw and Grcck dicrcd radi
cally on thc intcrval bctwccn thc Crcation and thc Flood
(+,66 ycars and :,:6 ycars rcspcctivcly), uscbius had
simply omittcd thc carlicst pcriod ol history, thc storics
told in Gcncsis, lrom his Chronicle. Rolcvinck borrowcd
a morc clcgant solution lrom thc world chroniclcs ol thc
thirtccnth ccntury. At thc horizontal ccntcr ol cach pagc hc
placcd what hc dcscribcd as circlcs with thc right namcs
ol pcrsons lor cach datc, and two lincs abovc and bclow:
a doublc axis.
+o
Tcn hc computcd thc datcs that markcd
o thc intcrvals ol this axis and rccordcd thcm in two lin
car scrics: onc, on top, countcd lorward lrom thc Crcation
(traditionally callcd ~:, ycars ol thc world), onc, on thc
bottom linc, countcd backward lrom thc birth ol Christ
(in modcrn tcrms, ycars ncv). Critical rcadcrs, Rolcvinck
cxplaincd, could usc thc lattcr, ncwcr systcm to comparc
[ 2228]
_______________________________
Hartmann Schcdcl, thc days ol
Crcation lrom thc Nuremberg
Chronicle, +
[ 30]
_______________________________
Tc dcstruction ol Sodom and
Gomorrah, lrom Rolcvincks Fasciculus
temporum (8undlc ol datcs). Tc
rcadcr who has annotatcd this opcn
ing was intcrcstcd in rccomputing
Rolcvincks datcs, but lclt no commcnt
on thc dcstruction ol thc citics.
[ 29]
_______________________________
Tc band ol illustrations on thc lclt
ol thc bcginning ol Gcncsis in this
twcllthccntury Paris 8iblc dcpicts
thc scqucncc ol thc Crcation, morc
dclicatcly but lcss dramatically than
Schcdcl would.
[ 31]
_______________________________
Rolcvinck was not thc only chronolo
gcr who attcmptcd to crcatc a world
chroniclc in thc lorm ol a codcx
gcncalogy. Tc anonymous +
Chronicarum et historiarum epitome,
(pitomc ol chroniclcs and historics)
took on virtually thc samc projcct. !n
Rolcvincks tcxt, horizontal strcams
conncct scamlcssly lrom pagc to
pagc. 8y contrast, thc dcsigncr ol thc
Chronicarum cpitomc has oricntcd
his timc strcam vcrtically and addcd
rclcrcncc lcttcrs so that thc rcadcr
may corrcctly conncct thc gcncalogical
chains lrom onc pagc to thc ncxt.
thc dicrcnt ancicnt chronologics. Many lollowcd his
advicc, cntcring thcir computations in thc tcxt as thcy rcad
along. Tc graphic clarity ol his work, Rolcvinck argucd,
madc it acccssiblc to anyoncmadc it an imagc ol his
tory and onc cvcn morc uscrlricndly than thc Chronicle:
Tc mcthod is vcry simplc, and so lricndly cvcn to crudc
rustic minds that it could bc rcprcscntcd on a wall.
++
Schcdcla citizcn ol Nurcmbcrg, a grcat mcrchant
city and a primc nodc on uropcs communications nct
workskncw that his rcadcrs wcrc cxpcricncing history in
ncw ways and through ncw mcdia. [ gs. 3235] A massivc
book, hcavy with tcxt, thc Nuremberg Chronicle incorpo
ratcd many dcscriptions ol cvcnts, cach consisting ol a
short tcxt with an illustration. !n appcarancc and contcnt,
thcsc vigncttcs imitatcd thc broadsidcs thcn in circula
tion, on which Schcdcls rcadcrsand Schcdcl himscll
dcpcndcd lor brcaking ncws ol thc lall ol Constantinoplc,
thc appcarancc ol comcts, and thc birth ol monstcrs.
+:

(Schcdcl undcrlincd thc rcscmblancc by pasting broad
sidcs that appcarcd altcr thc Chronicle into his own copy
ol thc book.
+
)
Vhcrc thc carlicr parts ol Schcdcls Nuremberg
Chronicle lollowcd thc statcly tcmpo ol traditional world
historics, thc latcr oncs, with thcir gripping imagcs ol a
nakcd witch ying, Jcws murdcring a Christian child, and
thc cvcnts lorctold in thc 8ook ol Rcvclation, rcprcscntcd
history as a kalcidoscopic mass ol placcs and cvcnts, hur
tling lorward to its cnd. Schcdcl cvcn gavc rcadcrs a lcw
blank pagcs bctwccn thcir own timc and thc Apocalypsc
that thcy could ll inand many didwith what hc clcarly
cxpcctcd to bc thc short rcmaining history ol thc world.
uscbius had warncd his rcadcrs that humans could not
know whcn timc bcgan or whcn it would cnd. Schcdcl, by
contrast, sct rm bordcrs at both cnds ol his map ol timc.
uscbius cxpcctcd scribcs to nd his Chronicle hard to
rcproducc, and inscrtcd instructions in thc hopc that thcy
would at lcast do thcir bcst. [ gs. 3638] 8ut thc dcmands
that chronologcrs likc Rolcvinck and Schcdcl madc ol thosc
who rcproduccd thcir books wcrc grcatcr, as Rolcvinck
himscll admittcd:
!t cost mc much hard work to lay out thc lincs ol Assyrian
and Roman history lrom various sourccs. Accordingly, ! ask
anyonc who dccidcs to copy this work to pay closc attcn
tion to thc spaccs and thc numbcrs that corrcspond to thcm,
and makc thcm no longcr or smallcr than in thc modcl.
thcrwisc his work will go to wastc.
+
[ 3235]
_______________________________
Tcsc imagcs lrom thc latcr pagcs ol
Schcdcls Chronicle dramatizc rcccnt
cvcnts cxactly as thcy wcrc dramatizcd
in thc singlcpagc ncwslcttcrs that
sprcad inlormation lrom city to city in
thc carly modcrn world. Hcrc Schcdcl
and his illustrators portray a nakcd
witch riding with a dcvil, thc rst such
imagc rccordcd, thc drowning ol impi
ous mcn and womcn, thc + killing
ol a Christian boy in Trcnt, supposcdly
by Jcws, who wcrc torturcd until thcy
conlcsscd, and thc scct lcd by thc
rummcr ol Niklashauscn, a popular
prophct, in +6. Tc tcrriblc potcntial
ol thc modcrn mcdia to sprcad imagcs
that brccd hatc and disgust is alrcady
visiblc in Schcdcls timclinc.
Chapter 2: Time Tables +
Schcdcl took cvcn strongcr prccautions: hc laid out his
Nuremberg Chronicle pagc by pagc and imagc by imagc, and
thc contract hc madc with his publishcr, Anton Kobcrgcr,
statcd stringcnt conditions lor coopcrationall involvcd
workcd in a room dcdicatcd solcly to its production in
Kobcrgcrs printing shop.
+
Chronologcrs nccdcd to balancc thc compcting claims
ol scholarly honcsty, which rcquircd Rolcvinck to admit
that hc could not cstablish a singlc, absolutcly valid chro
nology lor thc world, with thosc ol sacrcd history, which
sccmcd to dcmand a continuous timclinc lrom Crcation
to thcir own day. Tcy had to dcvisc a pagc dcsign that
could accommodatc both incxiblc lists ol minutc lacts,
such as namcs and datcs ol rulcrs, and largc blocks ol
dcscriptivc tcxt. Tcy also hopcd to makc thcir inlorma
tion morc acccssiblc than scribcs could. Vhilc somc ol
thcir invcntions, likc indcxing, scrvcd that cnd, othcrs, likc
thc typographical grid that madc uscbius hardcr to rcad,
wcrc lcss succcsslul.
Most important, chronologcrs wantcd to attain a rca
sonablc lcvcl ol prccision whilc still making thc past vivid.
Tcchnical changcslor cxamplc, numbcring lcavcs or
pagcs and compiling indcxcshclpcd rcadcrs nd what
thcy nccdcd in thc mass ol dctails. Collaboration among
authors, artists, and printcrs solvcd othcr problcms, rcsulting
in Schcdcls crisp ncw lullpagc vicws ol Colognc, \cnicc,
Romc, and Nurcmbcrg, which outshinc thc vivid but tiny
city vicws in somc cditions ol Rolcvinck. Yct somc prob
lcms dccd solution: lor cxamplc, how to providc imagcs
lor citics lor which no drawing or woodcut was acccssiblc,
a conundrum that lcd both Rolcvinck and Schcdcl to usc
iconic dclault imagcs lor many ol thc citics that thcy mcn
tioncd, cvcn though thcy ocrcd uptodatc, dctailcd vicws
ol othcrs. Ncithcr Rolcvinck nor Schcdcl, morcovcr, man
agcd to work out a way ol combining gcncalogy, a lorm
in which timc sccms to consist ol an irrcgular scrics ol
human gcncrations, with chronology, in which timc is rcg
ular, unilorm, and rcprcscntcd by numbcrs. Plcnty ol room
rcmaincd lor ncw idcas and lorms.
!n thc coursc ol thc sixtccnth and scvcntccnth ccntu
rics, morcovcr, thc task ol drawing up a chronological tablc
gradually bccamc cvcn morc dcmanding than it had bccn
lor uscbius or Rolcvinck. 8y thc +os uropcan scholars
had at thcir ngcrtips a massivc volumc ol ncw inlorma
tion drawn lrom historiography, palcography, numismatics,
astronomy, and othcr clds. And this inlormation was not
limitcd to thc uropcan or Christian traditions, lists ol rul
crs lrom distant lands such as gypt, Pcrsia, thc Amcricas,
[ 3638]
_______________________________
Schcdcl lclt thc rcadcr thrcc blank
lcavcs to ll in with thc cvcnts that
would takc placc bctwccn thc publica
tion ol thc Chronicle in + and thc
cnd ol timc. Hc also uscd woodcuts
showing thc imagcry ol thc 8ook ol
Rcvclation to show thc coursc that
would lollow. Tcsc visions ol thc
luturc madc a dramatic climax to thc
lastpaccd, vividly illustratcd latcr scc
tions ol thc Nuremberg Chronicle.
and China arrivcd in thc sccond hall ol thc sixtccnth ccntury
and thc rst ycars ol thc scvcntccnth. Somc ol thc dynastics
rccordcd by thcsc lists had cxistcd bclorc thc datc whcrc thc
8iblc sct Crcation, a lact which inspircd both thc nglish
playwright Christophcr Marlowc and thc !talian phi
losophcr Giordano 8runo to abandon biblical chronology
cntircly. Tcy also gurcd in thc calculations ol lcss radical
chronologcrs, who worricd cndlcssly about how to dcal with
thc challcngcs thcy poscd to thc authority ol Gcncsis.
+6
Rcconciling such divcrsc sourccs rcquircd widc knowl
cdgc and invcntivc tcchniquc. !n thcory, thc chronologcr
strovc to crcatc a historical lramcwork in which cvcry
rccordcd human act and achicvcmcnt would havc its placc.
arly modcrn chronologcrs promiscd thcir rcadcrs, as
uscbius had, that thcy would providc a kind ol histori
cal Rosctta stonc, a tool that would pcrmit thcm to trans
latc lists ol namcs and datcs lrom many dicrcnt sourccs
and languagcs into a singlc, cohcrcnt vcrsion ol thc past.
Tc urgcncy ol such work, ol coursc, varicd grcatly in rcla
tion to thc cschatological position ol thc rcadcr: lor somc
(straight down to thc prcscnt day), thc study ol chronology
was motivatcd by thc dcsirc to discovcr thc cxact datc ol
apocalypsc. thcrs borc in mind thc words ol thc rcsur
rcctcd Jcsus to his lollowcrs: !t is not lor you to know thc
timcs or thc scasons, which thc Fathcr hath put in his own
powcr (Acts +:). For thcm, thc cnd ol timc was not a
collcctivc cxpcricncc ol horror and rapturc, but somcthing
cvcry individual cncountcrcd in his own lilc.
Annius ol \itcrbo, a ominican thcologian, scholar,
and conman, publishcd in +8 a sct ol twcntylour
ancicnt tcxts cquippcd with massivc commcntary. [ g. 39]
Vhilc hc did not labricatc cvcry cntry in this vcry invcn
tivc chronology, hc did composc most ol thc works that
hc claimcd wcrc thc ancicnt historics ol gypt, Chaldca,
and Pcrsia that uscbius and othcr ancicnt writcrs had
quotcd. Annius adorncd his book with austcrc, horizontally
oricntcd gcncalogical tablcsalso an alluring mix ol his
tory and lantasywhich hc uscd to show that his patrons,
thc 8orgia Popc Alcxandcr \! and thc Catholic kings ol
Spain, could tracc thcir anccstry back to !sis and siris. Hc
also lound room in carly timcs lor thc lorclathcrs ol thc
Lombards, thc Frcnch, and thc 8ritish.
+
A gcncration latcr, whcn thc Gcrman scholar Simon
Grynacus lound it too hard to compilc a singlc littlc tablc
organizcd by lympiads ol thc origins, growth and cnds
ol all statcs, hc pcrsuadcd a collcaguc, thc pastor and
Hcbraist Paulus Constantinus Phrygio, to takc on thc job.
+8

[ gs. 4042] Phrygio not only agrccd, hc madc thc tablc into
[ 39]
_______________________________
Tis gcncalogy traccs thc anccstry
ol thc ltccnthccntury inhabitants
ol uropc back to Japhct, onc ol
thc thrcc sons ol Noah. Annius ol
\itcrbo invcntcd mythical loundcrs
lor modcrn nations, drawing thcir
namcs lrom thc namcs ol thcir pcoplc.
For cxamplc, thc modcrn Lombards,
[ 4042]
_______________________________
!n this strikingly handsomc
book, publishcd in +, Paulus
Constantinus Phrygio lays out human
history on a horizontal linc. Tough
Phrygios work cxprcsscs thc lorward
movcmcnt ol history, thc rclativcly
wcak axis ol ycars along thc top ol thc
pagc makcs thc actual datcs ol cvcnts
or Longobards, wcrc dcsccndcd
lrom Longo and 8ardus. Using thcsc
mcthods hc ocrcd modcrn rulcrs
including his own patrons, thc 8orgia
Popc Alcxandcr \! and thc Catholic
kings ol Spainproud gcncalogics.
(Alcxandcr turncd out to bc dcsccndcd
lrom thc gyptian god siris.)
hard to lollow. vcn such turning
points as thc Crucixion and thc lall
ol Jcrusalcm, sccn in thc last imagc, arc
hard to locatc. Tcsc dclccts ol layout
may cxplain why Phrygios work was
not rcprintcd. 8ut its contcnt may also
havc playcd a part. His lists ol carly
dynastics comc lrom thc tcxts lorgcd
by Annius ol \itcrbo, and his work
was rcccivcd with skcpticism by morc
lcarncd scholars.
[ 4344]
_______________________________
Albrccht urcrs papcr triumphal arch
lor Maximilian !. Maximilian uscd
vivid printcd matcrials likc this to
cstablish thc gcncalogy ol his housc
and thc authority ol his impcrial
thronc, both ol which wcrc actually
ncwcr, and shakicr, than hc was willing
to admit.
a lullscalc book. Ncatcr and morc abstract than Rolcvincks
book or Schcdcls, Phrygios Chronicum (Chroniclc) laid out
history lrom thc Flood to thc prcscnt on scvcral parallcl
lincs ol rulcrs. Likc Rolcvinck and Annius, hc oricntcd his
timclinc horizontally rathcr than vcrtically, adding thc num
bcrs ol ycars lrom thc Flood to cach rulcr or cvcnt. Phrygio
cmulatcd Annius in sctting out to show thc similaritics
and conncctions bctwccn ancicnt and modcrn timcs, but
hc lound a way to incorporatc lar morc inlormation whilc
doing so. !n thc latcr part ol his work, hc addcd on ncw
columns tracing thc history ol thc Holy Roman mpirc, thc
papacy, and thc kingdoms ol Francc and 8ritain as thcy took
shapc, onc altcr anothcr. Likc Rolcvinck, Phrygio saw that a
horizontal lormat madc it casicr to t tcxts ol quitc dicrcnt
lcngths bctwccn rows ol rulcrs namcs. Unlikc many ol his
prcdcccssors and succcssors, hc also uscd his choscn lormat
to makc an important historical point: that Romc no lon
gcr rulcd thc world. Francc, lor cxamplc, was an indcpcn
dcnt kingdom, not a provincc ol thc Roman mpirc, and
rcccivcd its own linc ol rulcrs. Phrygios work had clcgancc,
horizontal cncrgy, and willingncss to dcpart lrom convcn
tion. Unlortunatcly, thc books appcarancc ol lucidity and
logic is somcwhat bclicd by its contcnt. Phrygio carncd his
rcadcrs trust by naming thc authors lrom whom hc drcw his
inlormation. 8ut many ol thcm wcrc Anniuss lorgcrics. His
dccision to run thc axis ol ycars lrom thc Crcation along thc
top ol thc pagcs madc his work usclcss lor anyonc rclying on
thc Grcck tcxt ol thc 8iblc, though Rolcvinck had alrcady
shown how to solvc this problcm. Still, Phrygios casc shows
that authors and printcrs could mobilizc ingcnious visual
dcviccs in thc hopc ol nailing chronology down in a singlc,
mcmorablc lormat.
!n thc sccond hall ol thc sixtccnth ccntury, gcncalogy
would scrvc othcr lunctions as wcll. Somc wcrc as lantastic as
thosc ol Anniuscspccially sincc rcspcctablc scholars carncd
lccs by sclling noblcmcn scholarly looking gcncalogics that
traccd thcir anccstors back to ancicnt Romc or gypt.
+
!n
thc Holy Roman mpirc, whcrc many princcs lound it hard
to producc malc hcirs who livcd to maturity, simply main
taining a linc ol succcssion sccmcd to bc thc arcanum imperii,
thc kcy to political as wcll as lamilial succcss.
vcry dynasty put its lincagc on show, lrom thc
Habsburgs to thc rulcrs ol Saxony, and printcrs dcploycd
a rangc ol imagcs, lrom thc traditional trcc to thc opcn
handlong uscd as a mncmonic dcviccto hclp rcadcrs
lollow and mastcr thcsc vital succcssion lists. [ gs. 4344]
Among thc most striking ol thcsc productions was thc
wallsizcd, multipancl print ol a triumphal arch dcsigncd
lor Maximilian ! by Albrccht urcr around ++6. Tough
hc ncvcr intcndcd lor it to bc built, thc dcsign on papcr
aordcd a spcctacular virtual tour ol thc Habsburgs
anccstry.
Likc othcr Rcnaissancc princcs, thc Habsburgs proudly
cultivatcd thc study ol thcir own gcncalogy. Controvcrsics
swarmcd around ccntral links in thcir anccstral chains,
so Maximilians cruditc courticrs, Conrad Pcutingcr and
Johanncs Stabius, collcctcd and siltcd inlormation lrom
cvcry sourcc thcy could nd. At all costs, thcy had to show
that thc Habsburgs dcsccndcd lrom an indcpcndcnt linc
as vcncrablc as that ol thc kings ol Francc and thc rulcrs
ol ancicnt Romc. Tcy did this job with brio, tracing thc
origins ol thc Habsburgs back to Clovis, king ol thc Franks,
and thosc ol Clovis back to Hcctor ol Troy. Furthcr lincs ol
inquiry turncd up solid gcncalogical conncctions bctwccn
Maximilians linc and thc biblical patriarchs (abovc all,
Noah), thc Grcck gods Saturn and Jupitcr, andin kccp
ing with thc gyptomania lashionablc at thc timcthc
god siris. Vhcn Maximilian lcarncd that his schol
ars traccd his linc back to Japhct, thc son ol Noah, who
cxposcd his lathcrs gcnitals, hc claimcd to bc shockcd.
:o
!n
lact, though, thcir cntcrprisc was normal, and madc ccc
tivc usc ol history. Tc triumphal arch showcd anyonc who
approachcd it that Maximilian was not only a grcat man,
but thc culmination ol world history.
Many writcrs dcploycd gcncalogy in morc traditional
ways. [ gs. 4547] Sincc uscbius and Pctcr ol Poiticrs, chro
nologics and gcncalogics had scrvcd at lcast two lunctions:
thcy asscmblcd inlormation ol valuc and ticd it to striking
and mcmorablc graphics. Tc Saxon scholar Lorcnz Faust
ocrcd rcadcrs thc traditional Trcc ol Jcssc, a magniccnt
Saxon gcncalogical trcc, and thc basic list ol Saxon rulcrs,
thcir namcs inscribcd on thc joints ol thc ngcrs ol onc
hand and thus casy to mastcr.
!n othcr hands, howcvcr, gcncalogy bccamc a lorm ol
prccisc, intcnsivc scholarship. [ gs. 4849] Rcincr Rcincck,
who taught history at Hclmstcdt and clscwhcrc, claimcd
that gcncalogy illuminatcs all thc othcr parts ol history,
and without it thcy bcar basically no lruit at all. Altcr
all, hc pointcd out, anyonc can scc that historics chicy
dcal with thc pcrsons who did things, and that thcy must
bc scparatcd out into lamilics. Likc statcs, hc thought,
lamilics had sct pcriods ol cxistcncc, during which thcy
grcw lrom humblc origins to positions ol powcr and thcn
dcclincd and dicd.
:+
Rcinccks chronology includcd dozcns
ol skclctal gcncalogics. !n lact, thcsc bccamc thc corc ol
history as hc portraycd it. 8ut hc strippcd away thc arborcal
[ 4547]
_______________________________
Tcsc gcncalogics ol Jcsus and thc
rulcrs ol Saxonyall takcn lrom thc
samc book, Lorcnz Fausts Anatomia
statuae Danielis (An anatomy ol
anicls statuc)illustratc thc pcrsis
tcncc ol mcdicval convcntions dccp
into thc agc ol print.
[ 48]
_______________________________
Rcincr Rcincck, gcncological chart
lrom Suntagma, 8ascl, +:.
Rcincck saw gcncalogy as thc kcy
to undcrstanding thc past. !n his
cnormous Suntagma, hc turncd
world history into a long scrics ol
lamily trccsin this casc, that ol thc
Tcmcnids, thc loundcrs ol thc king
dom ol Maccdonia.
dccoration with which Schcdcl and othcrs had givcn this
prcscntation visual drama and appcal. For Rcincck, gcncal
ogy was so important that it nccdcd no adornmcnt. Still oth
crs, likc thc Jcna Univcrsity history prolcssor lias Rcusncr,
uscd gcncalogy as a polcmical wcapon. 8y rcprcscnting thc
lamily tics ol Hcnry !!!, thc Catholic king ol Francc, and
Hcnry ol Navarrc, his Protcstant hcir, as thc branchcs ol a
trcc trunk, hc madc clcar that no attackcvcn thc vicious
onc ol thc Catholic ukc ol Guisccould brcak thcm.
[ g. 50] thcrs, such as thc Swiss scholar Hcinrich Glarcanus,
applicd thc modcl ol thc comparativc tablc to ncw sub
jccts. Glarcanus drcw up chronologics lor individual tcxts:
in thc rst instancc lor Livys history ol Romc, writtcn
undcr Augustus and trcasurcd by Rcnaissancc rcadcrs lrom
Pctrarch to Machiavclli. Livy datcd his narrativc ycar by
ycar, making it hard lor rcadcrs to coordinatc his history
with othcr accounts or with thc 8iblc. Glarcanus madc clcar
that thc lounding ol Romc and thc rcign ol Salmanassar
in Assyria wcrc almost cxactly contcmporary, and con
ncctcd thc Punic wars to othcr cvcnts in Mcditcrrancan
history. As hc rcdid his work lor latcr cditions, it bccamc so
inlormativc that hc circulatcd it indcpcndcntly as a tabular
chronology ol Romc. [ g. 51] 8y contrast, thc 8ritish math
cmatician and historian Hcnry Savilc applicd thc uscbian
lormat to imposc ordcr on a pcriod that no grcat writcr had
dcscribcd, thc carly Middlc Agcs.
Graphic innovation and thc rcpurposing ol oldcr cxpc
dicnts both ourishcd, cspccially whcn applicd to rcligious
cnds. [ g. 52] Jcan 8oulacsc, a Parisian pricst and prolcssor
ol Hcbrcw, managcd to composc cxactly thc sort ol singlc,
comprchcnsivc tablc that Grynacus had lound too complcx
to producc. His wall chart, dcsigncd lor usc by studcnts at
thc Univcrsity ol Paris in thc +os, carclully scparatcd bib
lical history, which bcgan with thc Crcation, lrom pagan,
which bcgan only altcr thc Flood. And hc dividcd sccular
history into lour distinct pcriods. 8y doing so, hc madc all ol
human history t thc schcmc laid down long bclorc by thc
biblical prophct anicl, who had lorctold that lour cmpircs
would rulc thc world in turn. Many Protcstants sharcd thc
Catholic 8oulacscs laith in this schcmcand agrccd with
him that thcy wcrc living in thc lourth, or Roman, cmpirc,
which would soon comc to an cnd. (8oulacsc, an cxorcist as
wcll as a chronologcr, witncsscd many sccncs that hc took
as cvidcncc that thc millcnnium was approaching.
::
) 8ut
thc namcs and datcs that crowd 8oulacscs imagc madc its
largcr providcntial ordcr hard to disccrn. Protcstants scck
ing to tcach thc samc lcssons lound much morc invcntivc
visual modcls lor doing so.
[ 50]
_______________________________
!n his +o cdition ol Livys history ol
Romc, thc historian and music thcorist
Hcinrich Glarcanus lays out, in lull
dctail, a uscbian coordinatc systcm
ol datcs against which rcadcrs could
lollow thc cvcnts without bccoming
conluscd or lost. Chronologics wcrc
drawn up lor a numbcr ol authors,
including thc cpic poct \irgil.
[ 49]
_______________________________
lias Rcusncr, gcncalogy as chronol
ogy, Franklurt, +8
[ 51]
_______________________________
Hcnry Savilc, scholar and scicntist,
uscs thc tools ol world chronology to
lay out thc rulcrs and bishops ol carly
mcdicval 8ritain in this +6o+ cdition
lrom his collcction ol thc mcdicval
historians ol 8ritain.
[ 52]
_______________________________
Tis dcnsc, crowdcd tablc was
printcdas Pctcr ol Poiticrs tablc
was drawn and paintcd lour hundrcd
ycars bclorclor Parisian univcrsity
studcnts. 8y thc latc sixtccnth ccntury,
howcvcr, thc rangc ol pcoplcs and
cvcnts covcrcd in world history had
cxpandcd cnormously. Jcan 8oulacsc,
thc Catholic polcmicist who crc
atcd this crowdcd timc chart lor his
studcnts, tricd to achicvc visual clarity
by tracing thc historics ol thc church
and ol sccular kingdoms in scparatc,
parallcl arcas.
Likc many prophctic tcxts in thc sccond and rst ccn
turics ncv, anicls work consolcd thc Jcws, prcdicting thc
immincnt dcstruction ol thc pagan cmpircs and thc cnd ol
thc Jcws subjcction. Tc tcxt intcrprctcd thc past and prc
dictcd thc luturc, trcating both as dircct cxprcssions ol Gods
will. At onc point, an imagc ol a statuc appcars in a drcam
to Ncbuchadnczzar, king ol 8abylon. Commandcd by thc
king, anicl rst dcscribcs and thcn cxplains thc statuc:
Tis imagcs hcad |was| ol nc gold, his brcast and his arms
ol silvcr, his bclly and his thighs ol brass, his lcgs ol iron, his
lcct part ol iron and part ol clay. . . . A stonc was cut out with
out hands, which smotc thc imagc upon his lcct |that wcrc|
ol iron and clay, and brokc thcm to picccs. Tcn was thc iron,
thc clay, thc brass, thc silvcr, and thc gold, brokcn to picccs
togcthcr, and bccamc likc thc cha ol thc summcr thrcshing
oors, and thc wind carricd thcm away, that no placc was
lound lor thcm: and thc stonc that smotc thc imagc bccamc
a grcat mountain, and llcd thc wholc carth.
:
Tis vision ncatly combincd two complcmcntary timc
maps or schcmcs: thc vision, dcrivcd lrom Pcrsia, ol history
as a long strilc bctwccn good and cvil, dcstincd to cnd in
a grcat battlc, and thc scnsc, dcrivcd lrom thc Grccks, that
thc carlicst mcn had bccn strongcr and morc virtuous than
thcir dcsccndcnts, so that cach gcncration, or kingdom, was
worsc than thc onc that prcccdcd it.
:
Vhcrc uscbiuss
parallcl columns brought out thc divincly imposcd ordcr
ol thc past, thc statuc, with its gradually dctcriorating raw
matcrials and impcnding doom, wcldcd thc past to thc
luturc and both to a vision ol Gods plan lor mankind.
uscbius had rcjcctcd thc idca that chronologcrs
should prcdict thc luturc, particularly thc cnd ol thc world.
8ut both in his timc and latcr, many chronologcrs disagrccd.
Schcdcl, as wc havc sccn, incorporatcd a rough cstimatc ol
how long history might last into thc Nuremberg Chronicle.
Rolcvinck statcd that a truly prolound timclinc would bc a
prcdictivc, as wcll as a pcdagogical rcsourcca mcasuring
stick that could tcll thc laithlul Christian how much timc
thc world had lclt, as wcll as how much had alrcady passcd:
Human industry, soaring ovcr this work on thc wings ol
intcrior contcmplation, mcasurcs not only thc past and thc
prcscnt but thc luturc.
:
Ncithcr Rolcvinck nor 8oulacsc, howcvcr, hit upon thc
most dramatic way to lay out thc schcma ol timc as anicl
had. [ g. 53] !n +8, Lorcnz Faust publishcd his Anatomia
statuae Danielis (An anatomy ol anicls statuc). An
unknown artist supplicd thc book with a lolding woodcut,
[ 53]
_______________________________
Tc unknown artist who illustratcd
Lorcnz Fausts +8 Anatomia statuae
Danielis (An anatomy ol anicls
statuc) did a brilliant job ol locating
thc rulcrs ol thc lour grcat world
monarchics on appropriatc parts ol
thc statucs armor. 8y doing so hc
both gavc vivid cxprcssion to anicls
prophccy and providcd studcnts with a
splcndid mcmory aid. His accompany
ing tcxt idcnticd all thc rulcrs listcd
in thc imagc and cxplaincd cxactly
why thcir namcs wcrc placcd whcrc
thcy wcrc.
which rcprcscntcd thc statuc and gavc it thc lcaturcs ol thc
rulcr ol Saxony, August !. Tc corncrs ol thc imagc showcd
thc lour bcasts whosc strugglcs, according to anothcr part ol
anicls tcxt, rcprcscntcd thc succcssion ol cmpircs. !nscribcd
on thc statucs hclmct, armor, and lcgs arc thc namcs ol thc
rulcrs ol thc lour kingdoms. !n thc tcxt that Faust kcycd to
thc imagc, hc lollowcd out thc anatomy mctaphor in dctail,
making clcar how cvcry part and organ ol thc statucs body
corrcspondcd to a historical pcrson or cvcnt:
Anatomy mcans thc disscction ol thc mcmbcrs ol a human
body, as practiccd by thc anatomists and physicians whcn
thcy disscct a dcad body and cxaminc all its intcrnal organs,
vcsscls and joints. 8y doing so thcy bccomc ablc to makc
bcttcr judgmcnts and givc bcttcr advicc about illncsscs.
Tis littlc book is callcd an anatomy ol thc statuc ol anicl,
bccausc thc king ol 8abylon had a rcvclation in thc lorm ol
a grcat statuc ol a human bcing ol thc lour cmpircs on carth.
All thc mcmbcrs ol thc imagc arc cxamincd and trcatcd so
that thc rcadcr may grasp thc condition and situation ol cach
onc, and comc to know it.
:6
Tc coordination ol organs and rulcrs was prccisc: arius
ol Pcrsia, lor cxamplc, was assigncd to thc lung bccausc
undcr his rcgimc, thc Jcws could brcathc lrccly lor oncc,
Hcliogabalus, whosc body was thrown in a scwcr, was
ncatly matchcd with thc cxit lrom thc rcar.
Faust cncrgctically wicldcd a rangc ol graphic dcviccs
to makc his work comprchcnsivc. Jcan 8odin, an inucn
tial Frcnch thcorist ol univcrsal history, argucd in +66 that
anicls lour cmpircs could not bc mappcd onto thc mod
crn history ol thc world, sincc thc rcal Roman mpirc had
long sincc ccascd to cxist, whilc thc Turkish mpirclor
which anicls vision ocrcd no countcrpartwas largcr
and morc powcrlul than thc Holy Roman mpirc ol thc
Habsburgs. Fausts imagc rcbuts 8odins thcsis visually. Hc
shows thc statucs right lcg translorming itscll lrom thc
astcrn Roman mpirc to thc Turkish. At thc samc timc
this hybrid limb crushcs an cvillooking, scrpcntlikc gurc
that clcarly stands lor thc Turkish sultan. At oncc illogi
cal and powcrlul, thc imagc assigns thc ttoman mpirc a
placc in anicls dcsign, but also shows that it is inlcrior to
thc Roman. Fausts dccision to givc thc statuc thc lacc ol his
own sovcrcign was pcrhaps a suggcstion that virtuous kings
might hastcn thc coming ol thc rulc ol Christ on arth.
Faust uscd cvcry imaginablc rcsourcc, in othcr words, to
hclp thc rcadcr both commit thc past to mcmory and lramc
thc propcr statc ol mind in which to anticipatc thc luturc.
[ 5455]
_______________________________
Tc stunning gurcs by thc lollowcrs
ol thc twcllthccntury Calabrian abbot
Joachim ol Fiorc wcavc biblical past,
Christian prcscnt, and a translormcd
luturc into a singlc, complcx vision. !n
thc diagram at right, thc triplc cxcs on
thc trcc trunk mark o gcncrations ol
thirty ycars cach. Tc diagram at lclt
shows thc thrcc intcrsccting statcs or
agcs ol world history.
thcr writcrs and artists cmulatcd Faust. At thc
Altdorl Acadcmy, which scrvcd thc youth ol Nurcmbcrg,
imagcs ol anicls statuc wcrc uscd as tcxtbooks. Tcir pow
crlul visions ol thc past and luturc could imprint thc dctails
ol world history on thc minds ol thc young and givc thcm a
clcar scnsc ol thc short, dramatic luturc that awaitcd human
ity. Likc contcmporary rcadcrs ol thc Rapturc !ndcx lound
at RapturcRcady.com, carly modcrn studcnts and princcs
lcarncd to undcrstand thc past and lorctcll thc luturc lrom
thcsc tablcs, picturcs, and objccts.
Morc than onc ingcnious chronologcr lound visual
rcsourccs outsidc thc rcalm ol biblical tcxts and imagcs and
uscd thcm to portray thc past. [ gs. 5455] !n thc twcllth
ccntury, thc Calabrian abbot Joachim ol Fiorc was inspircd
by prophctic visions. Posscsscd by thc bclicl that numcri
cal symmctrics ocrcd thc kcy to undcrstanding thc ld
Tcstamcnt and thc Ncw, and lascinatcd by thc prophccics
and horrors ol Rcvclation, Joachim camc to scc history
as lalling into thrcc etates or statcsan ld Tcstamcnt
statc ol God thc Fathcr, a Ncw Tcstamcnt statc ol God
thc Son, and a third statc in which thc Holy Spirit would
havc dominion ovcr all. Tc dctails ol his systcm and its
spccic dcrivation lrom scripturc mattcr lcss lor our pur
poscs than thc striking lorms in which hc cnvisioncd timc:
intcrlocking rings and grcat trccs, markcd o in thirtyycar
gcncrations, which mcldcd thc unilorm, ycarbyycar timc
ol thc world chroniclcs with thc morc irrcgular gcncalogical
vcrsion ol timc. Joachims imagcs wcrc oricntcd at lcast as
much toward thc luturc as thc past. Tcy convinccd many
rcadcrs that in thc thirtccnth ccntury thc ncw mcn ol thc
mcndicant ordcrs, thc Franciscans and ominicans, would
translorm thc church. Tough Joachim himscll would havc
disapprovcd ol this undcrstanding ol his trccs, this inu
cncc rcvcals both thc radical charactcr and thc synoptic
powcr ol his maps ol timc.
:
!n thc agc ol print, such visionsusually biblical in ori
gin, but cclcctic in lormmultiplicd. Michacl ytzingcr
historian, cartographcr, and author ol Zeitungen, or ncws
rcportsdccoratcd his history ol thc sixtccnthccntury
rcligious wars in Flandcrs with a cyclical imagc that rcp
rcscntcd thc world as a thcatcr ol purcly human, matcrial
causcs and cccts. Figurcs arrangcd likc thc actors in a
paradc, moving in a circlc, actcd out his thcory. Prospcrity
lcd to cxccssivc grccd, and that in turn to war, which causcd
dcvastation, which induccd mcn to makc pcacc, which in
turn gavc risc to prospcrity.
!n his Pentaplus regnorum mundi (A vclold tablc ol
world history) ol +, by contrast, ytzingcr cmulatcd
[ 56]
_______________________________
Part ol Michacl ytzingcrs complcx
rclcrcncc systcm that condcnscd thc
major lincagcs ol human history into
tablcs and uscd lcttcrs and numbcrs to
idcntily and nd thcm, this was onc
ol vc lolding charts lrom his +
Pentaplus regnorum mundi mcant to
cpitomizc human history.
[ 57]
_______________________________
Tc patriarch Scth, as an ancicnt
Jcwish story had it, crcatcd pillars ol
brick and stonc on which hc cngravcd
thc pcrlcct knowlcdgc grantcd by God
to thc carlicst humans. !n ytzingcrs
vcrsion, thcy hold thc kcy to thc
mystcrics ol timc.
[ 58]
_______________________________
\clav 8udovcc z 8udova, a 8ohcmian
scholar ol thc carly scvcntccnth
ccntury, sccms to havc bccn thc rst
to rcprcscnt history as a clock lacc in
his Circle of the Lunar and Solar Clock
lrom +6+6.
Joachim, scarching lor historical symmctrics and original,
powcrlul imagcs ol thcm. [ g. 56] Hc comprcsscd all ol thc
dynastics, ancicnt and modcrn, onto vc loldout tablcs
that allowcd thc rcadcr to casily look up thc datcs at which
kings and ocials had ourishcd and to corrclatc thcm
with onc anothcr.
8chind thc data on thcsc sprawling charts lurkcd a
dccpcr ordcr. Tc kcy to ytzingcrs vision ol history was a
singlc illustration dcpicting two columns inscribcd with lct
tcrs. [ g. 57] Tcsc in turn symbolizcd thc two columns on
which, according to thc Jcwish historian Joscphus, Scth, thc
son ol Adam, had cngravcd all knowlcdgc bclorc thc Flood,
and thus prcscrvcd it lrom dcstruction.
:8
Tc lcttcrs wcrc
thc initials ol thc Jcwish Patriarchs. Vhcn propcrly rcar
rangcd, howcvcr, thcy spcllcd out thc namc ol ytzingcrs
own patron, thc Holy Roman mpcror Maximilian !!. !n
his vicw, this was clcar cvidcncc ol thc cmpcrors standing
as thc rulcr ol thc last days, though whcn ytzingcr, and
thc world, outlivcd Maximilian, hc chccrlully loldcd thc
ncxt cmpcror, Rudoll !!, into his story linc.
vcn morc ingcnious, and lar morc uptodatc in his
choicc ol visual mctaphors, was thc 8ohcmian noblcman
\clav 8udovcc z 8udova, a citizcn ol that locus classicus
ol mystical bclicls, thc Praguc ol thc cmpcror Rudoll !!.
[ g. 58] Hc rcplaccd thc organic, il oddly symmctrical,
trccs ol Joachim with a morc modcrn, mcchanical imagc.
!n +6+6 8udovcc publishcd a chronology in which largc
clock laccs rcprcscntcd thc history ol thc ld and thc Ncw
Tcstamcnts. Tc lunar clock, which corrcspondcd to thc
lormcr, was low and dark, sincc humanity had had only
indircct acccss to knowlcdgc bclorc thc !ncarnation. Tc
solar clock, by contrast, was bright, likc thc rcvclations
that thc Savior had brought with him. !ts inlalliblc hand
stood ncar midnighta vivid imagc lor thc approach ol thc
cnd ol timc, and onc strikingly cchocd, ccnturics latcr, in
thc tickingclock diagram that has graccd thc covcr ol thc
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists lrom its rst appcarancc as a
magazinc in thc uncasy days immcdiatcly altcr thc Sccond
Vorld Var. !n +6:o, thc 8attlc ol Vhitc Mountain would
show that 8udovcc had bccn right. His own world, il not
thc grcat onc, was swcpt away, and hc was takcn prisoncr
and put to dcath.
Not all corts to corrclatc cvcnts with a dccpcr, morc
cosmic ordcr ol causcs dcpcndcd on thc 8iblc. [ g. 59] !n
ancicnt Mcsopotamia, astrologcrs had uscd thcir art to
prcdict thc latcs ol kingdoms bclorc thcy applicd it to
individuals, and lor ccnturics Grcck, Roman, Pcrsian, and
Muslim astrologcrs lollowcd thcir cxamplc. vcryoncor
Cartographies of Time 6o
[ 59]
_______________________________
Tc grcat conjunctions in Chronological
Treasury, tabulatcd by Johann
Hcinrich Alstcd in +6:8.
[ 6062]
_______________________________
Pctrus Apianus crcatcd what
amountcd to an astronomical com
putcr, with rcvolving papcr dcviccs lor
nding thc positions ol thc plancts.
Hc also showcd how to computc thc
datcs ol past cclipscsin this casc
thc lunar cclipsc that accompanicd
Alcxandcr thc Grcats dclcat ol arius
at Gaugamclaand uscd diagrams to
show how lull thcy wcrc. From anicl
on, many writcrs dividcd all ol history
altcr thc Flood into lour succcssivc
cmpircs, Assyrian, Pcrsian, Grcck, and
Roman: at Gaugamcla, powcr passcd
lrom thc sccond to thc third. Apianus
was thc rst ol many scholars who
attcmptcd to rcdatc this battlc, sincc
it markcd thc momcnt at which his
tory rcachcd halltimc.

Chapter 2: Time Tables 6+
Cartographies of Time 6:
at lcast cvcryonc in thc lcarncd worldkncw that Saturn
and Jupitcr, thc two plancts larthcst lrom thc carth, mct
cvcry twcnty ycars. Mcdicval and Rcnaissancc astrologcrs
and chronologcrs drcw up tablcs that corrclatcd such grcat
cvcnts as thc birth ol Jcsus and thc risc ol Charlcmagnc
to thcsc grcat conjunctions.
:
Johann Hcinrich Alstcd, an
inucntial prolcssor at thc Calvinist Univcrsity ol Hcrborn
and thc author ol massivc cncyclopcdias, uscd thc conjunc
tions ol Jupitcr and Saturn to prcdict that thc world would
go through a timc ol troublcs bctwccn +6o and +6:.
Many ol Alstcds rcadcrs wcrc nglish, and his prcdictions
may wcll havc hclpcd to inspirc thcm to ovcrthrow King
Charlcs ! and sct up a Puritan statc in thc +6os and +6os.
Tc timc chart was now powcrlul cnough to hclp changc
a socicty.
From thc +os on, ncw astronomical tools and skills
camc into play in chronology, and thcsc also suggcstcd ncw
lorms lor thc visual prcscntation ol thc past. [ gs. 6062]
Astronomcrs rcalizcd that thcyrathcr than thc historians
who workcd only with tcxtscould ocr absolutc datcs
lor somc major historical cvcnts. !n +o Pctrus Apianus,
scholar, astronomcr, and printcr, publishcd his Astronomicum
Caesareum, a magniccnt analog computcr in book lorm
that prcscntcd and cxplaincd working papcr modcls lor thc
movcmcnts ol thc plancts, thc moon, and thc sun. Hc kncw
that a lunar cclipsc occurrcd bclorc thc 8attlc ol Gaugamcla
(+ ncv), whcrc Alcxandcr thc Grcat dcnitivcly dclcatcd
arius, king ol Pcrsiathc battlc that madc Alcxandcr thc
most powcrlul rulcr in thc Mcditcrrancan world. !n this
casc and othcrs likc it, hc argucd, astronomy could corrcct
crroncous datcs that had crcpt into thc historical rccord.
Apianus providcd not only datcswhich wcrc, in lact, o
by a lcw ycarslor thc Gaugamcla cclipsc and a lcw oth
crs, but diagrams ol thcm, which rcconstructcd thcm in
schcmatic lorm, showing thcir cxtcnt ol totality.
Tc usc ol astronomical data causcd a rcvolution in thc
way chronologcrs workcd. [ g. 63] Sincc antiquity, all astron
omcrs whosc works wcrc known in thc VcstGrccks
and Chaldcans, Latins and Arabshad bascd thcir tablcs
and computations on thc samc xcd point, thc momcnt
whcn an othcrwisc unknown king, Nabonassar, took thc
thronc ol 8abylon, Fcbruary :6, ncv (in this pcriod,
as cuncilorm rccords havc rcvcalcd in thc ninctccnth and
twcnticth ccnturics, systcmatic astronomical obscrvation
bcgan in Mcsopotamia). [gs. 6466] !n + Giovanni
Maria Tolosani, a ominican with a scnsc ol humor (hc
prctcndcd to bc a Frcnchman namcd Johanncs Lucidus
Samothcus, John thc 8right 8oy, dcsccndcd lrom Annius
[ 63]
_______________________________
Tis tablc is part ol thc list ol datcd
cclipscs around which Gcrardus
Mcrcator built his +6 Chronology
onc ol thc rst to rcst on astronomical
loundations.
[ 6466]
_______________________________
Tis handsomc chronology by
Giovanni Maria Tolosani, which
appcarcd in +, incorporatcd much
astronomical inlormation. Hc also laid
out his matcrial with grcat prccision,
making clcar, lor cxamplc, cxactly
how thc lounding ol Romc t into
thc Grcck lympiad systcm and thc
history ol thc Assyrian kings who
dcstroycd Jcrusalcm. Unlortunatcly,
thc richcr contcnt madc it hard to
rcad: cvcn thc transition lrom Judaism
to Christianity disappcars bchind thc
ncatly printcd columns ol data.

Chapter 2: Time Tables 6
[ 6768]
_______________________________
Likc thc Catholic Tolosani, thc
Protcstant scholar Johann Funck, who
brought out his Chronologia in +,
uscd astronomical data to link biblical
with classical history. Likc Tolosanis
work, his rcmaincd a ycarbyycar
chroniclc, and onc that stuck cvcn
morc closcly than Tolosanis had to
thc modcl ol uscbius.
ol \itcrbos imaginary Samothcs, anccstor ol thc Gauls)
introduccd astronomical cvidcncc into his ncat, lcgiblc sct
ol chronological tablcs. Tolosani argucd that Nabonassar
was anothcr namc lor Salmanassar, a king ol Assyria
mcntioncd in thc 8iblc. Hc rccraltcd uscbiuss Chronicle
in his handsomcly printcd book, inscrting inlormation
lrom mcdicval Christian calcndar litcraturc ncxt to thc
lists ol rulcrs.
Tc grcatcr complcxity ol Tolosanis lormat madc it
lcss ccctivc than uscbiuss at dramatizing thc momcnts at
which history rcally turncd, such as thc Crucixion and thc
lall ol Jcrusalcm. 8ut Tolosanis conncction bctwccn astron
omy and thc 8iblc madc an impact noncthclcss. Astronomcrs
and chronologcrs rcalizcd that thcy could now lusc dispa
ratc chronologics lar morc prcciscly than uscbius had, to
thc day and cvcn to thc hour lrom thc cra ol Nabonassar.
Trcc ycars altcr Apianus callcd lor history to bc corrcctcd
with astronomical data, Copcrnicus incorporatcd thc idcn
tication ol Nabonassar with Salmanassar into his cpoch
making book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (n thc
rcvolutions ol thc hcavcnly sphcrcs). Vc do not know il hc
rcad Tolosani, who hatcd and attackcd his hclioccntric thc
ory, but wc do know that Tolosanis and Copcrnicuss sharcd
thcsis put chronology on a ncw looting.
thcr chronologcrs also lollowcd Tolosanis lcad.
[ gs. 6768] nc ol thc rst was as staunch a Protcstant as
Tolosani was a Catholic. Johann Funck, whosc lathcrin
law Andrcas siandcr wrotc thc prclacc lor Copcrnicuss
book, produccd a uscbian comparativc chroniclc that
pivotcd on thc acccssion ol Nabonassar, as Tolosanis did.
Likc Tolosanis, too, Funcks + Chronologia rcmaincd
traditional in many ways, with vast cmpty pagcs lor thc
carly ccnturics ol world history, as wcll as a handsomc list
ol invcntcd Frankish kings, drawn lrom thc historical work
ol Joanncs Trithcmius.
A gcncration latcr Gcrardus Mcrcatorwhosc chicl
intcrcsts lay in thc suprcmcly visual cld ol cartography
drcw up a ncw map ol timc. [ gs. 6971] Hc built his work
on an astronomical corc: a list ol datcd cclipscs that hc pro
vidcd lor thc rcadcr in his introduction. And hc showcd
grcatcr graphic ingcnuity than his rivals whcn it camc to
lorging a timclinc that actually rccctcd thc ncw prccision
ol astronomical dating. Most ol thc tablc ol world history
in Mcrcators Chronology movcd ycar by ycar, at a stcady
pacc. 8ut whcrcvcr hc had morc dctailcd inlormation at
his disposalas hc did lor thc biblical story ol thc Flood
and lor latcr cvcnts accompanicd by datcablc cclipscshc
slowcd thc tablc down, almost cincmatically. For pcriods
[ 71]
_______________________________
vcr inquisitivc, cvcr willing to
innovatc, Mcrcator addcd a scction
to his chroniclc in which hc inquircd
whcthcr ancicnt gypt might havc
cxistcd bclorc thc world was dcstroycd
by watcr, as Platos account sccmcd to
suggcst.
[ 6970]
_______________________________
Morc invcntivc visually than his rivals
in chronology, thc grcat gcographcr
Gcrardus Mcrcator laid out a timclinc,
as many othcrs had, that ran lrom thc
Crcation to thc prcscnt. Unlikc his
rivals, howcvcr, Mcrcator playcd with
thc pacc at which timc passcd, slowing
his timclinc to lollow thc story ol
thc Flood and rccord latcr battlcs.
Vhcrcvcr possiblcas hcrc, whcrc hc
uscs datcablc cclipscs to x thc chro
nology ol Grcck historyMcrcator
tics cvcnts not to a list ol ycars but to a
list ol signs ol thc zodiac, which track
thc suns passagc through thc sky day
by day. Tcn, whcn hc has no morc
prccisc astronomical inlormation to
ocr, hc providcs a normal, ycarby
ycar axis lor history.
ol a ycar or two, timc movcd month by month, as thc sun
passcd through cach sign ol thc zodiac, whilc Mcrcator
addcd prccisc annotation ol thc datcs and timcs ol cclipscs
and othcr cclcstial phcnomcna. Mcrcators book ocrcd
visual prool ol thc rcmarkablc lcvcl ol prccision that his
torical chronology could now rcach.
A dccadc latcr, anothcr scholarastronomcr, Paulus
Crusius, produccd thc most rigorous ol all historical tablcs,
a triangular sct ol datcs lor cpochs and cvcnts mcant to
bc rcad in two dircctions and conncd to thosc points
bctwccn which hc could sct down cxact intcrvals ol months
and days. [ g. 72] Hcrc, lor thc rst timc, a chronologcr
drcw up a litcral timc map, onc that clcarly traccd all thc
highroads ol datcablc history across thc vast, dark spacc ol
thc past: a London Undcrground map ol history itscll, as
starkly cxact as it was schcmatic. Historical timcat lcast
lrom thc rst millcnnium ncv onwardhad now bccn
capturcd. Crusiuss austcrc, rigorous trcatmcnt ol timc
lound lcw rcadcrsbut onc ol thcm was Joscph Scaligcr,
who bascd his own chronology on Crusiuss mcticulous
prcparatory work. [ g. 73] 8y +6o6, whcn Scaligcr includcd
an ancicnt list ol 8abylonian and Pcrsian kings in his grcat
handbook, Tesaurus temporum (Tc trcasury ol chronol
ogy), most rcadcrs rccognizcd at oncc that thc strangc
namcs ol 8abylonian kings includcd in it could not bc thc
lantasics ol anothcr Annius, strangc though thcy soundcd.
Tc datcs assigncd to thcm t thc chronological structurc
Mcrcator, Crusius, and othcrs had crcctcd with thc prcci
sion ol a kcy in a nc Swiss lock. Yct Scaligcrs book crcatcd
anothcr, hardcr problcm lor chronologcrs. Hc discovcrcd
and publishcd a list ol ancicnt gyptian kings, rccordcd
by a pricst namcd Manctho. Tc carlicst dynasty bcgan,
Scaligcr thought, not only bclorc thc Flood, but bclorc thc
Crcation. Yct hc insistcd that this list, too, was gcnuinc.
Controvcrsy soon arcd, and astronomy could not rcstorc
conscnsus, sincc no obscrvations old cnough to bc rclcvant
to thc carlicst pcriods ol history wcrc known.
Most chronologcrs rcmaincd condcnt that thcy could
tracc thc history ol thc world back to its bcginnings, dat
ing thc Crcation to thc day and hour. [ gs. 7475] !t was in
that spirit that thc Anglican archbishop Jamcs Usshcr bcgan
his chronology with thc lamous asscrtion that thc Crcation
took placc at nightlall prcccding Sunday, ctobcr :, oo
ncv. His proposal dicrcd only in dctail lrom thosc madc by
dozcns ol othcrs, cspccially Protcstants, in thc samc pcriod.
o

Yct no two ol thc chronologcrs agrccd cxactly, and unccr
tainty about thc principlcs ol chronology and thc cxtcnt to
which astronomy gavc thcm ccrtainty bcgan to sprcad.
[ 72]
_______________________________
Astronomcr Paulus Crusiuss
cxtraordinarily scvcrc triangular tablc,
rcndcrcd in ink in this vcrsion, rcduccs
history to intcrvals.
[ 73]
_______________________________
Joscph Scaligcr was thc rst modcrn
chronologcr to publish ancicnt lists
ol rulcrs, such as thc list ol kings ol
8abylon and Pcrsia that circulatcd
with Ptolcmy, shown hcrc, and thc
gyptian pricst Mancthos lists ol
gyptian dynastics. Tcsc documcnts,
which Scaligcr rightly took to bc
gcnuinc, rcmain ccntral to chronology
to this day. vcn bclorc Scaligcr lound
this matcrial, hc had ingcniously
shown that Nabonassar was not thc
Assyrian king Salmanassar, as carlicr
chronologcrs had thought, but an
indcpcndcnt rulcr ol 8abylon.
[ 75]
_______________________________
Altcr Usshcr, marginal dating in an
authorizcd 8iblc, London, +o+
Tc Jcsuit astronomcr Giambattista Riccioli, who
taught at 8ologna lor many ycars, compilcd thc Almagestum
novum (Ncw almagcst) in +6+a manual ol ancicnt and
modcrn astronomy so prccisc and tcchnically insightlul that
Sir !saac Ncwton uscd it as his standard rclcrcncc book.
[ g. 76] !n +66 Riccioli also publishcd a Chronologia ol
morc than a thousand lolio pagcs. !ts titlc pagc shows how
thc makcrs ol timclincs undcrstood thcir cralt. At thc cdgcs
ol thc imagc, Chronology and History appcar, pcrsonicd.
Clio, thc historians musc, stands atlootcd on hcr pcd
cstal, holding hcr trumpct in onc hand and a dim tapcr in
thc othcr and looking a bit dcprcsscd. Chronology, by con
trast, trcads boldly on thc boncs ol thc mighty dcad. Tc
bcam that shoots lrom hcr torch archcs up and backward
to rcvcal magniccnt historical lilics, whilc busy littlc Jcsuit
bccs buzz about in thc intcllcctual scrvicc ol thc Farncsc
lamily, which supportcd thcir rcscarch.
Chronologys bodicc has slippcd, rcvcaling hcr bosom.
Tis is not thc rcsult ol chancc or cvcn a quixotic cort to
cndow thc dricst ol subjccts with crotic appcal. Chronologys
disordcrcd drcss idcntics thc sun and thc moonthat is
to say, astronomy, thc scicncc ol thcir movcmcntsas thc
natural sourcc ol hcr supcrior scholarly powcrs. !t would
bc hard to imaginc a strongcr cmblcmatic statcmcnt ol thc
[ 74]
_______________________________
!n Annals of the Old Testament lrom
+6o, thc cruditc scvcntccnthccntury
archbishop Jamcs Usshcr gavc cxact
datcs lor thc Crcation and thc rcst ol
biblical and ancicnt history. 8y includ
ing datcs in thc margins according
to thc ycar ol thc world, thc Julian
pcriod, and thc ycar bclorc Christ, hc
was practicing what had bccomc thc
normal lorm ol chronology. His work
bccamc lamousand his crcdulity
notoriousbccausc lrom thc +68os on
printcrs cquippcd nglish 8iblcs with
thc timclinc Usshcr had cstablishcd.
Rcadcrs who had lorgottcn thc tradi
tions ol chronology, or lound thcm
comic, lailcd to rcalizc that Usshcr had
studicd thc past in much thc samc way
as his contcmporarics.
[ 76]
_______________________________
!n this baroquc imagc lrom
Giambattista Ricciolis +66
Chronologia, Chronology rulcs,
dominating thc pallid gurc ol Clio,
thc musc ol history.
6 Chapter 2: Time Tables
cstccm that chronology cnjoycd in baroquc !talycxccpt,
pcrhaps, lor thc vcry scalc ol Ricciolis book, printcd at a
timc whcn it had bccomc distinctly hard to nancc thc pub
lication ol massivc scholarly lolios. Yct Riccioli admittcd
that hc could not tracc a singlc linc ol datcs lrom Crcation
to thc prcscnt. Tc biblical vcrsions dicrcd, and astronomy
could not adjudicatc bctwccn thcm. Ricciolis tcxt did not
kccp thc bold promisc madc by its lrontispiccc.
!n lact, thc loundations ol chronology wcrc bcgin
ning to show dccp cracks. !n +6, a Frcnch Protcstant
namcd !saac la Pcyrrc had thrown chronology and thcol
ogy into a crisis by arguing, in a lormal Latin trcatisc, that
Gcncsis actually told two storics: that ol thc wholc human
racc, and thc shortcr onc ol thc Jcws. Hc notcd that thc
Chincsc, thc gyptians, and othcrs had civilizations long
bclorc thc Jcws. Morcovcr, hc portraycd thc Flood not
as a univcrsal catastrophc, but a local cvcnt. La Pcyrrc
lound himscll undcr housc arrcst and lorccd to convcrt
to Catholicism, and dozcns ol orthodox scholars, both
Catholic and Protcstant, compctcd to rclutc his work.
+

8ut only a couplc ol ycars latcr, anothcr Jcsuit, Martino
Martini, brought uropcans thc ncws that Chincsc his
tory rcally had bcgun bclorc thc Flood. Martini studicd
at Romc with Athanasius Kirchcrwho bclicvcd, tacitly
lollowing thc Calvinist Scaligcr, that gypt cxistcd bclorc
thc Flood. Vhcn hc arrivcd in China and rcad thc king
doms annals, hc was not surpriscd to nd that thcy too
bcgan too carly to t thc chronology ol Gcncsis. Tc
Chincsc, morcovcr, unlikc thc uropcans, had prcscrvcd
cclipsc obscrvations that conrmcd thcir ancicnt his
tory. Ccrtaintyand a lull, cohcrcnt timclincsccmcd
morc and morc distant. Ricciolis magniccnt visual boast
about thc powcr ol Chronology and hcr torch was a dcs
pcratc cort to shorc up a structurc that sccmcd to bc
collapsing.
!n rctrospcct, it sccms obvious that thc structurcs chronolo
gcrs invcntcd in thc sixtccnth ccntury would lall apart in
thc scvcntccnth: thcrc was simply no way to ncgotiatc thc
dicrcnccs among so many historical traditions, and astron
omy could not adjudicatc ncarly as many disputcd points
as Apianus or Scaligcr hopcd. [ g. 1] At thc timc, howcvcr,
most scholars rcmaincd optimistic, and continucd to try to
dcvisc a singlc chronological cquivalcnt to Ptolcmaic and
modcrn world maps. Tough thcy lound individual problcms
insolublc, thcir cntcrprisc as a wholc rctaincd grcat cncrgy
and appcal, and innovation ncvcr ccascd. Alrcady in thc
sixtccnth ccntury, chronologcrs had bcgun cxpcrimcnting
with ncw tabular lorms and applications. Somc cvcn tricd
to providc graphic cxprcssions ol chronological data: charts
that not only listcd inlormation, but rcprcscntcd it in ways
that madc it casy to grasp. Tc Luthcran thcologian Lorcnz
Codomann, lor cxamplc, synchronizcd thc livcs ol thc bibli
cal patriarchs in a tabular lormat similar to that uscd in thc
modcrn road atlas. His tablc, printcd in .6, lists thc namcs
ol thc patriarchs twicc, oncc horizontally across thc top ol
thc pagc and oncc vcrtically in thc lclt margin. 8y lining up
namcs lrom two axcs on thc tablc, thc rcadcr could instantly
nd thc agc ol onc biblical gurc at thc birth or thc dcath
ol anothcr. Tough its dcsign is tabular, Codomanns tablc
cdgcs in thc dircction ol a morc lully graphic lorm ol rcp
rcscntation, which makcs thc chronology ol thc patriarchs
clcarcr than any singlc tablc could. Sincc hc lls boxcs only
whcn hc has inlormation to put in thcm, thc tablc lunctions
as a kind ol accidcntal bar chart: on it, columns ol data arc
as long as thc livcs ol thc gurcs thcy rcprcscnt. As such,
thcy providc not only a tool lor calculating spccic agcs and
datcs, but also a vicw ol thc cntirc, unbrokcn tradition by
which historical knowlcdgc was undcrstood to havc bccn
passcd down to Moscs.
Similarly, thc Frcnch chronologcr Joanncs Tcmporarius
uscd graphics to dcal with a problcm that long bothcrcd
cvcryonc who tricd to draw thc history ol thc world lrom
thc 8iblc. [ gs. 23] According to Gcncsis, only Noahs
lamily survivcd thc Flood. Yct within a lcw gcncrations,
thcy and thcir dcsccndants rcpopulatcd thc world, so ccc
tivcly that mcn tricd to build a city and a towcr, whosc top
|may rcach| unto hcavcn.
.
Vas such cxplosivc population
growth cvcn possiblc: uropcans whosc own socicty still
rcgularly sucrcd thc blows ol plaguc and laminc lound it
hard to bclicvc, but Tcmporarius lound thc account plau
siblc. At thc top ol his diagram, a horizontal axis rcprc
scnts thc rst pcriod ol timc altcr thc Flood, dividcd into
twcntyycar intcrvals. To thc lclt, a vcrtical axis lists thc
Chapter 3:
Graphic Transitions
Graphic Transitions
+ Chapter 3: Graphic Transitions
gcncrations ol Noahs dcsccndants. 8y lollowing thc tablc
both horizontally and vcrtically, thc rcadcr could watch thc
population as it grcw, gcncration by gcncration. Similar
qucstions had ariscn about whcthcr thc Jcws could havc
multiplicd as quickly during thcir timc in gypt as thc bib
lical account suggcstcd, and Tcmporarius answcrcd thcm
with anothcr visual display ol dcmographic growth. Yct il
Tcmporarius was cxpcrimcnting with somcthing likc mod
crn bar charts, hc applicd thcm only to countablc individu
als. Hc juxtaposcd lincar graphic lorms with chronological
inlormation, but hc did not graph timc itscll. Tcmporarius
was a radical whcn it camc to thc substancc ol chronology.
Hc dismisscd thc traditional story ol Romcs lounding by
Romulus, and its traditional dating, as a mcrc myth, lash
ioncd ccnturics altcr thc cvcnts. 8ut hc lound no way to
givc his most innovativc idcas about historical timc graphic
lorm.
a
!t took longcr than might havc bccn cxpcctcd lor
chronologcrs to progrcss lrom crcating tablcs that contained
inlormation, such as thosc ol uscbius, Codomann, or
Mcrcator, to charts that expressed inlormation graphically.
For all thc problcms that chronologcrs could not
solvc, thcir timclincs invitcd cagcr and activc rcading.
Chronographya gcnrc that sought, but could ncvcr obtain,
cncyclopcdic lullncss ol covcragclostcrcd intcnsivc
intcraction bctwccn rcadcrs and thcir books. Many owncrs
llcd thcir printcd chronologics with lurthcr inlormation,
turning thcm into palimpscsts, hybrid books that wcrc both
printcd and manuscript. nc arca in which this intcraction
provcd cspccially livcly was that ol thc actual calcndar. For
ccnturics, Christian scholars had strugglcd to mastcr and
improvc thc sct ol tcchniqucs known as thc computus.
Using thcir ngcrs as calculators, thcy computcd whcn
during thc ycar thc movcablc lcasts ol thc church, such as
astcr, would takc placc, and thcy could do so lor many
ycars in advancc. Tc computus was always controvcrsial. !n
thc carly Middlc Agcs, Christians in thc 8ritish !slcs and
clscwhcrc lought bittcrly ovcr thc datc whcn astcr should
lall. Sincc thc valuc uscd lor thc lcngth ol thc solar ycar
was slightly too long, massivc crror had built up ovcr timc,
and by thc ltccnth ccntury, thc calcndar had lallcn into
considcrablc disordcr. Calcndar rclormcrs worricd that thc
Jcws, who kncw whcn Passovcr should takc placc, mockcd
thc Christians lor cclcbrating thcir most important ritual
on thc wrong day.
!n thc sixtccnth ccntury, thc combination ol thc astron

omcrs ncwly prccisc approach to historical timc and thc
Protcstant Rclormation translormcd thc calcndar. [ g. 4]
Trough thc Middlc Agcs, thc rcligious ycar had bccn a
[ 1]
_______________________________
Lorcnz Codomann, Chronographia: A
Description of time, from the beginning
of the world, unto the yeare of our Lord,
137. Divided into six periodes. Wherein
the several histories, both of the Old and
the new Testament are briey comprised,
and placed in their due order of yeares,
London, +6. Tis handsomc and
visually intuitivc chart cnablcs thc
rcadcr to lollow thc livcs ol cach ol
thc biblical patriarchs, thc datcs ol
which arc coordinatcd so that it is
possiblc to immcdiatcly tcll how old
othcr biblical gurcs wcrc whcn onc
ol thcm was born or dicd. Tcsc lacts
had to bc tcascd out ol thc account in
Gcncsis, and wcrc hard to glcan lrom
traditional, singlcaxis chronologics.
Graphic Transitions
[ 23]
_______________________________
!n +6 Joanncs Tcmporarius, an
invcntivc chronologcr, adoptcd thc
ncw lorm ol thc bar chart in his Proofs
of Chronology to show how ancicnt
populations grcw.
Chapter 3: Graphic Transitions
[ 4]
_______________________________
Johann Funcks historical calcndar,
bascd on an carlicr onc by Christian
Massacus, gavc rcadcrs thc calcndar
datcs, in modcrn tcrms, on which
thc grcat cvcnts ol ld and Ncw
Tcstamcnt history took placc.
cyclc ol lcasts and lasts, dccply lamiliar and unchanging.
Tc birthdays and martyrdoms ol saints, rcal and imagi
nary, throngcd thc calcndar and gavc morc than hall ol
its days a sacrcd mcaning. 8ut thc Protcstant Rclormcrs
dcnounccd most ol thc saints and all ol thcir lcasts, and
sct out to inlusc thc ycar with a sacrcd charactcr ol a ncw
kind. !n Protcstant citics, scholars and astronomcrs coopcr
atcd with thc Rclormcrs, doing thcir bcst to cstablish on
which days in thc past thc grcat dramas ol thc ld and
Ncw Tcstamcnts had actually takcn placc. Tcy drcw up
calcndars in which cach day rcccivcd its mcaning lrom a
ncw sourcc.
!n .c, thc Vittcnbcrg Hcbrcw prolcssor and prcachcr
Paul bcr publishcd a Calendarium historicum (Historical
calcndar). [ gs. 58] bcr climinatcd thc saints and instcad
notcd thc grcat cvcnts in Jcwish, pagan, and Christian his
tory that had takcn placc on cach datc in thc ycar. Tough
amplc blank spacc lor notcs rcmaincd on many pagcs, somc
owncrs had thcir calcndars intcrlcavcd with blanks so that
thcy could add still morc inlormation. Tc calcndar, which
had traditionally chartcd thc currcnt ycar, thus bccamc
a map ol thc past as wcll, onc wrappcd cyclically around
thc 6day solar ycar rathcr than ordcrcd as a linc lrom
Crcation to Apocalypsc.
Standard uscbian chronologics also attractcd hand

writtcn addcnda ol many kinds. [ gs. 910] Tc historian
Glarcanus took notcs on passagcs in his chronology ol
Livy that nccdcd corrcction. Somc ol thcsc hc dictatcd or
showcd to Gabricl Hummclbcrg, a studcnt who workcd
with him in Frciburg at thc cnd ol thc .cs. Hummclbcrgs
cxhaustivcand cxhaustingbut lcgiblc notcs givc a rich
scnsc ol how Glarcanus workcd, collccting cvidcncc lrom
sourccs as soon as thc prcss madc thcm availablc, and using
it to cnhancc ncw cditions. And thc 8ritish scholar Gabricl
Harvcy, who taught rhctoric and Grcck at Cambridgc, madc
his copy ol Glarcanuss work into a rccord ol his convcrsa
tions about chronology with thc grcat jurist Jcan 8odin,
who adviscd him on which chronologics hc could trust. Tc
Rcnaissanccs timc maps look alicn and lormidably tcchni
cal now. !n thcir own day, though, thcy stimulatcd livcly
convcrsation among cuttingcdgc intcllcctuals.
8y thc scvcntccnth ccntury, oldcr visual convcntions
continucd to nd uscs in many contcxts. Tc uscbian
lorm had bccn in print so long that it had bccomc intuitivc
and widcsprcad, as had thc tradition ol updating it to kccp
up with contcmporary cvcnts. ditors ol ancicnt histori
cal tcxts continucd to cquip thcir cditions with uscbian
tablcs. Somctimcs thcsc appcarcd much larthcr acld, as in
[ 56]
_______________________________
Two copics ol thc Calendarium
historicum (Historical calcndar) drawn
up by thc Vittcnbcrg Hcbraist Paul
bcr show both bcrs signaturc lists
ol grcat cvcnts that had takcn placc
bctwccn thc Crcation and thc prcscnt,
day by day through thc ycar, and thc
laycrs ol inlormation that owncrs
addcd. Tc rst owncr notcd thc birth
ol his son, thc sccond, starting lrom a
pagc that idcnticd March + as thc
sccond day ol Purim, thc lcast ol Anna
Pcrcnna at Romc, thc day ol Julius
Cacsars murdcr, and thc birthday ol
Frcdcrick ol Saxony in +o, addcd
a notc on thc additional blank pagc
lacing this that Moscs lcd thc Jcws out
ol gypt and Attila thc Hun dicd on
this onc vcry busy day.
[ 9]
_______________________________
Hcinrich Glarcanus, annotatcd copy ol
his chroniclc ol Livy, 8ascl, +o
[ 10]
_______________________________
Gabricl Harvcy, annotatcd copy
ol Glarcanuss chroniclc ol Livy,
handwrittcn notcs addcd in thc +8os
to book printcd at 8ascl, +
[ 78]
_______________________________
Paul Zillingcr, a latcsixtccnthccntury
citizcn ol Rcgcnsburg, madc his copy
ol bcrs Calendarium historicum
(Historical calcndar) into a grand
historical workbook. !n onc long cntry
hc rccordcd thc dctails ol thc grcat
proccssion that had takcn placc whcn
thc Holy Roman mpcror Rudoll !!
camc to his city.
a .6, nglish translation ol Conlucius, which dcploys thc
uscbian lorm, barcly modicd.
xpcrimcntation oltcn took placc on thc small scalc,
as whcn thc Frisian chronologcr Ubbo mmius concludcd
his massivc Opus Chronologicum novum (A ncw trcatisc on
chronology) with tablcs ol world history that movcd at dil
lcrcnt paccs. [ g. 11] !n thcsc othcrwisc convcntional tablcs,
thc rcadcr could cxaminc thc wholc span ol timc, cithcr
comprcsscd onto a lcw pagcs or laid out at lcngth, on scalcs
so simplcand, in thcir carly ycars, so barc ol historical
contcntthat thcy havc a strangcly modcrnist clcgancc.
Tc most popular gcncral chronology ol thc scvcn
tccnth ccnturythc Teatrum historicum (Historical thcatcr)
ol thc Gicsscn scholar Christoph Hclwig, rst publishcd in
.6cwas announccd as a ncw systcm that would cnablc
rcadcrs to grasp thc wholc vast cosmos ol univcrsal history
lrom Crcation to thc prcscnt, thanks to its lucid and lcg
iblc divisions ol timc. [ gs. 1213] Hurling all his mctaphors
into onc baskct, Hclwig promiscd his rcadcrs that his work
would conncct cvcnts likc thc links ol a chain and scrvc as
an Ariadnc thrcad through thc labyrinth ol timc. Vhat hc
ocrcd rcadcrs was, in ccct, a uscbian chroniclc in parallcl
columns, richcr than uscbiuss work in dctail and visually
distinctivc bccausc hc dividcd thc ow ol timc into cqual
pcriodsrst lty ycars, and thcn onc hundrcd, at a timc.
For many rcadcrs in thc sixtccnth and carly scvcntccnth
ccnturics, timc looked like a tablcprclcrably onc subdividcd
into squarcs by horizontal axcs. And this was as truc lor thc
timc ol a singlc lilc as lor a grcat agc ol history.
At thc samc timc, though, antiquarians craltcd
anothcr, morc dynamic imagc ol timc. Collcctors likc thc
scvcntccnthccntury anish scholar and archacologist lc
Vorm systcmatically brought togcthcr in spaccs callcd
Muscums or Kunst und VundcrKammcrn (Cabincts
ol Art and Vondcr) thundcr stoncs and crab shclls, alliga
tors and starsh, as wcll as bcautilul works ol cralt, stat
ucs and automata that challcngcd onlookcrs to nd thc
bordcr bctwccn lilc and art, and thc tools and wcapons
with which humans had cxtcndcd thcir powcr ovcr naturc.
Samucl Quicchcbcrg, who hclpcd to crcatc thc Munich
Kunstkammcr and wrotc thc rst trcatisc about thcsc
muscums, madc clcar that his thcatcr should includc both
rcal miraculous and rarc animals, such as rarc birds, insccts,
sh, shclls and thc likc and, ncxt to thcm, sculptcd animals
ol mctal, plastcr, clay, and any articial matcrial, so that art
makcs thcm all appcar alivc.
Hc also callcd lor smallscalc

modcls ol machincs lor drawing watcr, sawing wood, and
pulling ships, so that thc cxamplcs ol thcsc littlc machincs
[ 11]
_______________________________
Ubbo mmius, who taught history
and chronology at thc Frisian
Univcrsity ol Groningcn, carricd out
unusual graphic cxpcrimcnts with
his timclinc. Hc showcd that history
could bc rcprcscntcd in vcry lcw pagcs,
by sctting thc propcr intcrvalsand
also that vcrtical timclincs could bc as
lcgiblc as thcy wcrc handsomc.
[ 12]
_______________________________
Christoph Hclwig took somc
unpopular positions in his Teatrum
historicum (Historical thcatcr),
lor cxamplc, hc bclicvcd in thc
historical truth ol Scaligcrs gyptian
dynasty list. 8ut it sccms to havc
bccn thc layout ol his multicolumn
chronologythc basic chcckcrboard
rst uscd by uscbius morc than a
ccntury bclorcthat madc rcadcrs
buy cdition altcr cdition ol his work.
Hclwigs book was so stucd with
inlormation no prcvious chronologcr
had includcdlor cxamplc, thc
succcssion lists ol rabbisthat
particular dctails could bc hard to nd.
[ 13]
_______________________________
Christophcr Hclwigs chronology
lollowcd a uscbian modclbut also
madc clcar just how many important
pcoplc and institutions had takcn
shapc in morc rcccnt timcs, and
adaptcd thc modcl to includc thcm.
8y placing thc list ol Holy Roman
cmpcrors on thc lclt and using largc
typc lor Charlcs \, thc Rcnaissancc
cmpcror who tricd to dclcnd
Christcndom against thc challcngc
ol Martin Luthcr, hc madc clcar that
thc cmpirc mattcrcd, but also that it
did not, as traditional historiography
claimcd, dominatc thc world. Vorks
likc this wcrc widcly uscd lor tcaching
history in schools and univcrsitics.
Cartographies of Time 8o
8+ Chapter 3: Graphic Transitions
or structurcs might makc it possiblc to crcatc othcr, largcr
oncs in thc propcr way, and gradually to invcnt bcttcr
oncs.
6
!mprcsarios ol wondcr likc Quicchcbcrg traccd a
history ol naturc itscll, onc that showcd how human cort
had translormcd, and improvcd on, thc original ordcr ol
things. For all its crowdcd walls and hcavily loadcd shclls,
thc housc ol wondcrs providcd visitors with a distinctivc,
lcgiblc map ol timc and changc.
Tc carlicst chronologcrsnot only uscbius, but his
own oldcr sourccs, whosc works havc bccn lostdcvotcd
much ol thcir spacc to dating and documcnting human
invcntions. !n thc Rcnaissancc, historians likc Jcan 8odin
and thc Grcck scholar Louis Lcroy madc thcsc storics
vital landmarks in thcir timc maps. Tcsc mcn argucd,
with uroccntric brio, that gunpowdcr, thc compass, and
thc printing prcss had all bccn invcntcd in modcrn, not
ancicnt, timcs. Tcy did so in thc tccth ol thc widcly hcld
bclicl that thc ancicntscspccially thc gyptians and
8abylonianshad rcachcd a pinnaclc ol wisdom ncvcr to
bc attaincd again. Tcy and thcir rcadcrs, who includcd
Francis 8acon and othcr prophcts ol modcrnity, hopcd
to provc that uropcan modcrnity, thc last agc ol history,
had a lcgitimacy ol its own. Tc modcrns, at lcast in somc
ways, had sccn morc and gaincd grcatcr powcr ovcr naturc
and ovcr othcr humans, than cvcn thc wiscst ol thc ancicnt
Grccks and Romans had.
,
8y carly in thc scvcntccnth ccntury somc scholars wcrc
bcginning to cnrich thc tcchnical study ol chronology with
thoughts likc thcsc. [ g. 14] Tc grcat astronomcr Johanncs
Kcplcr, lor cxamplc, wrotc almost as much about chronol
ogy as hc did about thc plancts. !n thc Tabulae Rudolphinae
(Rudolphinc tablcs) in which hc summcd up, in quantita
tivc lorm, thc rcsults ol his lilctimc ol work with planctary
motion, hc also includcd chronological tablcs which laid
out thc main rcsults ol his rcscarch on ancicnt calcndars
and dating systcms. For thc titlc pagc ol this grcat book,
Kcplcr dcsigncd an imagc that crystallizcd thc historical
dcvclopmcnt ol astronomy.
For gcncrations, most scholars had bclicvcd that God
rcvcalcd truc knowlcdgc about cvcrything in naturc
including thc plancts and thcir movcmcntsto Adam
and thc othcr patriarchs. Human sins, and thc Flood thcy
causcd, had partly or wholly cxtinguishcd this pcrlcct
knowlcdgc, but prccisc study ol thc tcxts that rcmaincd
had rccovcrcd portions ol it. Astronomcrs, howcvcr, kncw
that thcir scicncc had dcvclopcd rclativcly latc. vcn thc
lcgcndary gyptians and 8abylonians did not sccm to havc
rccordcd any cclipscs or othcr datcablc phcnomcna until
[ 14]
_______________________________
Johanncs Kcplcrs imaginativc
structurc and thc astronomcrs who
populatc it statc a powcrlul thcsis
about knowlcdgc and timc. Tc oldcst
astronomcra 8abylonian who
stands by a column that is almost
still a trccis clcarly portraycd as
part ol thc primitivc world and doing
approximatc work. As thc astronomcrs
comc closcr to thc prcscnt, thcir
pursuits bccomc morc sophisticatcd
and thc columns ncxt to thcm morc
ornatc and classical. Copcrnicus
and Tycho 8rahcand, ol coursc,
Kcplcrrcprcscnt thc culmination
ol an architcctural timclinc lor
astronomy.
Cartographies of Time 8:
wcll into thc rst millcnnium ncvthc pcriod altcr thc
acccssion ol Nabonassar in ,, ncv. And cvcn Ptolcmy, thc
grcatcst Grcck astronomcr, ocrcd lcss prccisc data and lcss
sophisticatcd modcls than thc modcrn mastcrs ol thc art:
Copcrnicus, Tycho 8rahc, and Kcplcr.
Tc structurc that Kcplcr drcw up to scrvc as a symbol
ol his achicvcmcnta sort ol clcgant gazcboamountcd
to a virtual Kunstund Vundcrkammcr. Tough circular in
lorm, it told a lincar story ol changc ovcr timc: ol prog
rcss in astronomy. At thc back ol thc cupola, a 8abylonian
astronomcr cxamincs thc hcavcns, sighting through his n
gcrs. Hc stands ncxt to a column that rcprcscnts a crudc,
carly stagc in thc dcvclopmcnt ol architccturc: a trcc, its
limbs roughly cut o. n thc sidcs, thc grcatcst ancicnt
astronomcrs, Hipparchus and Ptolcmy, who camc latcr,
do morc sophisticatcd work, Hipparchus displays tablcs,
whilc Ptolcmy sits and writcs. Tcy arc ankcd by columns
that arc smooth, but havc no dccoration or distinction:
simplc cylindcrs ol brick, morc nishcd but no handsomcr
than thcir prcdcccssors trcc. !n thc lorcground, nally,
Copcrnicus and Tycho dcbatc thc arcana ol astronomy ncxt
to thc most vivid symbols architccturc could providc lor
clcgancc and sophistication: smooth stonc columns, toppcd
rcspcctivcly with oric and Corinthian capitals.
!n Kcplcrs imagc, thc canonical ordcrs ol ancicnt
architccturc point to a moral about thc achicvcmcnts ol
thc modcrns. Takcn togcthcr, thc building and its inhabit
ants told a singlc, cohcrcnt story: that ol how human cort
had conqucrcd, il not thc sphcrc ol thc stars, at lcast thc
mathcmatical rulcs that govcrncd thcir movcmcnts. Kcplcr,
morcovcr, did not connc his thoughts about cultural
dcvclopmcnt to astronomy. Hc notcd that thc various arts
and scicnccs had oltcn ourishcd togcthcr lor bricl, dis
tinct pcriods, and suggcstcd that it was not thc inucncc ol
thc plancts in conjunction, but that ol ncw dcvclopmcnts
in communicationabovc all printingthat causcd thcsc
bursts ol crcativity.
vcr thc coursc ol thc scvcntccnth ccntury, somc

astronomcrs rcalizcd that thcir art, which had brought so
much prccision to thc history ol thc rst millcnnium ncv,
could not hclp thcm much with carlicr pcriods, sincc no
datcablc cclipscs or conjunctions accompanicd thc Flood
or thc building ol thc Towcr ol 8abcl. Tc 8iblc itscll,
morcovcr, camc undcr thrcat, at lcast as thc most authori
tativc sourcc lor world history. Chronologcrs worricd that
thc chronologics ol gypt, China, and thc Ncw Vorld
cxtcndcd bcyond thc pcriod that thc 8iblc allowcd bctwccn
Crcation and thc coming ol Jcsus, and thcy had no good
[ 15]
_______________________________
!n his Universal History, Franccsco
8ianchini uscd cclcctic imagcs both
as sourccs lor and dcpictions ol thc
carly stagcs ol history. His titlc pagc
cmphasizcd thc ancicnt statucs, rclicls,
and artilacts that hc saw as morc
rcliablc sourccs than thc calcndar
cyclcs bclovcd ol carlicr chronologcrs
(and onc ol which is dcpictcd hcrc,
almost buricd undcr othcr sourccs ol
cvidcncc).
8 Chapter 3: Graphic Transitions
[ 1617]
_______________________________
8ianchinis illustrations lumpcd
togcthcr pcoplc and objccts lrom
a varicty ol rclicls and vcsscls. Hc
argucd that thcsc prcscrvcd truc, il
chronologically imprccisc, rccords
ol human history. Unlikc Schcdcl or
Rolcvinck, 8ianchini saw thc picturcs
that accompanicd his timclinc not as
dccorations or as aids to mcmory, but
as crucial sourccs.
rcasons to rcjcct thcsc accounts. !n lact, thc Jcsuits in China
had rcccivcd papal pcrmission to usc thc Grcck 8iblc, sincc
thc Chincsc lound its long chronology morc plausiblc and
rcspcctablc than thc shortcr Hcbrcw onc. Mcanwhilc, grow
ing intcrcst in thc history ol thc carth bcgan to suggcst that
it might havc comc into cxistcncc so long ago that thc bibli
cal account ol Crcation could no longcr bc takcn litcrally.
No wondcr, thcn, that anothcr Jcsuit, Franccsco
8ianchini, did his bcst to rcconstruct chronology on a
ncw loundation. An cxpcrt astronomcr, 8ianchini hclpcd,
as othcr Jcsuits had, to cquip churchcs with apcrturcs and
scalcs ol mcasurcmcnt that turncd thcm into vast instru
mcnts with which to obscrvc thc movcmcnt ol thc sun
according to Copcrnican principlcs.
Tc morc hc kncw
about astronomy, howcvcr, thc morc clcarly hc saw that it
could not rcsolvc thc problcms ol chronology lor thc carli
cst ccnturics ol history, as Apianus and Mcrcator, Scaligcr
and Usshcr had hopcd. Tcrc wcrc simply not cnough rm
corrclations bctwccn historical cvcnts and astronomical
obscrvations to rid history ol its contradictions and incon
sistcncics: thc disciplinc must, in thc cnd, rcmain imprccisc
whcrc thc oldcst datcs wcrc conccrncd. Tc conjccturc
ol an historian, 8ianchini rcmarkcd, is not thc dccrcc ol
a magistratc.
.c
Accordingly, hc turncd at thc cnd ol thc
scvcntccnth ccntury to anothcr sort ol cxpcrtiscthat ol
thc antiquarics.
Lurking in archacological sitcs in and around Romc,
8ianchini bccamc convinccd that thc modcst matcrial
rcmains hc and othcrs lound thcrc, rathcr than astronomical
data unconncctcd to historical or biblical cvcnts, aordcd
thc bcst loundation on which to build a solid chronology.
[ gs. 1517] Tc ancicnts, hc argucd, in trying to makc thc
idca ol history truc and solid, dccidcd to cxprcss it with
gurcs that wcrc dcsigncd morc to provc a lact than to givc
acsthctic plcasurc. And thc rcsults ol thcir workprimary
sourccs in thc most clcmcntal scnsc, sincc thcy camc lrom
thc ancicnt world itscllocrcd solid knowlcdgc ol a sort
that astronomical tablcs could not: !n thc judgmcnt ol our
agc, thc rituals, individuals, and pcriods that thcy rcprc
scntcd in mctals and on stonc sccm to bc thc most authori
tativc witncsscs and illustrations ol thc cvcnts that thcy say
took placc.
..
Truc, thc chronology that thcsc rclics yicldcd
would lack thc prccisc datcs with which traditional timc
lincs had bccn markcd o. 8ut it would also havc acsthctic
and inlormational qualitics that thcy lackcd.
8ianchini madc his ncw history ol thc world a mosaic,
picccd togcthcr lrom antiquitics that hc intcrprctcd with
grcat imaginativc lrccdom. !n 8ianchinis hands, a basrclicl
[ 18]
_______________________________
Hcrc 8ianchini uscs art to translorm
a modcst archacological ndan
ancicnt vcsscl that containcd human
and animal gurcsinto a spcctacular
virtual muscum. Hc took it as a
rccord ol ancicnt rcligion, which, in
turn, commcmoratcd thc Flood. Tc
ancicnt pricsts had uscd a hydraulic
dcvicc to oat thc littlc box, a
mcmorial to thc Ark, and thus to
instill picty in thc ordinary pcoplc as
thcy carricd out thcir ycarly rituals in
mcmory ol thc Flood.
ol an ancicnt circus turncd into a gurcd chronology ol
ancicnt bclicls about thc Crcation. Vhcn thc ancicnts
paradcd thc imagcs ol thcir gods through thc circus, in lront
ol thc chariots ol thc compctitors, thcy showcd that thcy
rcmcmbcrcd, at lcast, that God had crcatcd thc univcrsc.
Anothcr sct ol imagcs providcd a cluc to thc gyptian ori
gins ol agriculturc. Tc gurc ol Mcrcury or Toth, hold
ing a caduccus, showcd that God had rcvcalcd thc arts and
cralts to humanity, and in gypt rst.
Most thrilling ol alland most dramatically rcprc
scntcdis a brokcn vasc lull ol human and animal gu
rincs and a littlc woodcn box. [ g. 18] Tis 8ianchini took
as a hydraulic dcvicc that thc ancicnts had uscd in thcir
ycarly lcasts on thc annivcrsary ol thc Floodwhich thc
Grccks, likc thc Jcws, had ncvcr lorgottcn. Tc littlc g
urcs somc ol which hcld thcir hands ovcr thcir laccs, clcarly
rcprcscntcd humans trying to cscapc thc dclugc. 8y mak
ing thc box oat insidc thc vcsscl, thc pricsts would havc
amazcd thc pcoplc and inspircd rcvcrcnccthc only mood
appropriatc to a commcmoration ol thc ncardcstruction
ol thc human racc.
.a
For a ccntury and morc, thc Kunst
und Vundcrkammcr had ocrcd a visual history ol cul
turc. Now, 8ianchini turncd chronology itscll into a virtual
Kunstund Vundcrkammcr. nly thc study ol objccts, not
that ol thc stars, could providc a mcaninglul account ol
timca scicncc not ol datcs, but ol cultural dcvclopmcnt.
Tc antiquarics wcrc not thc only chronologcrs ol cul
turc. [ gs. 1921] Many scholars rcspondcd to thc vast surgc
ol printcd inlormation, ancicnt and modcrn, that thrcatcncd
to ovcrwhclm thcir librarics, bibliographics, and notcbooks
by dcvising a cld ol inquiry that thcy callcd litcrary his
tory.
.
Litcrary historians likc anicl Gcorg Morhol madc
a lormal cort to collcct thc primary and sccondary sourccs
lor cvcry cld ol human activity and drcw up manuals lor
lcss cncrgctic rcadcrs, tcaching thc tricks nccdcd to stay
uptodatccarly modcrn countcrparts to Picrrc 8ayards
How to Talk About Books You Havent Read.
.
!n Gcrman
univcrsitics, prolcssors gavc courscs on thc subjcct, rcading
out lists ol titlcs lrom grcat librarics and commcnting on
thcir authors and thcir contcnts.
8y thc middlc ol thc scvcntccnth ccntury, litcrary his
tory took visual lorm. Johann Hcinrich Alstcd drcw up a
lascinating, though visually undistinguishcd, cultural chro
nology that gavc datcs lor thc rst pyramid, thc rst obclisk,
thc rst labyrinth, and thc rst musical instrumcnt, among
many othcr rsts. Pctcr Lambcck, a Protcstant scholar
lrom Hamburg who convcrtcd to Catholicism and bccamc
librarian ol thc Holy Roman mpcrors collcctions in
[ 19]
_______________________________
Johann Hcinrich Alstcd includcd what
amountcd to a chronology ol culturc,
a long list ol invcntors and thcir
invcntions, in his +6:8 chronology.
Hc rangcd widcly, noting thc crcation
ol cvcrything lrom poctic gcnrcs to
pcriods. 8ut hc did not try to corrclatc
invcntions to particular pcriods and
socictics, as Kcplcr did: this list is just
a list.
[ 2021]
_______________________________
Pctcr Lambcck traccd thc dcvcl
opmcnt ol a singlc cultural lorm,
litcraturc, lrom thc bcginning to thc
prcscnt. For carly ccnturics hc ocrcd
lcw cntrics, and many ol thcm dcalt
with works attributcd to Adam and
othcr patriarchs, which Lambcck
dcscribcd as latc lorgcrics. For latcr
pcriods, by contrast, a closcly printcd
cloud ol cntrics rcvcalcd that ccrtain
placcs and timcslatc Rcpblican and
!mpcrial Romc, lor cxamplchad
bccn high points in human crcativity.
\icnna, cxplorcd many ol thc grcat librarics ol uropc. Hc
kncw how vast thcy wcrc, and how hard it was lor scholars
to sort and asscss thcir contcntscspccially lor univcrsity
tcachcrs who tricd to givc accuratc short accounts ol thcm
in thcir courscs. Lambcck, accordingly, sct out to composc
thc rst lormal history ol litcraturc. A traditionalist whcrc
lorm was conccrncd, hc cquippcd his book with claboratc
tablcs that showcd thc dcvclopmcnt ol all kinds ol writing,
lrom Crcation to thc prcscnt.
Latcr, whcn cightccnthccntury writcrs such as
\oltairc and Joscph Pricstlcy bcgan to composc vcrbal and
visual historics ol culturc, thcy drcw togcthcr thc thrcads
that 8ianchini, Lambcck, and othcrs had spun: without
thcm, thcy could not havc wovcn thcir historical tapcstrics.
Tc carlicr cntcrpriscs had cncountcrcd scrious problcms.
Lambcck, lor cxamplc, had rctaincd thc unilorm, columnar
lorm ol uscbian chronology, whilc assigning morc spacc
to thc last ccnturics ol history bclorc thc !ncarnation than
to thosc that immcdiatcly lollowcd thc Crcation. Yct hc was
too conscrvativc to abridgc thc carly ccnturics radically, and
cndcd up dcvoting virtually blank columns to thcm. Vhcn
dcaling with latcr pcriods, by contrast, hc crowdcd so many
writcrs, lrom so many traditions, into a rcstrictcd spacc that
it bccamc impossiblc to lollow thc litcrary dcvclopmcnts
hc hopcd to clarily. For all thc powcr and prcscicncc ol
Lambccks cort to givc culturc itscll a graphical cxprcs
sion, hc cndcd up, likc so many ol his prcdcccssors, tabulat
ing inlormation rathcr than giving it a lorm that madc it
casy to grasp.
!n thc sccond hall ol thc scvcntccnth ccntury, as
thc possibility ol xing thc Crcation, thc Flood, and thc
lounding ol Romc to rigorously cstablishcd datcs sccmcd
to rcccdc, somc chronologcrs translcrrcd thcir ingcnu
ity cntircly to thc pcdagogical part ol thcir cntcrprisc: to
xing thc traditional sct ol datcs that schoolboys had to
mastcr to imagcs so mcmorablc that thcy would bccomc
unlorgcttablc. Johanncs 8uno, who taught in Luncburg,
dcvotcd himscll lor hall a ccntury to dcvising tcxtbooks
that wrappcd thc standard narrativc ol ancicnt and mcdi
cval history in striking imagcs and codcd cucs to short
tcxts. History, hc cxplaincd, was a vast occan, and thc stu
dcnt nccdcd thc propcr navigational cquipmcnt in ordcr to
avoid shipwrcck. !dcally, hc cxplaincd, thc studcnt would
mcmorizc thc wholc ordcr ol timc, as it wcrc, rcduccd into
a singlc body and sct out in particular pcriods or scgmcnts,
and whcncvcr important cvcnts wcrc mcntioncd, hc would
immcdiatcly bc ablc to work out to which pcriod or scg
mcnt thcy bclong.
.
8uno had just thc graphic tools lor this job. [gs. 2224]
For thc lour millcnnia that strctchcd bctwccn thc Crcation,
in cc ncv, and thc coming ol Jcsus, hc lound lour com
prchcnsivc imagcs: an caglc, a sct ol planks, a camcl, and
a dragon. ach imagc summcd up a vital aspcct ol thc
millcnnium it stood lor (thc planks, lor cxamplc, rclcrrcd
to Noahs ark, and thc camcl to thc camcls on which thc
Jcws had madc thcir xodus lrom gypt). 8ut cach also
providcd a vivid, mcmorablc background, on which 8uno
placcd imagcs ol important mcn and womcn. ach indi
vidual carricd out his propcr task: Scth hcld his two pil
lars, lor cxamplc, whilc thc astronomcr Ptolcmy scanncd
thc skics. And cach oncs idcntity was rcinlorccd, lor pur
poscs ol mcmorization, by a rcbus. Two ccls dcvouring onc
anothcr, ncxt to Alcxandcr thc Grcat, would rcmind thc
studcnt ol his namc (ic Ahlc csscn nandcr |thc ccls cat
cach othcr|).
.6
8unos work lound somc usc, lrom thc Pictist orphan
agc in Hallc to thc court at Hcidclbcrg. 8ut it also occa
sioncd sharp criticism. Gottlricd Lcibnizwho was not
only a grcat philosophcr and scicntist, but also a sophis
ticatcd historiandisapprovcd ol 8unos wholc mcthod.
Somc ol thc imagcs, hc complaincd, wcrc conncctcd to
thc pcoplc and cvcnts thcy rcprcscntcd not only by somc
natural rclationship but in a complctcly arbitrary way.
Vhat rcally bothcrcd him, though, was that 8uno had
dcpartcd lrom thc lincar structurc that was csscntial lor
a timclinc: in cach imagc, dicrcnt gurcs arc not sct out
in chronological ordcr, but in ordcr to gain spacc thcy arc
thrown into conlusion. Yct chronological ordcr is thc most
important goal ol this kind ol prcscntation, and it rcvcals
thc conncctions bctwccn cvcnts.
.,
Tc rcccnt prolilcration
ol lacts and visual modcls had not improvcd thc timclinc,
Lcibniz thought, but undcrmincd it. Somc tcachcrs agrccd,
and told thcir studcnts to mcmorizc 8unos lacts and ignorc
thc sccondary claborations.
8y thc cnd ol thc scvcntccnth ccntury, thc Ncapolitan
jurist Giambattista \ico and othcr historians wcrc alrcady
at work disasscmbling structurcs likc thcsc whilc striving
to crcatc a morc mcaninglul chronography ol culturc. Truc,
\ico includcd a traditional uscbian tablc ol thc ycars
lrom thc Flood to thc Sccond Punic Var in his Scienza
nuova (Ncw scicncc), which rcachcd its nal lorm in thc
cdition ol .,. 8ut hc conlcsscd that, !n lact thcsc pcoplc
and cvcnts did not cxist at thc timcs and placcs commonly
assigncd to thcm, or ncvcr cxistcd at all.
.
Tc ancicnt
gyptians and Pcrsians, in his vicw, had known almost
nothing about carly history. Tcir rst anccstors had bccn
[ 2223]
_______________________________
Tc scvcntccn ccnturics ol thc
Common ra arc cach rcprcscntcd
by a singlc gurc such as a bcar or
a vcsscl ol oil. Johanncs 8uno uscd
unlorgcttablc gurcs, curious dctails,
and riddlcs to lorgc a chronography
that could also scrvc as a virtual
mcmory thcatcr, a handy systcm lor
mcmorizing namcs and datcs. !n cach
ol his imagcs, it is possiblc to lollow
thc numbcrs and tic thc individuals
hc portrays to thcir prccisc points in
historic timc.
+ Chapter 3: Graphic Transitions
[ 24]
_______________________________
!n Johanncs 8unos +6: univcrsal
history, cach millcnnium bclorc thc
birth ol Christ is gurcd by a largc
allcgorical imagc such as thc dragon ol
thc lourth millcnnium dcpictcd hcrc.
[ 2526]
_______________________________
Giambattista \ico, thc loncly,
prcscicnt Ncapolitan scholar who
hopcd to makc history into what hc
callcd a ncw scicncc, rctaincd thc
traditional uscbian chronological
tablc in his study ol world history. 8ut
in his tcxt hc dismisscd his own tablc
as a tissuc ol crrors inhcritcd lrom
thc pagans and argucd that historians
should usc a philosophical, not a
chronological, mcthod to rccrcatc thc
dcvclopmcnt ol human socicty.
barbarians, tcrricd by thc thundcr and lightning that lol
lowcd thc Flood. Sincc thcy had no solid rccords ol thcir
carly history, thcy simply invcntcd thcm, making thcm as
long as thcir vanity dcmandcd. Traditional chronology,
lrom uscbius to thc prcscnt, was built on thcsc lragilc
loundations. Hcncc \icos contcmpt lor his own tablc as
wcll as thosc ol othcrs.
For \ico, as thc complcx baroquc imagc that scrvcd as
thc lrontispiccc ol his work suggcsts, only philosophy could
sort thc past into its truc pcriods, not by juggling thc datcs
transmittcd by ignorant pagans, but by intcrprcting thcir
myths. [gs. 2526] Tc wand on top ol thc altar suggcsts
that pagan rcligion bcgan in divination, thc torch shows that
marriagc was thc rst institution, and thc plow rcvcals that
thc lathcrs ol thc carly pagan pcoplcs wcrc historys rst
strongmcn.
.
Tc task ol chronography, \ico argucd, was
not to idcntily thc cxact cras at which kings had suppos
cdly rulcd, but to distinguish thc stagcs ol dcvclopmcnt
through which human culturc had passcdand by doing
so, to makc clcar, against thc convcntional wisdom, that thc
human racc had bccomc wiscr as timc passcd. !n his vicw,
Homcr was not thc sophisticatcd, philosophical poct that
allcgorists had thought thcy rcad, but a primitivc bard who
had writtcn lor scmibarbarous Grccks at thc bcginning ol
thcir history. Chronographics had lost its original lunction
as thc kcy to thc 8iblc, but had gaincd a ncw onc as thc
rccord ol culturc and its translormations.
For all ol thc advanccs in chronological scholarship in thc
carly modcrn pcriod, thc graphic ambitions ol thc chronol
ogcrs provcd hard to lulll. Tc tcxtbooks said ovcr and ovcr
again that chronology and gcography wcrc thc two cycs ol
history. 8ut il this wcrc thc casc, thc carly modcrn history
studcnt was liablc to cnd up with scrious problcms ol dcpth
pcrccption. uring thc ltccnth and sixtccnth ccnturics,
gcographical maps bccamc morc sophisticatcd and prc
cisc, as cartographcrs abandoncd thc vcncrablc and durablc
lorm ol thc Ptolcmaic map lor ncw convcntions and addcd
vast amounts ol prcviously unknown inlormation.
Likc cartography, thc study ol chronology changcd
rapidly in this pcriod. arly modcrn chronologcrs cmploycd
ncw tcchniqucs lrom clds as disparatc as astronomy and
numismatics and laborcd tirclcssly to incorporatc into thcir
schcmcs ncw inlormation drawn lrom all ovcr thc world.
8ut, until thc cightccnth ccntury, thc cld ol chronology did
not undcrgo a visual rcvolution comparablc to thc onc that
took placc in gcography. Tc contrast was so striking that,
as latc as +, Frcnch physician and amatcur chronologcr
Jacqucs 8arbcuubourg could still writc,
Gcography is a plcasant and gratilying study. !t placcs bclorc
us an imagc ol thc world cntirc, which wc may travcrsc quickly
and rcturn to with plcasurc. !n it, thc world is lamiliar: wc
scc thc worlds pcoplcs, wc mcasurc distanccs at a glancc ol
an cyc or with a compass in hand, wc tracc thc contours ol
thc map so dccply in our imagination that thcy can ncvcr bc
lully crascd. Tc samc cannot bc said lor chronology, a cld
so dry, dicult, and thanklcss that it ocrs nothing morc to
thc spirit than a multitudc ol ugly datcs that ovcrwhclm and
lrustratc thc mcmory and arc thcn casily lorgottcn.
+
Tis lrom a man with a passion lor historical datcs.
vcn bclorc thc coming ol thc printing prcss, chro
nology was a bookhcavy cld, dcpcndcnt on thc collcc
tion and organization ol many prccisc and discrctc picccs
ol inlormation. Print tcchnology lacilitatcd thc storagc,
rcproduction, and disscmination ol inlormation in many
lorms, but it was particularly wcll suitcd to thc nccds ol
chronology, whcrc cxact rcproduction was a ncccssity, thc
accumulation ol data was paramount, and big, ovcrstucd
rclcrcncc books wcrc in high dcmand. !n thc ltccnth and
sixtccnth ccnturics, ncw dating tcchniqucs lcd to signicant
advanccs in chronologyApianus, lor cxamplc, sought to
cstablish rm chronological lootholds by corrclating data
lrom astronomy with rcccivcd historical accountsbut
many ol thc most striking advanccs ol thc pcriod rclicd
Chapter 4:
Chapter 4: A New Chart of History
on innovations in inlormation organization. And, in thc
lollowing two ccnturics, thc impact ol such innovations
intcnsicd. !n contrast to thc typcdominatcd chronology
books ol thc ltccnth and sixtccnth ccnturics, scvcntccnth
ccntury chronologics rclicd hcavily on nc cngraving,
which cnablcd grcatcr and grcatcr lcats ol data comprcs
sion, a morc uid mixturc ol imagc and tcxt, and ncarly
unlimitcd variations in script, layout, and proportion. As
a rcsult, during thc sccond hall ol thc scvcntccnth ccntury,
thc prcccdcnt ol Jcan 8oulacsc, who attcmptcd to condcnsc
much ol uscbius into a singlc chart, was widcly pursucd.
Among thc most inucntial ol thc synoptic works ol
thc latcr scvcntccnth ccntury wcrc thc Tables historiques,
chronologiques, & gnalogiques (Historical, chronological,
and gcncalogical tablcs) publishcd in thc +6os in two vol
umcs by thc Frcnch protcstant lawycr Jcan Rou.
:
[ g. 1] Tc
work compriscd a scrics ol cngravcd tablcs that condcnscd
hugc amounts ol chronological and gcncalogical inlormation
on scvcral ovcrsizcd pagcs. !nucntial as thcy wcrc to bccomc,
Rous charts wcrc not immcdiatcly imitatcd in Francc. His
rst volumc, on ancicnt history, was a grcat succcss, but his
sccond volumc on modcrn history, including thc pcriod ol
thc Rclormation, provcd so controvcrsial that it was banncd,
and Rou was lorccd to takc rclugc in thc Ncthcrlands.
Tough it would bc dccadcs bclorc Rous approach

was attcmptcd again in Francc, in ngland, it was takcn
up almost immcdiatcly in A View of Universal History by
Francis Tallcnts, a nonconlorming ministcr and tcachcr in
thc provincial town ol Shrcwsbury in thc Vcst Midlands
ncar thc bordcr ol Valcs. Trough Tallcntss book, Rous
lormat passcd into widcr usc, cspccially in thc nglish dis
scnting acadcmics, institutions cstablishcd lrom thc cnd ol
thc scvcntccnth ccntury to scrvc studcnts cxcludcd lrom
xlord and Cambridgc on rcligious grounds. (And it was
in thcsc vcry acadcmics that Joscph Pricstlcy, thc lamous
scicntist and thcologian who would rcvolutionizc thc cld
ol chronography in thc +6os, rst cncountcrcd thcm.)
vcntually, in +:, thc abb Nicolas Lcnglct du

Frcsnoy, author ol numcrous pcdagogical trcatiscs
including thc popular Mthode pour tudier l histoire
(Mcthod lor studying history)publishcd a similar work
in Francc, thc Tables chronologiques de l histoire universelle
(Chronological tablcs ol world history).
To Lcnglct du
Frcsnoy, thc nccd to push thc boundarics ol synoptic rcp
rcscntation sccmcd urgcnt. 8y thc carly cightccnth ccntury,
thc cld ol publishcd historiography was hugc and rapidly
growing: hc cstimatcd that it had alrcady surpasscd o,ooo
volumcs. Calculating on thc basis ol his own prodigious
Chapter 4: A New Chart of History
[ 1]
_______________________________
!n +6: thc rst volumc ol Jcan Rous
clcgantly cngravcd Tables historiques,
chronologiques, & gnalogiques on
ancicnt history was rcccivcd with
acclaim in Paris, but altcr his modcrn
history tablcs appcarcd in +6, his
works wcrc banncd lor thcir pcrccivcd
Protcstant contcnt. !n +68: thc
philosophcr Picrrc 8aylc lamcntcd
that Rous tablcs had bccomc almost
impossiblc to nd.
Cartographies of Time +oo
spccd and cndurancc in rcadinghc somctimcs rcad lor
lourtccn hours a dayLcnglct du Frcsnoy cstimatcd that
a diligcnt studcnt could not hopc to rcad morc than +,8oo
works ol history without making unacccptablc sacriccs in
mcmory and comprchcnsion. And, to assurc good valuc lor
thc intcllcctual labor, hc rccommcndcd rcading no morc
than +,:oo such works in a lilctimc, a numbcr which might
allow a pcrson to think a littlc about what hc rcads.
6

Lcnglct du Frcsnoy was among thc grcatcst cightccnth
ccntury promotcrs ol thc study ol chronology, but in his
work, wc can alrcady dctcct its dcclining status. vcn as
hc cmphasizcd thc importancc ol chronology, Lcnglct du
Frcnsnoy lamcntcd that it was so littlc valucd in rclation to
thc prcstigious cld ol history.
uring thc latc scvcntccnth ccntury somc chronog

raphics grcw, othcrs shrank. [ gs. 24] Finc cngraving
tcchniqucs madc tiny lonts practical, and by thc +68os thc
Frcnch writcr Guillaumc Marccl was publishing politi
cal and ccclcsiastical chronologics in pockct sizc. Marccls
modcl was copicd across uropc. !n ngland, it was adoptcd
by Villiam Parsons, a lormcr occr in thc invading army
ol thc Princc ol rangc now an cntrcprcncur who saw a
potcntial moncymakcr in this clcvcr, portablc objcct. Tc
study ol history, hc rcasoncd, was popular cnough and thc
subjcct mattcr mcssy cnough that many pcoplc might likc
to havc a small chronological chcat shcct to usc whilc thcy
rcad. Hcavy tomcs on chronology wcrc all wcll and good,
but what usc wcrc thcy to thc rcgular rcadcr:
Parsonss chronography was ncly tuncd to thc con
tcmporary uscs ol books. [ gs. 57] For his rst cdition ol
+68, hc commissioncd lortythrcc platcs lrom thc cngravcr
John Sturt, simplicd Marccls complcx layout and sym
bolic schcmc, and rcduccd its sizc cvcn lurthcr. As Parsons
hopcd, his ncw lormat was a commcrcial succcss, and many
cditions lollowcd, sclling ,ooo copics in about a dccadc.
8

Tough Parsons prizcd miniaturization, hc noticcd that in
somc ways thc tiny rst cdition sacriccd too much to con
sidcrations ol sizc. Tc papcr was too thin to writc on casily,
and thcrc was prccious littlc spacc in which to add annota
tions. Hc chosc thickcr, highcr quality papcr lor his sccond
cdition and printcd on only onc sidc ol cach pagc, lcaving
thc rcvcrsc lrcc lor notation.
Tc importancc ol ncw printing and cngraving tcch
niqucs in thc chronographics ol thc latcr scvcntccnth ccn
tury is cvidcnt too in lavish productions such as thc charts
lrom thc Lumen historiae sacrae (!lluminations ol sacrcd
history) by anish antiquarian Jcns 8irchcrod, which blcnd
gurativc and allcgorical clcmcnts with mountains ol data.

+o+ Chapter 4: A New Chart of History
[ 2]
_______________________________
!n his +68 A View of Universal
History, thc nonconlorming nglish
ministcr and tcachcr Francis Tallcnts
took up thc samc visual vocabulary
uscd by Jcan Rou a dccadc carlicr.
Tallcntss tablcs wcrc somcwhat
smallcr, but, likc Rous, thcy
pcrlormcd an imprcssivc lcat ol data
comprcssion. !n thcsc tablcs, datcs
arc not rcgularly spaccd. uring thc
carly agcs ol thc world, cspccially,
historical timc appcars to cxpand and
contract according to thc rhythms ol
gcncrations and ol important cvcnts.
[ 34]
_______________________________
Nicolas Lcnglct du Frcsnoy, covcr
and intcrior ol Tables chronologiques de
l histoire universelle, Paris, +:
Cartographies of Time +o:
[ 56]
_______________________________
Villiam Parsons, Chronological tables
of Europe, from the Nativity of our
Saviour to the Year 1703: Engraven
on 46 copper-plates, and contrivd in
a small compass for the pocket: Being
of great use for the reading of history,
and a ready help to discourse, London,
+o. Parsonss chart book includcd
a loldout kcy insidc thc lront covcr
so that uscrs could casily undcrstand
thc comprcsscd notations on intcrior
pagcs, as hcrc, on thc pagc lor thc
sixtccnth ccntury.
[ 7]
_______________________________
Villiam Parsonss pockctsizcd
Chronological tables (+o) sitting atop
Johann Gcorg Hagclganss hugc Atlas
historicus. (++8)
+o Chapter 4: A New Chart of History
[ gs. 89] !n onc chart, 8irchcrod gurcs thc gcncalogy ol
Jcsus as an inscription upon a ncoclassical monumcnt lcs
tooncd with ribbons, lruit, and owcrs. !n anothcr, thc cdi
cc ol thc Church lorms a column in a uscbian tablc. !n a
third, a tablc is intcrlaccd with pictorial rcprcscntations ol
thc Crcation. Tc chronological scalcs ol 8irchcrods tablcs
vary, but cach is sharply drawn, with a nc scnsc ol both acs
thctics and thc practical dcmands ol inlormation dcsign.
vcn as chronographics bccamc morc visually prccisc
and dclicatc, thcy continucd to attract thc bcnt nibs ol thcir
rcadcrs. [ g. 10] A notablc instancc ol manuscript anno
tation occurs in thc Princcton Univcrsity copy ol Discus
chronologicus (Chronological disc) crcatcd by thc prolic
Gcrman cngravcr Christoph Vcigcl around +:. As its
namc implics, thc Discus has thc lorm ol a circlc. At hcart,
howcvcr, it is a uscbian tablc, with columns lor datcs and
rows lor nationsonly thc columns hcrc arc radii, and thc
rows arc conccntric bands. Tc circular structurc crcatcd
challcngcs lor annotators. !n thc classic uscbian tablc,
thcrc is usually amplc spacc lor writing, as wcll as room
lor intcrlcaving and additions at thc cnd. 8ut thc closcd
circular lorm crcatcd by Vcigcl lclt littlc room lor hand
writing. As a rcsult, thc owncr ol this chart squcczcd his
or hcr notcs on contcmporary cvcnts into whatcvcr blank
spaccs wcrc availablc. Tc notcs bcgin, as thcy should, in
thc slim wcdgc dcsignatcd lor thc cightccnth ccntury, thcn
crccp ovcr into thc chronologically distant but graphically
continuous rst ccntury cv.
thcr cightccnthccntury scholars and cngravcrs lol
lowcd cvcn morc advcnturous graphic paths. [ g. 11] !n
++8, Gcrman cngravcr Johann Gcorg Hagclgans pub
lishcd a political and military Atlas historicus (Historical
atlas) that trcatcd thc uscbian lormat in an imaginativc
ncw way. Likc Lcnglct du Frcsnoy, Hagclgans blcw up thc
pagc bcyond lolio sizc.
+o
Tcn, in thc matrix crcatcd by thc
traditional row and column lormat, hc drcw thousands ol
tiny imagcs ol soldicrs, statcsmcn, and political gurcs lrom
biblical timcs to thc prcscnt. Hagclganss tablcs wcrc lull
ol surprising visual twists. Chronological grid lincs lramc
pcrspcctivc imagcs ol biblical and historical sccncs, and all
ovcr, trompc locil opcnings rcvcal dctailcd tablcaux hiding
bcncath thc surlacc ol thc chart. cspitc thc hugc scalc
ol thc work, Hagclgans aimcd to bc as visually ccicnt
as possiblc. His Atlas camc with a list ol cighty symbols
that indicatcd such dctails as thc ways that kings dicd and
how crowns wcrc acquircd. Tis pcrmittcd him to ncarly
do away with tcxt whilc prcscrving and cnlivcning thc old
uscbian matrix.
[ 8]
_______________________________
Tc Lumen historiae sacrae veteris &
novi testamenti per tabulas chronologicas
lrom +68 by thc anish antiquarian
Jcns 8irchcrod bcgins with a sct ol
scvcral chronological tablcs, cach
organizcd dicrcntly. Tough smallcr
than thc charts ol Rou and Tallcnts,
8irchcrods arc ncly cngravcd,
combining largc amounts ol data and
pictorial and dccorativc clcmcnts.
Cartographies of Time +o
[ 9]
_______________________________
Traditional columns and clcgant
obclisks rcprcscntcd as part ol a vast
monumcnt appcar sidc by sidc in
8irchcrods chronology ol Roman
history.
[ 10]
_______________________________
Tc aptly namcd Discus chronologicus
publishcd in thc carly +:os by thc
Gcrman cngravcr Christoph Vcigcl is
a volvcllc, a papcr chart with a pivoting
ccntral arm. Tc basic organization ol
data is inhcritcd lrom uscbius, but
hcrc thc layout is circular with rings
rcprcscnting kingdoms and radial
wcdgcs rcprcscnting ccnturics. Tc
namcs ol kingdoms arc printcd on
thc movcablc arm. n this Princcton
Univcrsity copy a rcadcr has inscribcd
cvcnts lrom contcmporary history in
thc blank spaccs ol thc cightccnth
ccntury wcdgc, at onc point carrying
ovcr into thc contiguous spacc ol
thc rst ccntury cv.

Cartographies of Time +o6
[ 11]
_______________________________
Tc chronological chart ol thc Crcation
and thc rst cpoch ol world history
lrom thc Atlas historicus publishcd by
thc Franklurt cngravcr Johann Gcorg
Hagclgans in ++8 pushcd thc limits ol
what could bc cxprcsscd in thc classic
tabular lormat ol uscbius. Tough
Hagclgans maintaincd thc lamiliar
historical matrix in thc background,
his cnormous charts burst through
cvcrywhcrc with imagcs, maps, and data.
Cartographies of Time +o8
thcr works, such as thc historical maps ol thc !talian
poct and scholar Girolamo Andrca Martignoni, dispcnscd
with uscbian lormat altogcthcr.
++
[ gs. 1214] !n scvcral
ncly cngravcd charts publishcd in +:+, Martignoni madc
a striking visual analogy bctwccn gcographic spacc and
historical timc. Tough hc calls thcm maps, Martignonis
works arc not historical maps in thc convcntional scnsc ol
gcographical snapshots lrom dicrcnt momcnts in history:
thcy arc chronological charts prcscntcd in a cartographic
lorm. Vhilc, at a glancc, thcy sccm to dcpict a circular tcr
ritory with a grcat lakc at thc ccntcr and rivcrs running
to and lro, on cxamination, thcsc rivcrs and land masscs
turn out not to bc landscapc lcaturcs but tcmporal mcta
phorstcrritorics ol history and rivcrs ol timc. Tc strcams
at thc top ol thc chart rcprcscnt thc nations conqucrcd
by thc Roman mpirc, thosc at thc bottom, thc nations
that cmcrgcd lrom it, and thc grcat lakc at thc ccntcr, thc
cmpirc itscll.
Likc Hagclgans, Martignoni attcmptcd, as much as
possiblc, to supprcss tcxt on his chart. His aim was to draw
thc rcadcr into a visual cxpcricncc ol inlormation. And,
just as in Hagclganss work, hcrc thc rcsults arc mixcd: thc
charts arc oltcn awkwardly symbolic, particularly whcn
codcd icons arc combincd. Vhcn a king dics whilc still
on thc thronc, thc cvcnt is markcd by a tiny skull, whcn
two throncs arc joincd by marriagc, this is markcd by a
ring, whcn a king dics and a quccn succccds him, a skull
appcars ncxt to a ring, to a somcwhat sinistcr ccct. 8ut
thc truc dicultics ol Martignonis chart arc ol a dicr
cnt ordcr. Gcographical spacc, it turns out, obcys dicrcnt
rulcs ol contiguity and continuity than docs historical timc.
Conqucsts ol distant lands, complicatcd dynastic allianccs,
marriagcs, rcmarriagcs, and so lorth, posc tricky problcms
lor thc gcographic mctaphor. n Martignonis map, rivcrs
oltcn pass ovcr othcr rivcrs, othcrs doublc back, landlorms
arc rcpcatcd, and laws ol gravity and uid mcchanics arc
cvcrywhcrc dccd.
Martignonis work ocrcd onc ol thc rst systcmatic
visualizations ol thc strcamoltimc mctaphor, but it was
lar lrom thc last. Latcr chronographcrs would takc a sim
plcr approach, using thc imagc ol thc rivcr to dcmonstratc
only thc grcatcr movcmcnts ol history, not thc nc dctails
that lcd Martignoni into so many cddics and backwatcrs.
Nonc ol this is to dcvaluc thc attcmpt. Likc Hagclgans,
Martignoni strctchcd what could bc shown in a singlc vicw
to thc vcry limit. Tough a riot ol visual contradictions, his
work suggcstcd what might bc possiblc il a map ol timc
could bc drawn in a consistcnt manncr.
[ 12]
_______________________________
Girolamo Andrca Martignoni,
Spiegazione della carta istorica dell Italia
(Historical map ol !taly), Romc, +:+
Cartographies of Time ++o
[ 1314]
_______________________________
Tc historical charts publishcd by thc
!talian scholar and poct Girolamo
Andrca Martignoni in +:+ imitatcd
cartographic lorms. Vhat appcar
at rst to bc world maps arc in lact
hybrid charts combining gcographic
and chronographic inlormation. Tc
largc rivcrs hcrc arc rivcrs ol timc.
Martignonis modcl was not widcly
copicd, but it vividly illustratcs thc
cightccnthccntury pursuit ol a ncw
visual vocabulary lor thc timc map.
+++ Chapter 4: A New Chart of History
Cartographies of Time ++:
For thc rcst ol thc cightccnth ccntury, thc problcm
ol rcgularization and mcasurcmcnt dominatcd ncw chro
nographic rcprcscntation. [ gs. 1517] Not all corts wcrc
cqually succcsslul. nc ol thc most ambitious works ol thc
pcriod was thc lincar Chronographie universelle (Univcrsal
chronography) publishcd in + by Jacqucs 8arbcu
ubourga lricnd ol 8cnjamin Franklin and an associ
atc ol thc ncyclopcdistswhich cxtcndcd thc tabular
approach ol uscbius into thc graphic sphcrc ol thc cigh
tccnthccntury cngravcrs.
+:
Following thc logic ol car
tography, 8arbcuubourg imposcd a rigorously unilorm
graphic scalc on his chart, markcd out by lincar scgmcnts
with thc look ol mcasuring rods. \isual rcgularity, in itscll,
was not ncw, and somc sixtccnth and scvcntccnthccn
tury works, such as thosc ol Gcrardus Mcrcator and Ubbo
mmius, had vcnturcd in thc dircction ol thc mcasurcd
linc. 8oth ol thcir works wcrc typographically bcautilul and
simplc, and both wcnt on lor pagcs and pagcs prcscnting
only a timc scalc with littlc or no inlormation surround
ing it. Still, thcrc is an important dicrcncc bctwccn thcir
works and that ol 8arbcuubourg. Although thc carlicr
chronographics dcnc a lincar graphic spacc, thcy do so
in only thc rough tcrms ol typography. 8arbcuubourgs
cngravcd chart, by contrast, allows thc rcadcr to mcasurc
timc with grcat prccisionand thc sccond cdition ol his
work lrom +88 camc cquippcd with a small brass tool lor
doing just that.
+
8arbcuubourgs chart took thc principlcs ol rcgularity
and cncyclopcdism to thcir logical cnd: his chart was hugc. !n
lact, at lcct long, it was vcry dicult to display all at oncc.
8ut 8arbcuubourg madc a virtuc ol ncccssity. Tough his
Chronographie universelle could bc purchascd as an accor
dion book that could bc unloldcd to thc lull lcct, it was
dcsigncd to bc scrollcd and vicwcd onc scction at a timc. To
this cnd, it could bc mountcd on an apparatus that 8arbcu
ubourg callcd a chronographic machinc, a custom box
ttcd with mctal scrolls and cranks. 8arbcuubourgs timc
machinc was hingcd at thc ccntcr, so that it could bc opcncd
on any surlacc and advanccd lrccly, allowing thc uscr to movc
with casc backward and lorward ovcr grcat strctchcs ol world
history. Tough ncvcr commcrcially succcsslul, it achicvcd
pcrhaps thc highcst honor ol thc pcriod, a dcdicatcd cntry in
thc Encyclopdie ol idcrot and dAlcmbcrt.
Tc +os saw thc publication ol othcr important
chronographics as wcll. [ g. 18] !n ngland, at just about
thc timc that 8arbcuubourgs machinc rst appcarcd, thc
cartographcr Tomas Jccrys rclcascd A Chart of Universal
History, a work that attcmptcd to rcsolvc thc dicultics
++ Chapter 4: A New Chart of History
ol thc cartographic approach in a dicrcnt way.
+
Likc
thc Chronographie universelle, Jccryss Chart of Universal
History commcnccs lrom a convcntional prcmisc. As in thc
tablcs ol uscbius, on Jccryss chart nations arc namcd in
a row at thc top ol thc pagc, whilc datcs dcsccnd in a col
umn down thc sidc. And, just as in thc oldcr tablcs, cvcnts
may bc locatcd by crossrclcrcncing datc against placc. 8ut
this is whcrc thc similaritics cnd.
!n thc rst placc, Jccryss chart is synoptic: it dis
plays all ol its data in a singlc, continuous planc, visiblc
all at oncc. !t is, ol coursc, possiblc to connc a standard
uscbian tablc to onc pagc, and this is what Jcan 8oulacsc
had donc whcn hc condcnscd and rclormattcd uscbius as
a broadsidc. 8ut, bcyond abridgcmcnt, most such corts
ocrcd no rcal lunctional advantagc ovcr thc codcx lormat.
Unlikc 8oulacscand unlikc Hclvicus and othcrs who had
produccd codcx chroniclcs with unilorm pagcsJccrys
did not dividc his data into discrctc, indcxcd cclls but madc
thc spacc ol thc chart a continuous cld. Tus, whilc thc
contcnt ol his chart is similar to that ol a traditional tablc,
thc lorcc ol dcmonstration is csscntially invcrtcd. Tc oldcr
lorm dirccts our attcntion to thc historical contcnt ol a
givcn timc/spacc, Jccryss ncw approach dirccts it to thc
tcmporal boundarics ol historical cntitics and cvcnts.
Somc ol thc advantagcs ol thc uscbian lormat
arc clcarly sacriccd in Jccryss approach. 8ccausc his
chart is continuous rathcr than ccllular, it docs not dividc
casily, and sowhilc it works bcautilully as a chartit
translatcs lcss wcll into thc lorm ol a bound book. His
chart is built to bc scanncd visually likc a gcographic map,
not indcxcd by row and column. 8ut thc advantagcs ol
Jccryss approach arc cqually clcar. !n contrast to thc
uscbian tablc, Jccryss chart not only gives datcs, it
shows thcm in a highly intuitivc lormat. mpircs such as
that ol Alcxandcr thc Grcat, which wcrc gcographically
vast but shortlivcd, look likc pancakcs, short and widc.
thcrs such as thc 8yzantinc, which wcrc gcographically
compact but longlivcd, look likc rccds, tall and narrow.
mpircs that wcrc both largc and longlivcd such as thc
Roman and ttoman appcar as grcat colorcd blocks.
!dcntically colorcd lragmcnts scattcrcd hcrc and thcrc
indicatc rcgions bclonging to a singlc cmpirc.
8ut bccausc Jccryss chart is not a gcographic map,
rclativc placcmcnt can bc dccciving. n it, Francc and
Gcrmany arc scparatcd by !taly, and gypt is sandwichcd
bctwccn China and South Amcrica. Sizc is also dcccp
tivc in many cascs: Jccrys dcvotcs as much spacc on thc
chart to !taly as hc docs to !ndia, and morc to Spain than to
[ 1516]
_______________________________
Princcton Univcrsitys stilllunctional
copy ol Jacqucs 8arbcuubourgs
lootlong Chronographie universelle,
mountcd on cranks and cncloscd in a
casc. Cranking lrom lclt to right, thc
scroll rcvcals a continuous, mcasurcd
timclinc ol history lrom thc Crcation
to thc prcscnt day.
[ 17]
_______________________________
Chronological mcasuring stick sold
with thc +88 cdition ol Jacqucs
8arbcuubourgs Chronographie
universelle.
Cartographies of Time ++
[ 18]
_______________________________
A Chart of Universal History was publishcd in +
by thc prolic cartographcrcngravcr Tomas
Jccrys, apparcntly on a Frcnch modcl. Tc chart
dircctly inucnccd Joscph Pricstlcy, though Pricstlcy
objcctcd to scvcral clcmcnts including its lack
ol unilorm scalc. !n +6o, Jccrys was namcd
gcographcr to Gcorgc !!!, a post hc hcld until his
dcath in ++. His grcatcst achicvcmcnts includc thc
General Topography of North America ol +68.
Cartographies of Time ++6
North and South Amcrica combincd. Tc chart is proudly
Romanoccntric, situating thc Roman mpirc at thc vcry
hcart ol world history and gcography. vcn so, it has thc
powcrlul ccct ol dcmonstrating thc impcrmancncc ol all
cmpircs. !n thc tcrms ol thc chart, gcographic nations pcrsist
throughout history, but cvcry cmpirccvcn thc imposing
cmpirc ol Romcis an island or an archipclago in timc.
Rcmarkablc as it was, thc Chart of Universal History
camc and wcnt quickly, a singlc loncly copy still rcsidcs in thc
8ritish Library. !ts grcatcst impact camc not dircctly but by
way ol its inucncc on thc scicntist and thcologian, Joscph
Pricstlcy, onc ol thc bcstknown writcrs ol his day. Vhcn
Jccryss chart appcarcd, Pricstlcy was twcnty ycars old and
starting his carccr. Hc had yct to cmbark upon thc rcscarch
that would lcad to his discovcry ol dcphlogisticatcd air in
+ or thc cnsuing controvcrsy with thc Frcnch scicntist
Antoinc Lavoisicr, who ocrcd a compcting cxplanation lor
Pricstlcys discovcry and a compcting tcrm, oxygcn.
Pricstlcy hcld a job as a tcachcr in a provincial dis
scnting acadcmy whcrc hc gavc courscs on many subjccts
including history. And, to this cnd, hc rcad a grcat dcal ol
history and consultcd whatcvcr good rclcrcncc works hc
could nd, including thosc ol Tomas Jccrys, Nicolas
Lcnglct du Frcsnoy, and Francis Tallcnts. ut ol thcsc
tcaching ycars camc important works on history, politics,
and cducation, somc ol which wcrc vcry widcly rcad, among
thcm his +88 Lectures on History and General Policy. Two
ol thc most cnduring wcrc his cngravcd doublclolio charts
ol chronology, A Chart of Biography lrom +6 and A New
Chart of History lrom +6.
To anyonc who had sccn Jccryss chart, thc conccit
ol Pricstlcys would havc comc as no surprisc. [ gs. 1920]
Pricstlcy appropriatcd Jccryss basic layout and somc ol
his visual conccpts, but hc also innovatcd in crucial ways.
Jccrys brought to thc chronographic projcct thc vision ol
an cngravcr: his chart dcmonstratcd just how much could
bc donc within thc conncs ol a singlc pagc. Pricstlcy, by
contrast, brought it thc vision ol a scicntist: hc was thc rst
chronographcr to conccptualizc his charts in tcrms similar
to thosc ol scicntic illustration, and hc was thc rst to lay
out systcmatic principlcs lor thc translation ol historical
data into a visual mcdium.
Pricstlcys charts wcrc clcgant and bigmorc than
thrcc lcct widc and two lcct tall. Tc Chart of Biography was
largc cnough to accuratcly rcgistcr thc births and dcaths ol
two thousand lamous historical gurcs, virtually all ol thcm
mcn, across thrcc thousand ycars in univcrsal timc, thc
New Chart of History displaycd thc latcs ol scvcntycight
important kingdoms and cmpircs during thc samc pcriod.
+

8oth works could bc purchascd as postcrs or as scrolls
wound up on rollcrs, and thcy wcrc aggrcssivcly markctcd
by Pricstlcys London publishcr.
Pricstlcy dcsigncd his charts lor thc curiosity and plca
surc ol a gcncral rcadcr, but thcy wcrc also mcant to scrvc
thc scholarand Pricstlcy bclicvcd that thc two aims wcrc
wcll scrvcd by thc samc approach. Faccd with thcsc charts,
Pricstlcy said, any child could rccognizc thc crror ol thc
tastclcss chronologcr who through torturcd calculations
had managcd to scparatc thc lovcrs ido and Acncas by
morc than thrcc hundrcd ycars.
+6
A simplc visual dcmon
stration, Pricstlcy said, would bc cnough to put an cnd to a
controvcrsy that had worricd commcntators on \irgil sincc
thc timc ol Pctrarch at lcast.
Pricstlcys charts arc mastcrpicccs ol visual cconomy.
8oth thc Chart of Biography and thc New Chart of History
obcy strict graphic convcntions. Along thcir top and bottom
cdgcs, thc charts arc markcd at intcrvals ol onc hundrcd
ycars. 8ctwccn thcsc ccntury marks, small dots indicatc
dccadcs. atcs inscribcd at top and bottom arc conncctcd by
vcrtical grid lincs to makc thc chart casy to rcad. !n addition,
thc Chart of Biography is dividcd into six horizontal bands
rcprcscnting arcas ol lilc achicvcmcnt. Tc uppcrmost is
dcvotcd to Historians, Antiquarics, and Lawycrs, thc ncxt,
to rators and Critics, Artists and Pocts, Mathcmaticians
and Physicians, ivincs and Mctaphysicians, and nally, at
thc vcry bottom ol thc chart, Statcsmcn and Varriors.
Tc intcrior ol thc Chart of Biography is llcd with about
two thousand small solid black horizontal lincs rcprcscnting
thc livcs ol lamous individuals. Vhcn Pricstlcy was ccrtain
ol datcs ol birth and dcath, hc bcgan and cndcd thcsc lincs
clcanly at thc appropriatc placc on thc chart. Vhcn hc was
unccrtain, hc bcgan or cndcd a linc with an cllipsis. vcn
thcsc cllipscs wcrc carclully drawn: Vhcn it is said that
a writcr ourished at or about a particular timc, a short lull
linc is drawn about two thirds bclorc and onc third altcr
that particular timc, with thrcc dots bclorc and two altcr it,
bccausc, in gcncral, mcn arc said to ourish much ncarcr thc
timc ol thcir dcath than thc timc ol thcir birth.
+
Tc biographical chart displays a striking simplicity ol
lorm. Pricstlcy mcant his chart to bc an ocular dcmonstra
tion ol thc mathcmatical principlcs that !saac Ncwton had
applicd in his own (posthumously publishcd) chronological
writings.
+8
Tcrc, Ncwton argucd that many chronologi
cal controvcrsics could bc scttlcd il thc distancc bctwccn
gcncrations wcrc cstimatcd according to mathcmatical
avcragcs. nc ol his lollowcrs, John Craig, had cvcn tricd
Cartographies of Time ++8
[ 19]
_______________________________
Joscph Pricstlcys A Chart of Biography
lrom +6 was thc most inucntial
timclinc ol thc cightccnth ccntury.
atcs run horizontally at a rcgular
pacc along thc top and bottom
margins. Morc than two thousand
tiny lincs show thc livcs ol lamous
mcn. Tc lilc lincs arc dividcd into
six catcgorics arrangcd as horizontal
bands: Historians, Antiquarians
and Lawycrs, rators and Critics,
Artists and Pocts, Mathcmaticians
and Physicians, ivincs and
Mctaphysicians, Statcsmcn and
Varriors. !n thc bottom margin ol thc
chart a list ol important kings is givcn,
lrom Saul to Gcorgc !!!.
__________
Courtcsy ol thc Library Company ol
Philadclphia
Chapter 2: Time Tables ++ Chapter 4: A New Chart of History
Cartographies of Time +:o
[ 20]
_______________________________
!n +6 Joscph Pricstlcy publishcd A
New Chart of History, hcwing morc
closcly to Tomas Jccryss modcl lor
a historical chart. Pricstlcy rcgularizcd
thc distribution ol datcs on thc
chart and oricntcd it horizontally to
cmphasizc thc continuous ow ol
historical timc. Pricstlcys two charts
obcycd thc samc scalc so that data
lrom onc could bc liltcd dircctly and
movcd to thc othcr.
__________
Philadclphia
Chapter 2: Time Tables +:+ Chapter 4: A New Chart of History
Cartographies of Time +::
to work out rulcs to cxprcss thc ratc at which historical
sourccs lost thcir probativc valuc ovcr timc. !n Pricstlcys
chart, thcsc avcragcs display thcmsclvcs cvcrywhcrc just as
thc unilormity ol thc coursc ol naturc rcquircs.
+
Tc New Chart of History is idcntical to thc Chart of
Biography in sizc and scalc, it bcgins and cnds at thc samc
datcs and has, running along its bottom cdgc, thc samc
list ol rulcrs bcginning with thc Hcbrcws and culminating
with thc modcrn kings ol ngland.
:o
Pricstlcy hopcd that
this common scalc would makc thc two charts casy to usc
togcthcr. Tough thcy could not litcrally bc supcrimposcd,
thcy could bc placcd sidc by sidc lor comparison, and, as
Pricstlcy notcs, rcadcrs might vcry casily inscribc on onc
chart inlormation drawn lrom thc othcr.
:+
As with thc Chart of Biography, Pricstlcy promotcd thc
New Chart of History as a tool to appcal to thc mind dircctly
through thc scnscs. !n contrast to chronology books, which
rcquircd grcat mcntal labor, thc New Chart of History was
dcsigncd to givc thc studcnt thc lccling ol sccing history in
action. Pricstlcy writcs,
!l thc rcadcr carry his cyc vertically, hc will scc thc contcm
porary statc ol all thc cmpircs subsisting in thc world, at any
particular timc. Hc may obscrvc which wcrc thcn rising,
which wcrc ourishing, and which wcrc upon thc dcclinc.
Casting his cyc a littlc on cach sidc ol thc vcrtical linc, hc will
scc what cmpircs had latcly gonc o thc stagc, and which
wcrc about to comc on.
::
Pricstlcy cmphasizcs that this cxpcricncc comcs without
reading. Hc makcs only onc signicant conccssion to thc
limitations ol thc simplc lincar graphic: lollowing Jccrys,
hc adds color to thc New Chart of History, an innovation
that allows him to cxhibit thc unity ol cmpircs that cannot
bc rcprcscntcd by continuous spaccs.
:
8oth ol Pricstlcys charts pcrlorm imprcssivc lcats ol
condcnsation. !n lact, thcy arc so dcnsc that thcy arc dil
cult to rcproducc wcll. And, whcn displaycd onc part at
a timc (clcctronically, on lm, or in print), thc aggrcgat
ing cccts ol thc works can casily bc lost. According to
Pricstlcy, thc charts had thc spccial charactcristic ol com
municating chronological rclationships at onc vicw.
:
!n
this way, thcy cxprcsscd thc potcntial ol thc graphic imagc
and amplicd thc virtucs ol historical study itscll. !n thc
charts, as in history, wrotc Pricstlcy, thc wholc is bclorc
us. Vc scc mcn and things at thcir lull lcngth, as wc may
say, and wc likcwisc gcncrally scc thcm through a mcdium
which is lcss partial than that ol cxpcricncc.
:
+: Chapter 4: A New Chart of History
[ 21]
_______________________________
Harry distractcd by a kalcidoscopc
salcsman, lrom Jccrys Taylor, Harrys
Holiday, or the Doings of One Who Had
Nothing to Do, London, +8+8
For dccadcs, Pricstlcys charts wcrc hcavily uscd, and
accounts ol thcm appcar throughout thc pcdagogical litcr
aturc ol thc latc cightccnth and carly ninctccnth ccnturics.
[ g. 21] Tcy wcrc, according to thc Cambridge Magazine,
an csscntial part ol a gcntlcmans library. And both thc nov
clist Maria dgcworth and thc physician rasmus arwin
(grandlathcr to Charlcs) rccommcndcd thcm as aids in thc
cducation ol womcn.
:6
8y thc carly ninctccnth ccntury,
Pricstlcys charts had bccomc an casily rccognizablc part ol
print culturc. An +8+8 childrcns book about thc dangcrs ol
distraction callcd Harrys Holiday hingcs on a young boys
lailcd attcmpt to hand copy onc ol Pricstlcys chartsa
loolish cort which occasions a lccturc lrom his lathcr on
thc virtucs ol mcchanical rcproduction.
:
8ut thc ctional Harry was lar lrom alonc, and manu
script copics ol historical charts lrom thc cightccnth ccntury
can still bc lound in librarics and archivcs. Somc ol thcsc
arc rotc studcnt work, othcrs, likc Harrys, arc thc product
ol individual initiativc. A manuscript historical chart in thc
manncr ol Pricstlcys New Chart of History madc around
+8oo, lor cxamplc, can bc lound in thc papcrs ol John
ickinson, thc rst govcrnor ol thc Statc ol clawarc.
And a copy ol Pricstlcys chart ol Hcbrcw chronology
lrom thc cightccnth ccntury can still bc lound slippcd
insidc a Pricstlcy volumc hcld at thc Library Company
ol Philadclphia, an carly circulating library cstablishcd by
8cnjamin Franklin in ++. [ gs. 2223]
For Pricstlcy, thc csscntial aim ol thc chronological
chart was to givc a broad vicw. From a distancc, to usc his
own analogy, thc lincs on thc Chart of Biography should
look likc so many small straws swimming on thc surlacc
ol |an| immcnsc rivcr, bunching and drilting apart as thc
currcnts ol history changc spccd.
:8
Tc chart is dcnscst at
thc lar right cdgc, that is to say, in rcccnt history. Tis is no
accidcnt ol dcsign, according to Pricstlcy,
thc noblcst prospcct . . . is suggcstcd by a vicw ol thc crowds
ol namcs in thc divisions appropriatcd to thc arts and sci
cnccs in thc last two ccnturics. Hcrc all thc classcs ol rcnown,
and, ! may add, ol mcrit, arc lull and a hundrcd timcs as
many might havc bccn admittcd, ol cqual attainmcnts in
knowlcdgc with thcir prcdcccssors. Tis prospcct givcs us a
kind ol sccurity lor thc continual propagation and cxtcnsion
ol knowlcdgc, and that lor thc luturc, no morc grcat chasms
ol mcn rcally cmincnt lor knowlcdgc, will cvcr disgurc that
part ol thc chart ol thcir livcs which ! cannot draw, or cvcr
scc drawn.
:
Cartographies of Time +:
[ 22]
_______________________________
Anonymous Historical Chart prcscntcd
to John ickinson around +8oo
__________
Philadclphia
[ 23]
_______________________________
V. H. 8arkcrs manuscript copy ol
Joscph Pricstlcys timclinc ol Hcbrcw
chronology in A Description of a Chart
of Biography, London, +6
__________
Philadclphia
!n othcr words, in Pricstlcys vicw, thc mass ol straws
accumulatcd at thc right ol thc chart rcprcscnts an actual
historical phcnomcnon, thc accclcration ol thc arts and
scicnccs in his own timc.
o
n thc Chart of Biography,
Pricstlcy writcs, what a gurc must scicncc makc.
+
And,
indccd, in Pricstlcys chart somcthing callcd scicncc litcr
ally takcs on a gurc, pcrhaps lor thc rst timc.
!n Pricstlcys work, thc grcat stagcs ol history arc
lramcd in quantitativc tcrms. n thc chart, thc Rcnaissancc
lcaturcs morc grcat scicntists than docs thc mcdicval pcriod,
and thc nlightcnmcnt still morc than thc Rcnaissancc.
8ut as Pricstlcy notcs, such changcs arc not apparcnt in
cvcry catcgory. Vhilc thc charts show clcarly that thcrc arc
agcs ol scicncc and art, thcy also show that cvcry agc is an
agc ol warriors. !n Pricstlcys vicw, thcrc is a moral to all
this. Hc writcs,
8y thc scvcral void spaccs bctwccn. . . groups ol grcat mcn,
wc havc a clcar idca ol thc grcat rcvolutions ol all kinds ol
scicncc, lrom thc vcry origin ol it, so that thc thin and void
placcs in thc chart arc, in lact, no lcss instructivc than thc
most crowdcd, in giving us an idca ol thc grcat intcrruptions
ol scicncc, and thc intcrvals at which it hath ourishcd. . . .
Vc scc no void spaccs in thc division ol Statcsmcn, Hcrocs,
and Politicians. Tc world hath ncvcr wantcd compctitors lor
cmpirc and powcr, and lcast ol all in thosc pcriods in which
thc scicnccs and thc arts havc bccn thc most ncglcctcd.
:
Pricstlcy was intcrcstcd in individual biographics, but
thc Chart of Biography was mcant to dcpict history in
thc broadcst tcrms, to show that cvcry lilc, cvcn thc most
cxtraordinary, was bcst undcrstood in rclation to its timc.

(see p. 18) Pricstlcy notcs that,
!t is a pcculiar kind ol plcasurc wc rcccivc, lrom such a
vicw as this chart cxhibits, ol a grcat man, such as Sir !saac
Ncwton, scatcd, as it wcrc, in thc circlc ol his lricnds and
illustrious contcmporarics. Vc scc at oncc with whom hc
was capablc ol holding convcrsation, and in a manncr (lrom
thc distinct vicw ol thcir rcspcctivc agcs) upon what tcrms
thcy might convcrsc.
Pricstlcys admiration lor Ncwton was boundlcss, and in

othcr works hc discusscs at lcngth thc achicvcmcnts ol
that grcat lathcr ol thc truc philosophy.
8ut, on thc
Chart of Biography, Ncwton docs not stand apart lrom his
contcmporarics. His linc bcgins and cnds simply, just likc
all ol thc othcrs.
Cartographies of Time +:6
Tough thc Chart of Biography prcscntcd prccisc inlor
mation about individual livcs, it was thc aggrcgating cccts
ol thc chart that Pricstlcy lound most rcmarkablc, and its
ability to communicatc idcas in a purcly graphic lashion,
without thc usc ol words. Pricstlcy writcs,
!t is plain that il a shcct ol papcr bc dividcd into any cqual
spaccs, to dcnotc ccnturics, or othcr intcrvals, it will bc a chart
truly rcprcscnting a ccrtain portion ol univcrsal timc, and il
thc timc ol any particular pcrsons birth and dcath bc known,
it is but joining thc two points ol thc chart which corrcspond
to thcm, and you havc a linc truly rcprcscnting thc situation
ol that lilc, and cvcry part ol it, in univcrsal timc, and thc
proportion it bcars to thc wholc pcriod which thc chart com
priscs . . . . Tcy arc thc lincs . . . which suggcst thc idcas, and
this thcy do immcdiatcly, without thc intcrvcntion ol words:
and what words would do but vcry impcrlcctly, and in a long
timc, this mcthod cccts in thc complctcst manncr possiblc,
and almost at a singlc glancc.
6
Tough Pricstlcy says that namcs must bc writtcn on thc
chart, hc spccics that thcir lunction is mcrcly indcxical.
Tc chart lunctions as a graphical rcprcscntation ol his
tory without a singlc namc bcing mcntioncd. !n Pricstlcys
words, it is thc black line undcr cach namc which is to bc
attcndcd to: thc namcs arc only addcd bccausc thcrc was
no othcr mcthod ol signilying what livcs thc lincs stand
lor.
Pricstlcys charts mark a crucial transition in thc his

tory ol chronographic rcprcscntation. Altcr Pricstlcy, most
rcadcrs simply assumcd thc analogy bctwccn historical timc
and mcasurcd graphic spacc, so thc naturc ol thc argumcnts
around chronographic rcprcscntation shiltcd dramatically.
Tc issuc was no longcr how to justily thc analogy but how
bcst to implcmcnt it. Pricstlcy had dcmonstratcd that thc
clusivc timc map sought by Martignoni and othcrs was not
a map in thc convcntional scnsc. And, lollowing Pricstlcys
cxamplc, modcrn chronologcrs would cxploit thc visual
languagc ol cartography, but in a dicrcnt idiom.
arly modcrn cartographcrs wcrc intcrcstcd in his
tory, too, and cxpcrimcntcd widcly with ways ol rcprcscnt
ing history through maps.
8
!n +o, with his loundational
work Teatrum orbis terrarum (Tcatcr ol thc world), thc
cartographcr Abraham rtclius rclormulatcd thc old rhc
torical lormula that madc chronology and gcography two
cycs ol history in a way that lavorcd thc mapmakcrs. For
rtclius, gcography was not onc ol thc two cycs ol history,
but its singlc oculus: All |lovcrs ol historics| will rcadily
[ 2425]
_______________________________
Many publishcrs crcatcd atlascs bascd
on Las Cascss systcm, among thcm
C. \. Lavoisnc. His A new genealogical,
historical, and chronological atlas, +8o,
with its charactcristic typcsct tablcs, is
picturcd hcrc.
Cartographies of Time +:8
arm with us how ncccssary is thc knowlcdgc ol rcgions
and provinccs, ol thc scas, thc location ol mountains, val
lcys, citics, thc coursc ol rivcrs, ctc., lor attaining |a lull|
undcrstanding ol historics. Tis is what thc Grccks callcd
by thc propcr namc geography, and ccrtain lcarncd pcrsons
(rightly) call the eye of history.
Tc Teatrum ol rtclius
aimcd to aid thc study ol history by providing maps ol tcr
rains discusscd in historical tcxts.
vcr thc coursc ol thc scvcntccnth ccntury, cartog
raphcrs produccd many variations on thc rtclian thcmc:
collcctions ol maps organizcd gcographically, thcmati
cally, andvcry occasionally, as in thc +6+ Holy Land ol
Philippc dc la Ruchronologically.
o
!n somc instanccs, as
in Zacharias Chtclains lamous Atlas historique (Historical
atlas) publishcd in Amstcrdam bctwccn +o and +:o,
maps wcrc juxtaposcd with tcxts on history, datc lists, and
gcncalogical trccs.
+
Tc samc logic was latcr amplicd in
thc wildly succcsslul Atlas Lesage, rst publishcd in +8o+ by
thc Frcnch aristocrat mmanuclAugustinicudonn
Joscph, comtc dc Las Cascsa colorlul gurc who cvcntu
ally scrvcd as onc ol Napolcons sccrctarymcmoirists during
his cxilc on St. Hclcna. [ gs. 2425] Tc Atlas Lesageso
namcd lor thc nom dc plumc ol Las Cascswas organizcd
gcographically, not chronologically. 8ut cach pagc was
loadcd with historical inlormation, gcncalogical trccs, and
typcsct historical schcmatics.
:
uring thc latc cightccnth ccntury, cspccially altcr
Johann Matthias Hascs Atlas historicus (Historical atlas)
ol +o, it bccamc incrcasingly common to arrangc collcc
tions ol historical maps chronologically, but it was not until
thc bcginning ol thc ninctccnth ccntury that historical car
tographcrs, such as Christian Krusc, bcgan to dcpict timc
at rcgular historical intcrvals. !n Hascs atlas and othcrs likc
it, maps arc givcn lor important historical cvcnts such as
grcat battlcs and conqucsts, and so thc ow ol timc is capri
cious. 8y contrast, Kruscs Atlas zur bersicht der Geschichte
aller europischen Staaten (Survcy atlas ol thc history ol all
thc uropcan statcs) ol +8o:+o providcs onc map lor cach
ccntury rcgardlcss ol how cvcntlul that ccntury may havc
bccn.
Tc works ol both Hasc and Krusc, likc most ol thc

historical atlascs that would lollow, rcprcscntcd history as
a scrics ol discrctc momcntsthough somc cartographcrs
such as dward Quin tricd hard to introducc a lccling ol
tcmporal ow. [ gs. 2628] Quins +8o Historical Atlas lol
lows thc cxamplc ol Hasc, but his charts ingcniously imply
thc growth ol historical knowlcdgc through imagcs ol
clouds gradually dispcrsing lrom pancl to pancl. !n Quins
[ 2628]
_______________________________
Tc conccpt ol a historical atlas as
a collcction ol gcographical maps
showing snapshots ol thc world
at dicrcnt historical momcnts is
cxcmplicd in dward Quins An
Historical Atlas, rst publishcd in +8:8.
Quins maps showcd how thc political
world was dividcd up at dicrcnt
momcnts ol history, and, through
thc dcvicc ol clouds rolling back, hc
indicatcd how much ol thc world was
known to thc Vcst at cach stagc in
history.
Historical Atlas, thc world is shown rst in darkncss, with
clouds obscuring cvcrything outsidc thc Gardcn ol dcn.
Gradually, as history rcvcals morc ol thc world, thc clouds
roll back. Turning thc pagcs ol thc atlas is a bit likc ril
ing through a ip book, watching darkncss rcccdc and thc
world known to uropcans grow.
A rclatcd dynamic ol rcvcaling is at work in many ol
thc cxtcndcd chronographic charts as wcll, and thc ccct is
oltcn surprising. ightccnth and ninctccnthccntury chro
nology charts givc a grcat dcal ol inlormation about gypt,
Pcrsia, !ndia, and China in ancicnt timcs. 8y contrast, thcy
givc vcry littlc about uropc, Alrica, or thc Amcricas. !n
narrativc historiography, this poscd littlc problcm: subjccts
wcrc raiscd as thc historian had somcthing to say. 8ut in
thc quasigcographic lormat ol thc historical chart, such
gaps in historical knowlcdgc wcrc glaring. n Pricstlcys
New Chart of History, lor cxamplc, thc chronology ol cach
nation is shown lrom +:oo ncv to +8oo cv rcgardlcss ol
whcthcr Pricstlcy has cntrics to makc. Pricstlcy ncsscd thc
problcm by dcvoting blank spaccs to othcr cnds, his titlc,
dcdication, and so lorth. Vhcrc, lor cxamplc, nglish his
tory might bcwcrc thcrc any nglish history to spcak ol
in ancicnt timcsPricstlcy placcs an ornatc dcdication to
8cnjamin Franklin. Pricstlcy wasnt trying to hidc anything
by doing this: in his tcxt narrativc, carly nglish history
gcts barcly a mcntion. Pricstlcys goal was to maintain thc
appcarancc ol consistcncy and rcgularity in thc chart by
balancing its visual composition.
Similar gcsturcs may bc sccn in works that lollow
Pricstlcys modcl, such as thc largc loldout chart ol thc
Scottish philosophcr Adam Fcrguson lor thc third cdi
tion ol thc Encyclopaedia Britannica. [ g. 29] !n his chart,
Fcrguson had an cvcn toughcr graphic challcngc than
Pricstlcy. Pricstlcys chart bcgins in thc classical pcriod,
Fcrgusons bcgins at thc Crcation. As a conscqucncc, it
trcads into morc controvcrsial chronological tcrritory and
cncompasscs a longcr timc span, approaching 6,ooo ycars.
To achicvc a lccl ol rcgularity, Fcrguson chcatcd on his
scalc, comprcssing thc rst agcs ol thc world into a small
spacc at thc top ol his chart. !n thc contcxt ol an allinclu
sivc cncyclopcdia, thc gcsturc is practical, but it provcs con
ccptually awkward sincc, in cvcry othcr rcspcct, Fcrgusons
chart obcys thc convcntions ol a rcgular timclinc.
Vithin vcry lcw ycars, variations on Pricstlcys charts
bcgan to appcar just about cvcrywhcrc. [ gs. 3033] Vhcn
his own charts wcrc not copicd outright, thcy wcrc adaptcd
and intcrprctcd, and, ovcr thc coursc ol thc ninctccnth ccn
tury, cnvisioning history in thc lorm ol a timclinc bccamc
[ 29]
_______________________________
Tc sccond cdition ol thc
Encyclopaedia Britannica includcd
a handcolorcd loldout chart ol
history to accompany thc articlcs
by Adam Fcrguson on civil and
ccclcsiastical history. Tis was thc
rst timclinc to bc includcd in thc
Britannica. Fcrgusons chart rcscmblcs
Joscph Pricstlcys New Chart of
History in many ways, but in contrast
to Pricstlcys chart it sacriccs
unilorm scalc lor comprchcnsivcncss,
comprcssing much ol thc rcvcalcd
history ol thc 8iblc into a blank
spacc at thc top, making almost no
cntrics at all. cspitc his usc ol thc
chronographic lormat, in somc ways
Fcrguson thought that datcs mattcrcd
lcss than pcriods in history. Hc
mostly drcw thc datcs on his chart
lrom a standard rclcrcncc work, and
lclt thc chart as sparc as possiblc so
that rcadcrs might ll it in howcvcr
thcy wishcd. Tis imagc is lrom thc
third cdition publishcd in dinburgh
in +.
[ 30]
_______________________________
Tc latc cightccnth and carly
ninctccnth ccnturics produccd
many copics and intcrprctations ol
Joscph Pricstlcys charts. Tis chart
lrom Anthony Finlcys +8+8 Atlas
classica combincs clcmcnts ol both ol
Pricstlcys charts. Tc inscription givcs
Pricstlcy his duc.
+ Chapter 4: A New Chart of History
Cartographies of Time +
[ 31]
_______________________________
8y +86 whcn Stcphcn Hawcs
publishcd his Synchronology of the
principal events in sacred and profane
history: from the creation of man, to the
present time, thc graphic convcntions ol
Joscph Pricstlcys charts had bccomc
so commonplacc that thcy rarcly wcrc
attributcd to Pricstlcy at all.
[ 32]
_______________________________
!n A System of Chronology, dinburgh,
+8, thc Scottish divinc Jamcs
Playlair combincd thc chronological
stylcs ol uscbius and Pricstlcy and
dcmonstratcd thc adaptability ol
Pricstlcys lincs to tablcs with multiplc
dating systcms.
__________
Philadclphia
[ 33]
_______________________________
!n +8o8, whilc running an acadcmy
in Morristown, Ncw Jcrscy, thc
Prcsbytcrian ministcr Samucl
Vhclplcy publishcd a popular history
tcxtbook callcd A compend of history,
from earliest times, complctc with
a biographical chart modclcd on
Pricstlcys. Vhclplcys work wcnt
through scvcral cditions through +8.
Tis +8: cdition includcs Vhclplcys
impcrial and biographical chart.
sccond naturc. Pricstlcys charts also had a major impact in
othcr arcas. !n his +86 Commercial and Political Atlas
widcly rccognizcd as thc loundational work in thc cld ol
statistical graphicsVilliam Playlair citcd Pricstlcys his
torical charts as a dircct prcdcccssor to his own linc graphs
and bar charts.
Tough hc promotcd his own original

ity with vigor, in thc third cdition ol thc Commercial and
Political Atlas, publishcd in +8o+, Playlair conrmcd thc
inucncc ol chronography on thc dcvclopmcnt ol his
lramcwork. Hc writcs,
!t is now sixtccn ycars sincc ! rst thought ol applying lincs
to subjccts ol Financc. . . . At thc timc whcn this invcn
tion madc its rst appcarancc it was much approvcd ol in
ngland, . . . ! conlcss ! was long anxious to nd out, whcthcr
! was actually thc rst who applicd thc principlcs ol gcom
ctry to mattcrs ol Financc, as it had long bclorc bccn applicd
to chronology with grcat succcss. ! am now satiscd, upon
duc inquiry, that ! was thc rst, lor during ltccn ycars ! havc
not bccn ablc to lcarn that any thing ol a similar naturc had
cvcr bclorc bccn produccd.
As a scicncc ol datcs, chronology always had a quanti

tativc dimcnsion, but it was not until thc middlc ol thc
cightccnth ccntury that unilormity ol scalc bccamc a usual
charactcristic ol chronographic spacc. ncc that unilor
mity had bccn achicvcd, projccting othcr kinds ol quanti
tativc data into thc chronographic spacc was not dicult.
!n his +8o+ Statistical Breviary, Playlair spccicd prcciscly
how cightccnthccntury chronographcrs clcarcd thc way
lor statistical graphics. Hc writcs,
Tc study ol chronology has bccn much lacilitatcd by mak
ing spacc rcprcscnt timc, and a linc ol proportional lcngth,
and in a suitablc position, thc lilc ol a man, by mcans ol
which thc rcmarkablc mcn ol past agcs appcar as it wcrc
bclorc us in thcir propcr timc and placc.
6
vcr thc coursc ol thc ncxt hall ccntury, Playlairs linc graph,
which countcrposcd two quantitativc axcs (onc lor timc, thc
othcr lor cconomic mcasurcs such as cxports, imports, and
dcbts) bccamc onc ol thc most rccognizablc chronographic
lorms. [ g. 34] Latcr statisticians would not bc satiscd with
only two graphic dimcnsions. 8y thc +8os, dcmographcrs
such as thc !talian Luigi Pcrozzo wcrc cxpcrimcnting with
thrccdimcnsional statistical projcctions.

[ g. 35]
Altcr Playlair, statistical rcprcscntations ol historical
phcnomcna prolilcratcd, rst in clds such as cconomics
[ 34]
_______________________________
Villiam Playlairs linc graphs,
including this chart ol thc annual
rcvcnucs ol Francc and ngland lrom
thc third cdition ol his Commercial
and Political Atlas, dcvclopcd thc logic
ol thc chronographic chart in ncw
dircctions. As hcrc, Playlairs statistical
graphs oltcn includcd timclincs ol
political history.
[ 35]
_______________________________
Luigi Pcrozzo, +8 stcrcogram ol
thc Swcdish ccnsus lor thc ycars
+o to +8, showing thc numbcr ol
malc births pcr ycar in rclation to thc
numbcr ol survivors ovcr timc
that wcrc alrcady rilc with quantitativc data and thcn, with
thc risc ol thc social statistics, just about cvcrywhcrc. [ gs.
3637] 8y thc middlc ol thc ninctccnth ccntury, a widc
and invcntivc rangc ol charts, including somc that wcrc
quitc tcchnical, could bc lound in gcncral publications
such as Florcncc Nightingalcs rosc and batwing charts
ol thc +8os showing changing causcs ol dcath ovcr thc
coursc ol thc Crimcan Var, thc Frcnch cnginccr Charlcs
Joscph Minards thcmatic maps ol thc +86os, including his
lamous diagram ol dcclining troop strcngth in Napolcons
invasion ol Russia (see p. 22), and thc magniccnt graphic
projcctions ol thc +8o Unitcd Statcs Ccnsus by Francis
A. Valkcr, supcrintcndant ol thc ccnsus and luturc prcsi
dcnt ol thc Amcrican Statistical Association, thc Amcrican
conomic Association, and thc Massachusctts !nstitutc
ol Tcchnology.
8
8ut through all ol this, thc linc itscll
straight, crookcd, curvcd, or branchingrcmaincd thc
principal visual mctaphor by which historical chronologics
wcrc cnvisioncd.
!ronically, thc risc ol thc modcrn timclinc coincidcd
with thc dcclinc ol acadcmic chronology. uring thc cigh
tccnth ccntury, qucstions ol chronology wcrc poscd cvcry
whcrc, but thc rolc ol thc chronologist who spccializcd in thc
study ol datcs diminishcd in rclation to that ol thc historian.
Mcanwhilc, thc chronologists traditional domain was com
partmcntalizcd: astronomy was sct apart lrom astrology,
philology lrom biblical commcntary, cmpirical scicncc lrom
rcvcalcd scicncc, and so on. Chronology, a cld ol study that
oncc claimcd plausibly to bc thc vcry soul ol historical
knowlcdgc, was lclt littlc morc than a skclcton.
Tis did not mcan that thc subject ol chronology

dcclincd in importancc. As univcrsal history camc to bc
undcrstood as thc study ol intrinsic causcs, rclations, and
cccts, and as thc kcy pcriodizations camc to bc undcr
stood as intcrnal rathcr than cxtcrnal to historical scqucncc,
problcms ol chronology gaincd a dicrcnt kind ol impor
tancc. And, lor thc samc rcason, thc ncw chronologics ol
thc cightccnth and ninctccnth ccnturics obcycd dicrcnt
rulcs. Tc importancc ol computing thc cxact annus mundi,
thc ycar ol thc world calculatcd lrom thc Crcation, dimin
ishcd. Pricstlcys vicw was typical in this rcgard. As lar as hc
was conccrncd, in thc rcprcscntation ol sccular history, any
dating systcm would do so long as it was univcrsally agrccd
upon and rigorously applicd. !n itscll, this approach was
not ncw, but it was during this pcriod that it ccascd to bc
a mattcr ol signicant mcthodological controvcrsy. Vhcn
Pricstlcy prcscntcd charts ol univcrsal history brackcting
thc qucstion ol Crcation, thcrc was hardly a murmur on
[ 36]
_______________________________
Florcncc Nightingalc, diagrams
lrom Mortality of the British Army:
At Home, and Abroad, and During the
Russian War, as Compared with the
Mortality of the Civil Population in
England, London, +88. Nightingalcs
diagrams, in which chronological timc
is rcprcscntcd as a circlc, rcvcalcd that
during thc Crimcan Var inlcction and
discasc causcd morc 8ritish dcaths
than did cncmy bullcts and bayoncts.
[ 37]
_______________________________
Francis A. Valkcr, Fiscal Chart of the
United States Showing the Public Debt
by Years 1789 to 1870 . . . Receipts from
Each Principal Source of Revenue . . .
and Expenditures from Each Principal
Department, lrom Statistical Atlas of the
United States Based on the Results of the
Ninth Census, 1870, Ncw York, +8
__________
Philadclphia
thc subjcct. To thc contrary, what struck rcadcrs most was
how obvious his approach was, and how strangc it was that
it had not bccn in gcncral usc a long timc bclorc.
To most rcadcrs, Pricstlcys invcntions wcrc both usclul
and intuitivc. !n addition, thcy rcsonatcd strongly with thc
lincar historical visions outlincd by thc philosophcrs ol thc
nlightcnmcnt. Tc signicancc ol this graphic articula
tion ol homogcncous, cmpty timcto borrow thc phrasc
ol thc twcnticthccntury philosophcr and critic Valtcr
8cnjamincannot bc ovcrstatcd.
o
At thc samc timc, it
nccds to bc undcrstood in contcxt. For Pricstlcy himscll,
thc cmpty timclinc was only a hcuristic. !t was not sup
poscd to takc God out ol history. To thc contrary, Pricstlcy
thought that, by rcvcaling aggrcgatc social phcnomcna
consistcnt with thc opcration ol Providcncc, it would bcau
tilully illuminatc Gods plan.
Pricstlcys apparatus provcd highly popular in thc
ninctccnth ccntury, his philosophical cxpcrimcntalism, lcss
so. To many rcadcrs, Pricstlcys charts sccmcd to ocr a pic
turc ol timc itscll. !n thc contcxt ol thc Ncwtonian rcvo
lution, this madc pcrlcct scnsc. Ncwtons own lorays into
historical chronology wcrc thoroughly rootcd in thc scvcn
tccnthccntury millcnnialist lramcwork and ncvcr cvolvcd
a graphic componcnt. 8ut thc thcory ol timc cxpoundcd in
his physics rcsonatcd strongly with thc unilormity dcpictcd
in Pricstlcys charts. Tcsc wcrc not mcant to bc hard sci
cncc, but thcy wcrc quantitativc and statistical, and, as thc
work ol Villiam Playlair amply dcmonstratcs, thcy crcatcd
an analytical lramcwork usclul in othcr clds.
Tough it sprcad rapidly, Pricstlcys systcm was slowcr
to takc hold in Francc than it was in 8ritain and clscwhcrc
in uropc. !n Francc in thc +os, JcanAntoincNicolas dc
Caritat, marquis dc Condorcct, onc ol thc loundcrs ol social
statistics, attcmptcd to dcsign a dicrcnt visual systcm. Likc
Pricstlcy, Condorcct bclicvcd that social phcnomcna could
bc undcrstood in aggrcgatc. Hc bclicvcd that causc/ccct
rclationships in history wcrc intrinsic rathcr than cxtrin
sic. And hc bclicvcd that univcrsal history lollowcd a basi
cally lincar path as cxprcsscd in his posthumous Sketch for
a historical picture of the progress of the human mind ol +.
!ndccd, knowing nothing ol Condorcct othcr than his tcn
stagcs ol history, onc might gucss that hc would havc bccn
a grcat proponcnt ol Pricstlcys lincar charts.
8ut Condorccts account ol univcrsal history was
structural rathcr than dcscriptivc, his principal intcrcst was
not to providc a rccord ol lacts but to dctcrminc gcncral
historical pattcrns. Likc many ol thc conjcctural historians
ol thc nlightcnmcnt, Condorcct bclicvcd that all socictics
[ 38]
_______________________________
A pagc ol notcs lrom thc papcrs ol
JcanAntoincNicolas dc Caritat,
marquis dc Condorcct, lor a ncvcr
complctcd chronological classication
systcm that would tracc thc
dcvclopmcnt ol human socicty and
culturc. !n thc uppcr lclt, Condorcct
lists thc tcn principal cpochs ol world
history as discusscd in his Sketch for
a historical picture of the progress of the
human mind, also incomplctc at thc timc
ol his dcath in +, in thc uppcr right,
principal thcmatic catcgorics including
cultural, social, intcllcctual, scicntic
lacts, bclow, subcatcgorics applying to
onc or scvcral ol thc principals.
pass through a scrics ol comparablc, il not idcntical, dcvcl
opmcnts. And his systcm was dcsigncd around this prcm
isc. Vhilc thc graphics ol uscbius and ol Pricstlcy allowcd
lor thc quick idcntication ol chronological synchronisms,
Condorccts did somcthing dicrcnt. !nstcad ol showing
what was happcning at thc samc timc in dicrcnt placcs,
Condorccts systcm showcd how dicrcnt nations and
culturcs progrcsscd through cquivalcnt stagcs ol social
dcvclopmcnt.
+
!n his outlinc lor a ncw systcm ol historical notation,
Condorcct trcatcd chronology as onc ol thrcc dimcnsions
ol classication, along with two somcwhat hctcrogcncous
thcmatic catcgorics. [ g. 38] !n this systcm, cvcry cntry is
assigncd a historical cpoch ranging lrom onc to tcn (lrom
huntcrgathcrcr to modcrn man), a gcncral subjcct arca
(such as thc progrcss ol socicty), and a spccic subjcct (such
as lcgislation or administration). Tc rcsulting notations
wcrc complicatcd, not lcast bccausc thc third catcgory ol
classication was partly dcpcndcnt on thc sccond (thcrc is,
lor cxamplc, a catcgory lor administration undcr thc gcn
cral subjcct ol politics but not undcr thc arts and scicnccs).
Still, according to Condorcct, classilying historical cvcnts
in multiplc dimcnsions, in this lashion, had important
advantagcs. !t providcd an casily crossrclcrcnccd databasc
ol historical inlormation, and it lacilitatcd a consistcnt
analysis ol causc and ccct across many dicrcnt historical
cxamplcs.
Condorccts systcm could havc bccn rcprcscntcd in a
manncr similar to that ol a uscbian tablc, and Condorcct
docs sccm to havc contcmplatcd this possibility.
:
8ut
Condorccts thrcc dimcnsions lcnt thcmsclvcs lcss rcad
ily to graphic rcprcscntation than did thc two dimcnsions
ol Pricstlcy and uscbius. Pcrhaps Condorcct would havc
pursucd thc graphic dimcnsion ol his projcct lurthcr had
hc had acccss to thc thrccdimcnsional projcctions dcvcl
opcd latcr in thc ninctccnth ccntury or to thc clcctronic
tcchnologics availablc today that allow thc shuing and
rcshuing ol data and multiplc data projcction schcmcs.
Using thc tools at his disposal, howcvcr, hc ncvcr arrivcd
at a succcsslul graphic lormat lor his systcm, and thc only
artilacts ol it that rcmain arc lists ol historical cvcnts codcd
with thrccdimcnsional classilying coordinatcs.
Tis is not to say that Pricstlcys approach lackcd pro
poncnts in Francc and clscwhcrc. [ g. 39] At thc bcgin
ning ol thc ninctccnth ccntury, PicrrcNicolas Chantrcau,
lor cxamplc, promotcd Pricstlcys biographical lincs in his
thcorctical works on thc study ol history. 8ut, likc many
Frcnch writcrs, Chantrcau rcmaincd cqually intcrcstcd in
[ 39]
_______________________________
PicrrcNicolas Chantrcaus tablc ol
thc principal cpochs ol human history
adoptcd by thc majority ol historians
lor dctcrmining thc ordcr ol lacts
lrom his Science de l historie lrom +8o.
Chantrcau cmploys a hicrarchical
systcm ol organization likc that
cmploycd in thc Encyclopdie ol cnis
idcrot and Jcan lc Rond dAlcmbcrt.
thc possibilitics prcscntcd by thc schcmatic trcc lorm dcvcl
opcd in thc sixtccnth ccntury by thc Frcnch humanist Pctrus
Ramus and widcly popularizcd in thc cightccnth ccntury by
thc Encyclopdie ol idcrot and dAlcmbcrt. !n thc scctions
ol his +8o Science de lhistoire (Tc scicncc ol history) that
cxplaincd thc divisions ol historical study, hc applicd thcsc
widcly. Hc also uscd thcm in his chronological tablcs thcm
sclvcs to group and subdividc biographical catcgorics.
Tcrc wcrc prcccdcnts lor Chantrcaus graphic stratc

gics. Ramist brackcts had dividcd up thc dicrcnt king
doms ol thc past in thc Tubus Historicus: An Historicall
Perspective; Discovering all the Empires and Kingdomes of the
World, as they ourisht respectively under the foure Imperiall
Monarchies, a work lalscly ascribcd to Valtcr Ralcigh that
appcarcd in +66. [ gs. 4041] 8ut in a work such as this,
dcsigncd to illuminatc a givcn cschatological structurc,
thc graphic workcd dicrcntly. Tc cmphasis hcrc was not
on thc prccisc dating ol individual cvcnts but on thc divi
sion and scqucncc ol a limitcd numbcr ol chronological
pcriods. Tough it works wcll lor cschatology, thc lorm
ol thc cncyclopcdic trcc provcd an awkward t lor thc
rcgular, mundanc work ol giving datcs to cvcnts. 8ut, in
Francc at any ratc, thc trcc lormat continucd to nd pro
poncnts. Pcrhaps thc last grcat cxamplc ol its application
to chronography is thc +8o8 Torie des quatre mouvements
(Tcory ol lour movcmcnts) by thc Frcnch utopian social
ist Charlcs Fouricr, anothcr lourstagc schcma ol history.
!n adopting thc trcc lormat lor his chronographic chart,
Fouricr was clcarly trying to appcal to thc prcstigc ol thc
cncyclopcdic modcl. Hc was also doing what hc did bcst,
conlccting social systcms.
Fouricr claimcd that human historylrom its loggy
prchistoric bcginnings to its cvcntual cndwould last
approximatcly cighty thousand ycars in total. [ g. 42] Along
thc way, it would go through lour major stagcs or movc
mcnts, with movcmcnts onc and lour cach cnduring lor
vc thousand ycars, and two and thrcc, thirtyvc thou
sand ycars. Tc rst and last stagcs, hc said, would both bc
pcriods ol miscry, thc sccond and third, ol cnjoymcnt. !n
Fouricrs vicw, thc world ol +8o8 had lots ol problcms, but
its longtcrm prognosis was good: according to his schcmc,
humanity was just nishing thc rst historical movcmcnt.
Altcr vc thousand ycars ol ncar univcrsal miscry, it was
at last cntcring thc rst pcriod ol social happincss. All ol
this, hc hopcd, would put thc dicultics ol prcscnt lilc
in pcrspcctivc. Tc immcnsity ol our sucring, Fouricr
wrotc, can only bc asscsscd whcn onc undcrstands thc
cxccss ol happincss in storc lor us, to which statc wc shall
[ 4041]
_______________________________
Author unknown, Tubus Historicus: An
Historicall Perspective, Discovering all the
Empires and Kingdomes of the World as
they ourisht respectively under the foure
Imperiall Monarchies, London, +66
[ 42]
_______________________________
Charlcs Fouricr, chart ol thc lour
movcmcnts or stagcs ol history lrom
Torie des quatre mouvements et des
destines gnrales: prospectus et annonce
de la dcouverte, Lyon, +8o8
rapidly pass.
Tis happy statc, Fouricr said, would bring

social and scxual harmony, and human industry so powcr
lul that it would litcrally mclt thc polar icc caps. Vc did
not havc long to wait, said Fouricr, bclorc thc climatc in
St. Pctcrsburg would rcscmblc that ol Sicily. Sadly, ol all ol
Fouricrs prcdictions (scas lull ol lcmonadc, zcbra taxis) this
onc currcntly sccms most likcly.
!n +8, thc Positivist philosophcr Augustc Comtc
camc up with yct anothcr bold schcma lor history. Comtcs
thirtccnmonth Calendrier positiviste (Positivist calcndar)
was not principally intcndcd as a graphic. [ gs. 4344] !t
was what it callcd itscll, a calcndar dcsigncd to organizc
rccction and historical mcmory, and to rcplacc cxtant rcli
gious calcndarspositivism was also a rcligion lor Comtc.
8ut, whilc Comtcs calcndar cyclcd through a ycarly sct ol
obscrvanccs, likc thc Catholic and Protcstant calcndars it
aimcd to rcplacc, it also lollowcd thc lincar ordcr ol his
tory. Tc rst ol thc thirtccn months ol thc positivist calcn
dar, namcd lor Moscs, mcmorializcd thc ancicnt hcrocs ol
positivism, such as Lycurgus, Zoroastcr, and Conlucius, thc
thirtccnth month, namcd altcr thc Frcnch anatomist Maric
Franois Xavicr 8ichat, mcmorializcd thc hcrocs ol mod
crn timcs, such as Copcrnicus, Ncwton, and Pricstlcy. Likc
Fouricrs systcm, Comtcs dcmonstratcs thc hctcrogcncity
ol chronographic visions in modcrnity and thc pcrsistcncc
ol traditional tcmporal structurcs in an agc ol progrcss.
!n Gcrmany and Austria, too, Pricstlcys unrclcnting
cmphasis on rcgular mcasurcd chronology mct somc rcsis
tancc. [ g. 45] !n +8o, lor cxamplc, thc Austrian chronol
ogcr Fricdrich Strass publishcd a highly inucntial chart
cntitlcd Strom der Zeiten (Strcam ol timc), a work translatcd
into scvcral languagcs, including nglish and Russian, and
rclcrcnccd in numcrous historical works. Likc Pricstlcy,
Strass bclicvcd that a graphic rcprcscntation ol history hcld
manilold advantagcs ovcr a tcxtual onc: it rcvcalcd ordcr,
scalc, and synchronism simply and without thc troublc ol
mcmorization and calculation. 8ut according to Strasss
nglish translator, Villiam 8cll, thc cquisccular or gco
mctrically rcgular organization ol Pricstlcys charts implicd
a unilormity in thc proccsscs ol history that was simply
mislcading.
Strass rcsistcd, in a lashion consistcnt with

thc rhctoric ol Romantic historiography, cquating ordcr
with mcasurcmcnt. As Villiam 8cll put it,
Howcvcr natural it may bc to assist thc pcrccptivc laculty,
in its assumption ol abstract timc, by thc idca ol a linc. . . it
is astonishing that . . . thc imagc ol a Strcam should not havc
prcscntcd itscll to any onc. . . . Tc cxprcssions ol gliding,
[ 4344]
_______________________________
Augustc Comtc, Calendrier positiviste,
lrom Catchisme positiviste, Paris, +8:
[ 45]
_______________________________
Villiam 8cll, nglish translation
ol Fricdrich Strasss +8o Strom der
Zeiten, London, +8
[ 46]
_______________________________
Stcphcn and anicl ods A
Chronological, Historical, and
Biographical Chart lrom +8o
rcscmblcs Fricdrich Strasss Strom
der Zeiten but takcs thc lorm ol a
trcc growing up rathcr than a strcam
owing down. Pricstlcys namc gurcs
on thc ods chart on thc biographical
branch at thc uppcr right.
[ 47]
_______________________________
!n many cascs prccisc authorship ol
chronological charts is dicult to
cstablish. Typically thcsc works wcrc
thc rcsult ol a collaboration among
writcrs, cngravcrs, and publishcrs,
and ncw charts oltcn rclicd hcavily
on oldcr oncs. !n +8+: thc pionccring
printcr !saac ddy produccd thc rst
\crmont 8iblc. Tc lollowing ycar, in
collaboration with thc globcmakcr
Jamcs Vilson, ddy publishcd a
chart cntitlcd Chronology Delineated
to Illustrate the History of Monarchical
Revolutions. Tc lorm ol thc \crmont
chart closcly rcscmblcs thc chart ol
Stcphcn and anicl od, though thc
contcnt, lraming, and illustrations
dicr.
and rolling on, or ol thc rapid currcnt, applicd to timc, arc
cqually lamiliar to us with thosc ol long and short. Ncithcr
docs it rcquirc any grcat disccrnmcnt to tracc. . . in thc risc
and lall ol cmpirc, an allusion to thc sourcc ol a rivcr, and
to thc incrcasing rapidity ol its currcnt, in proportion with
thc dcclivity ol thcir channcls towards thc cngulng occan.
Nay, this mctaphor. . . givcs grcatcr livclincss to thc idcas, and
imprcsscs cvcnts morc lorcibly upon thc mind, than thc sti
rcgularity ol thc straight linc. !ts divcrsicd powcr likcwisc
ol scparating thc various currcnts into subordinatc branchcs,
or ol uniting thcm into onc vast occan ol powcr. . . tcnds to
rcndcr thc idca by its bcauty morc attractivc, by its simplicity
morc pcrspicuous, and by its rcscmblancc morc consistcnt.
6
History, lor Strass and 8cll, was a kind ol knowlcdgc about
thc past, not mcrcly a sct ol rccordcd lacts. Accordingly,
whilc thc lraming structurc ol Strasss chart rctains thc
gcncral lccl ol Jccrys and Pricstlcy, its rcprcscntation ol
history itscll looks cntircly dicrcnt. Tc Strom der Zeiten
originatcs in a storm at thc top ol his grcat broadsidc. !n it,
cvcnts cbb and ow, lork and twist, run and roll and thun
dcr. Mcrcator would havc bccn lascinatcd to scc his modcst
corts at changing thc ratc ol timcs passagc translormcd
into so grand and cxiblc a visual mctaphor.
Strass was not thc only chart makcr to takc such a tack.
Vhcthcr in thc lorm ol a strcam (usually dcsccnding) or
a trcc (usually asccnding), similar visual schcmcs appcarcd
cvcrywhcrc in thc ninctccnth ccntury. [ gs. 4647] nly
a lcw ycars altcr thc rst publication ol Strom der Zeiten,
two notablc Ncw Jcrscy invcntors, thc brothcrs anicl
and Stcphcn od, madc a similar chart, though thcirs was
bascd on a trcc. Amcrican charts such as that ol thc ods
wcrc morc cphcmcral than thcir uropcan countcrparts.
Tcy wcrc also, oltcn, roughcr around thc cdgcs. Tough
wondcrlul in itscll, thc od chart is bcst rcmcmbcrcd not
lor its own qualitics but bccausc ol thc rcnown ol its crc
ators. Stcphcn and anicl od wcrc sons ol thc Amcrican
clock makcr Lcbbcus od, whosc skills wcrc put to arma
mcnts during thc Rcvolutionary Var. Stcphcn was a notcd
survcyor and scrvcd as mayor ol Ncwark. anicl dcsigncd
and built thc stcam cnginc lor thc Savannah, thc rst
Amcrican stcamship to cross thc Atlantic. 8ut thc ods
chart itscll had somc inucncc in thc Unitcd Statcs, and
in +8+ a ncw vcrsion was prcparcd by thc widcly known
\crmont printcr and cngravcr !saac ddy and thc globc
makcr Jamcs Vilson.
Tc strcam chart continucd to bc popular throughout
thc ninctccnth ccntury. [ gs. 4850] !n Connccticut in +8o6,
[ 50]
_______________________________
!n +88, altcr rctiring lrom lorty ycars
ol military scrvicc in !ndia, thc 8ritish
MajorGcncral Jamcs Gcorgc Rochc
Forlong publishcd a thick thrcc
volumc work on thc dcvclopmcnt
ol world rcligions cntitlcd Rivers
of Life, or, Sources and Streams of the
Faiths of Man in All Lands; Showing
the Evolution of Faiths from the Rudest
Symbolisms to the Latest Spiritual
Developments. Forlongs work camc
with a scvcnandahall loot colorcd
chart ol laith strcams dcmonstrating
his vision ol thc intcrconncctcdncss ol
world rcligions.
[ 48]
_______________________________
Tc visual mctaphor ol thc strcam was
somctimcs intcgratcd into a largcr
tabular lramcwork as in thc +8o6
Epitome of Ecclesiastical History by
avid Rowland, thc Congrcgationalist
ministcr ol thc First Church ol
Vindsor, Connccticut. !n Rowlands
diagram, thc ccntral strcam ol
Christianity bccomcs murky with
thc dark shadcs ol crror during thc
Middlc Agcs, with only a thin, clcar
channcl ol disscnt running through.
uring thc Protcstant Rclormation,
scvcral disscnting channcls scparatc
lrom and thcn rcjoin thc main strcam
ol Christianity.
[ 49]
_______________________________
Tc nglish abolitionist Tomas
Clarkson includcd a strcam chart
in his +8o8 Te History of the Rise,
Progress, and Accomplishment of the
Abolition of the African Slave-Trade
by the British Parliament. Hcrc thc
carly supportcrs ol abolition arc
rcprcscntcd as springs and rivulcts
contributing to two grcat political
rivcrs rcprcscnting thc abolitionist
movcmcnt in ngland and in
Amcrica. Tis is thc +86 Ncw York
cdition.
thc Congrcgationalist ministcr avid Rowland uscd thc
strcam mctaphor rathcr than thc standard uscbian lormat
in his Epitome of Ecclesiastical History. Tomas Clarksons
+8o8 Te History of the Rise, Progress, and Accomplishment of the
Abolition of the African Slave-Trade by the British Parliament
uscd thc strcam mctaphor as wcll, as did thc +88 cthnogra
phy ol world rcligion by Jamcs Gcorgc Rochc Forlongwho
compctcs with Tcmporarius lor bcstnamcd chronologist
Rivers of Life, or, Sources and Streams of the Faiths of Man in
All Lands; Showing the Evolution of Faiths from the Rudest
Symbolisms to the Latest Spiritual Developments.
Noncthclcss, with timc, thc convcntions ol thc strcam
chart and thc lincar chronology tcndcd to convcrgc. cspitc
Villiam 8clls protcst, during thc ninctccnth ccntury it was
typical lor such charts to cmploy somc vcrsion ol thc cqui
sccular lormat that Pricstlcy had popularizcd. Tough thcir
intcrnal convcntions wcrc dicrcnt, thcir lraming structurcs
morc and morc rcscmblcd thc rcgular, mcasurcd lormat ol
thc timclinc that was alrcady ubiquitous only a lcw dccadcs
altcr it had rst appcarcd.

Tc Unitcd Statcs provcd lcrtilc ground lor timc charts. !n
thc cightccnth and ninctccnth ccnturics, Amcrican chro
nographcrs publishcd a vast and divcrsc array ol diagrams.
Somc wcrc adoptcd dircctly lrom uropcan sourccs, but
many wcrc homcgrown, rcccting Amcrican circum
stanccs, and implicitly or cxplicitly asscrting thc parity
ol Amcrican history with thc history ol uropc. thcrs
amplicd thcmcs ol scicntic innovation, novclty and
progrcss, and thc apocalyptic visual vocabularics ol thc
grcat rcvivals.
!n Amcrica as in uropc, Pricstlcys timc charts quickly
changcd thc cld ol historical graphics. [ g. 1] And this is
hardly surprising, Pricstlcys carccr was closcly lollowcd in
thc Unitcd Statcs, and many ol his works lclt a substan
tial mark. Vhcn Pricstlcy cd lrom political and rcligious
pcrsccution in ngland in +, hc wcnt to Pcnnsylvania.
8ut, alrcady in thc +6os, hc was closcly associatcd with
Amcrican intcllcctuals including 8cnjamin Franklin, who
nominatcd him to thc Royal Socicty ol London in +66 as
thc author ol thc Chart of Biography. Tomas Jccrson too
was an admircr, and likc Franklin, hc took an intcrcst in
thc chart lorms that Pricstlcy dcvclopcd. Jccrsons papcrs
includc a chart ol thc markct scasons ol Vashington C
donc in thc lorm ol thc Chart of Biography, only thcrc, thc
straws oating on thc rivcr ol timc indicatc thc harvcst sca
sons ol parslcy, cndivc, and watcrmclon rathcr than thc lilc
spans ol Ncwton, Huygcns, and Galilco.
To a rcvolutionary gcncration intcnt on inscribing
itscll in history, thc Pricstlcy charts sccm to havc had an
almost talismanic appcal. [ g. 2] !n +8++, avid Ramsay,
a physician and a mcmbcr ol thc Contincntal Congrcss,
publishcd his stunning Historical and Biographical Chart
of the United States as a shorthand symbolical modc ol
convcying knowlcdgc to accompany his book Universal
History Americanised.
+
Ramsay acknowlcdgcd Pricstlcy
dircctly, spcci cd changcs appropriatc to thc Amcrican
contcxt, and suggcstcd that his modcl bc widcly copicd.
His was also onc ol thc rst charts to cxplicitly combinc
thc logic ol Pricstlcys historical and biographical charts
into a singlc work.
!n North Amcrica, chronographic lorms movcd wcst
with uropcans, cmploycd as tools lor thc propagation
ol both political and rcligious visions ol history. A primc
cxamplc may bc lound in thc graphic work ol Franois
Norbcrt 8lanchct, thc rst Catholic archbishop ol rcgon.
Altcr his ordination in +8+ in Qucbcc, 8lanchct was scnt
to thc Gaspc Pcninsula in Nova Scotia to scrvc as pas
tor to thc Acadian scttlcrs and to thc Mikmaq pcoplc,
Chapter 5:
Fronticr Lincs
++ Chapter 5: Frontier Lines
an castcrn Algonquin tribc among whom thc Catholic
Church had workcd lor two ccnturics. !n +88, church
ocials gavc 8lanchct a ncw mission. Hc was to travcl
to thc rcgon Tcrritory undcr thc protcction ol thc
Hudsons 8ay Company to ministcr to thc voyageurs, thc
FrcnchCanadian lronticrsmcn who lormcd thc backbonc
ol thc Northwcst lur tradc. Tough ignorant ol nativc
Northwcstcrn languagcs and culturcs, 8lanchct also sct out
to makc Christians ol thc local tribcs, a projcct that rcquircd
cxplaining thc Christian storya lcat hc managcd with thc
aid ol livcly pcrlormanccs, intcrprctcrs, and thc Sahalc Stick,
a curious chronological tool ol his own dcvising.
Tc Sahalc Stick (spirit stick in thc Chinook jargon)
a woodcn rod markcd out at intcrvals with slashcs rcprc
scnting ycars and gougcs lor important cvcnts in Christian
historywas uscd to tcach both catcchism and history.
[ gs. 34] And, lrom 8lanchcts account, it sccmcd to work:
according to 8lanchct, during thc rst months that hc
prcachcd with it in thc Villamcttc \allcy, hc rcccivcd visi
tors lrom all ovcr thc Northwcst rcqucsting copics. Vithin
two ycars, thc simplc Sahalc Stick gavc way to a morc clab
oratc manuscript scroll callcd thc Catholic Ladder. cmand
lor thc manuscript was strong, and soon 8lanchct scnt lor a
group ol nuns to comc to rcgon to scrvc as copyists. vcr
thc coursc ol thc ncxt hall ccntury, thc Ladder provcd an
cnduring succcss, spawning many imitations, and within a
couplc ol dccadcs, printcd vcrsions had bccn publishcd in
Qucbcc, Paris, 8russcls, Ncw York, and \alparaiso, Chilc,
as wcll as in rcgon itscll.
:
!n thc rcgon Tcrritory in thc +8os, tcnsions
bctwccn Protcstants and Catholics ran high, as did com
pctition lor Nativc Amcrican souls, and 8lanchct was not
without opponcnts. [ gs. 57] Tc most vocal among thcsc
was Hcnry Harmon Spalding, a Prcsbytcrian missionary
scnt to rcgon lrom upstatc Ncw York by thc Amcrican
8oard ol Commissioncrs lor Forcign Missions in +86,
along with his wilc, liza Hart Spalding, and anothcr cou
plc, thc illlatcd Marcus and Narcissa Vhitmanwhosc
violcnt dcaths, known as thc Vhitman Massacrc, would
long rcmain a ccntral part ol Amcrican lronticr mythol
ogy. For ncarly thirty ycars, Spalding campaigncd against
8lanchct in thc prcss, portraying him as thc schcming lorcc
bchind Nativc Amcrican hostility toward thc Protcstant
missions. 8ut cvcn bclorc Hcnrys jcrcmiad, liza Spalding
had bcgun a campaign ol hcr own.
Tcaching at thc mis

sion at Lapwai, ncar what is now Lcwiston, !daho, whilc
Hcnry conductcd scrviccs and tcndcd to thc mission prcss
and larm, liza uscd many ol hcr own visual aids, most
[ 1]
_______________________________
Author unknown, Chart of the seasonal
availability of produce in the vegetable
market of Washington, D.C. during the
years 180108, prcscrvcd in Tomas
Jccrsons papcrs
Chapter 5: Frontier Lines +
[ 2]
_______________________________
!n +8++ thc South Carolina physician,
historian, and politician avid Ramsay
publishcd a Historical and Biographical
Chart of the United States to accompany
his Universal History Americanised.
Ramsays striking work combincd a
map ol thc lormcr 8ritish colonics and
diagrams modclcd on thosc ol Joscph
Pricstlcy and Villiam Playlair.
+ Chapter 5: Frontier Lines
[ 4]
_______________________________
Nicolas Point, S. J. Ambrose Instructs
a Blackfeet Chief with the Ladder, St.
Louis, ca. +8+
[ 3]
_______________________________
Tis rcstorcd +8o Catholic Ladder,
dcsigncd by thc Frcnch Canadian
Catholic pricst Franois Norbcrt
8lanchct in +8, is thc oldcst known
in cxistcncc. 8lanchct dcscribcd it
as a visual catcchism, a graphic
tool combining chronographic and
symbolic clcmcnts to tcach basic
Christian conccpts. At thc bottom
arc pictorial symbols lor thc Crcation
and thc univcrsc including thc sun,
thc stars, and thc carth. Highcr up
arc symbols lor thc Towcr ol 8abcl,
Noahs Ark, and thc ld and Ncw
Tcstamcnts, thc Catholic Church,
and othcr kcy Christian rclcrcnccs.
Simplc vcrtical marks on thc chart
indicatc important pcoplc (such as
John thc 8aptist) and idcas (such
as thc scvcn sacramcnts). A ccntral
column ol horizontal bars rcprcscnts
ccnturics sincc thc Crcation. Two
scrics ol dots indicatc singlc ycars: thc
rst, thc ycars ol thc lilc ol Christ,
thc sccond, thc ycars sincc +8oo.
Two vcrtical bars at thc top lclt ol
thc chart rcprcscnt 8lanchct and his
collcaguc Modcstc cmcrs, thc rst
two Catholic missionarics to scttlc
in rcgon. A branch at thc ccntcr
right abovc thc thrcc vcrtical bars
lor Luthcr, Calvin, and Hcnry \!!!,
indicatcs thc Protcstant Rclormation.
Tat branch was thc subjcct ol hcatcd
controvcrsy in rcgon in thc +8os
and altcr. Protcstant missionarics,
including Hcnry Harmon Spalding,
considcrcd it an insult and bclicvcd
that it was uscd to incitc Nativc
Amcrican suspicion and hatrcd toward
thc Protcstant missions.
[ 7]
_______________________________
liza Hart Spalding, biographical lincs
lrom thc Protestant Ladder, rcgon
Tcrritory, ca. +8
[ 6]
_______________________________
liza Hart Spalding, thc Popc cast
down lrom thc Protestant Ladder,
rcgon Tcrritory, ca. +8
[ 5]
_______________________________
Tis pictorially vivid Protestant Ladder
was paintcd by thc Prcsbytcrian
missionary liza Hart Spalding
around +8 at thc Lapwai Mission in
thc rcgon Tcrritory ncar prcscntday
Lcwiston, !daho. !n contrast to thc
Catholic Ladder, which cmphasizcs
a singlc Catholic story, Spaldings
Protestant Ladder is dcsigncd to
cmphasizc thc dicrcncc bctwccn
Protcstant and Catholic Christianity.
Likc thc Catholic Ladder, Spaldings is
structurcd around a ccntral chronology.
\crtical lincs ncar thc bottom ol thc
chart show thc livcs ol biblical gurcs
lrom Adam to Christ in thc stylc ol
Pricstlcy.
lamously, an inammatory Protestant Ladder drawn up in
dircct compctition with 8lanchcts dcvicc.
!n thc Spaldings vicw, thc Catholic Ladder, which

showcd thc history ol thc Rclormation as a dcviating
branch o ol thc ccntral trunk ol Christianity, was a dircct
attack. Tcy accuscd thc Catholic pricsts in rcgon ol
using thc Catholic Ladder to dcmonizc thcm, and ol insti
gating rumors that thc Protcstant missionarics had intcn
tionally brought discascs to dccimatc nativc pcoplcs. My
attcntion, Hcnry Spalding wrotc in thc Oregon American,
has suddcnly bccn arrcstcd by thc outcrics and wailings
ol a wholc camp |ol Nativc Amcricans|, occasioncd by
thc arrival ol somc onc with an additional cxplanation ol
thc Catholic laddcr, always accompanicd by thc dcclara
tion, Tc Amcricans arc causing us to dic!
And with
liza Spaldings Protestant Ladder, thc symbolic antc was
uppcd substantially. n it, thc martyrdom ol Protcstants
was mcmorializcd in primitivc but vivid tablcaux, whilc thc
Popc was portraycd as an Antichrist, lalling into thc amcs
ol pcrdition. !ronically, hcrc in a Protcstant chronography
many old pictorial dcviccs lound ncw lilc.
Ncithcr thc Catholic Ladder nor thc Protestant Ladder
was intcndcd as acadcmic chronology. Tcsc wcrc rcligious
tcaching tools, and thcy scrvcd many lunctions8lanchct
callcd his a visual catcchismwhich makcs it that much
morc notablc to nd thc graphic convcntions ol thc chro
nologists at work in thcm. liza Spaldings Protestant Ladder
cvcn includcs classic Pricstlcystylc biographical lincs lor
thc livcs ol biblical gurcs. !n latcr ycars, it was somctimcs
disputcd whcthcr 8lanchct or Spalding had rst invcntcd
thc laddcr idca, but cithcr way, thc rcsult was thc samc: hcrc,
at thc cutting cdgc ol thc Amcrican cxpansionist projcct
which many took to bc thc cutting cdgc ol history itscll
thc timclinc had alrcady takcn its placc.
Vhcrcvcr uropcans wcnt in thc ninctccnth ccntury,
chronological projccts lollowcd, whcthcr as projcctions ol
impcrial powcr, cschatological cxpcctation, or cthnographic
curiosity. 8ut not all ol thc lamous ninctccnthccntury
Amcrican chronographics wcrc uropcan in origin. !n thc
Grcat Lakcs rcgion and in thc akotas, lor cxamplc, Nativc
Amcricans and uropcans appropriatcd onc anothcrs
visual and conccptual languagcs in striking ways, as in thc
pictographic chronologics ol thc Lakota pcoplc known as
wintcr counts.
6
[ g. 8] Tc wintcr counts wcrc appcaling to
collcctors both lor thcir bcauty and lor thcir historical con
tcnt, and thcy lormcd a kcy piccc ol cvidcncc lor Garrick
Mallcrys swccping cthnographic accounts ol !ndian pic
turc writing publishcd in thc +8os and 8os.
Mallcry, an
[ 8]
_______________________________
Lakota Vintcr Count lor thc ycars
+8o+: dcpictcd in Garrick Mallcry,
Picture-Writing of the American
Indians, Vashington, .C., +8. Tis
lithograph was copicd in +86 lrom
thc paintcd bualo robc ol Lonc og
lrom thc Yanktonais tribc. n thc robc
a scrics ol symbols procccd outward
in a spiral lrom a ccntral point. ach
rcprcscnts a distinguishing cvcnt
ol onc ycar. Mallcry spcculatcs that
thc pcriodization ol thc robc rcccts
thc Vcstcrn practicc ol counting
ccnturics. Tc carlicst charactcr on
thc robc rcprcscnts thc killing ol a
numbcr ol Lakotas by thcir cncmics.
Latcr symbols indicatc an outbrcak ol
smallpox, thc capturc ol wild horscs,
and othcr notablc happcnings.
[ 9]
_______________________________
Portrait ol thc Vinncbago chicl
Tshizunhaukau holding a calcndar
stick markcd with lunar cyclcs
(+8:) altcr Jamcs tto Lcwis, lrom
Tomas Lorainc McKcnncy, History
of the Indian Tribes of North America,
Philadclphia, +868
army gcncral who scrvcd in thc akotas in thc +8os and
latcr in Vashington, lor thc 8urcau ol thnology, lound
cvidcncc ol longstanding Nativc Amcrican systcms ol tcm
poral notation. Somc ol thcsc, likc thc wintcr counts, wcrc
pictographic, othcrs uscd notchcs and lincs. [ g. 9] Tc lat
tcr was also noticcd by thc Amcrican portraitist Jamcs tto
Lcwis, whoa dccadc bclorc 8lanchct dcbutcd his Sahalc
Stickportraycd thc Vinncbago chicl Tshizunhaukau
holding a calcndar stick with vcry much thc samc look as
8lanchcts.
8
!n Amcrica, somc ol thc most invcntivc chronogra
phcrs ol thc ninctccnth ccntury camc lrom thc millcnnial
ist camp. Many ol thcir charts and diagrams, likc thosc ol
liza Spalding, rccallcd mcdicval and carly modcrn prc
ccdcnts such as thc diagrams ol thc twcllthccntury !talian
mystic Joachim ol Fiorc and thc scvcntccnthccntury
nglish scholar Joscph Mcdc. Likc thcir prcdcccssors, thc
millcnnialists blcndcd gurativc and tcchnical clcmcnts in
dazzling ways. Tcy had a lot to livc up to. Alrcady, in thc
thirtccnth ccntury, thc lollowcrs ol Joachim ol Fiorc pro
duccd dozcns ol distinctivc visualizations ol cschatological
chronology. Tcsc took thc lorm ol trccs, intcrlocking rings,
and othcr vibrant imagcs. Tc gural logic bchind thcsc
rcprcscntations was complcx.
Joachims trccs, lor cxamplc,

wcrc not mcrcly gurcs ol history. Tcy wcrc also tcmplatcs
lor calculation, with columns ol triplc cxcs inscribcd on
thcir trunks rcprcscnting thc numbcr ol gcncrations (cach
cstimatcd at thirty ycars) scparating thc Crcation lrom thc
Apocalypsc.
Tc production ol apocalyptic diagrams during thc
latc Middlc Agcs and thc carly modcrn pcriod waxcd and
wancd with millcnnial cnthusiasms. Joachims pattcrns wcrc
oltcn rcpcatcd and popular gurcs such as thosc ol anicls
statuc wcrc pcriodically rcvivcd in ncw lorms, though thc
nal translormation that thcy promiscd was dclcrrcd ovcr
and ovcr again. Vith cach rcvival, rcligious controvcrsy
drovc graphic innovation, as scholars and polcmicists across
thc rcligious spcctrum scarchcd lor bcttcr tools to cxprcss
complcx idcas. [ g. 10] Tc inucntial diagram mapping
thc opcning ol thc scvcn scals ol thc Apocalypsc lrom thc
+6: Clavis apocalyptica (Kcy ol Rcvclation) by thc notcd
Cambridgc Hcbraist, Joscph Mcdc, tutor to John Milton
and Hcnry Moorc, givcs a nc cxamplc ol thc ncw graphic
cxpcrimcntation spurrcd by thc rcligious lcrmcnt ol thc
sixtccnth and scvcntccnth ccnturics. Tough Mcdcs work
placcd no datc on thc coming millcnnium, his apocalyptics
inucnccd thc political and social visions ol thc nglish
Rcvolution, and his work was translatcd into nglish in
[ 10]
_______________________________
Joscph Mcdcs apocalyptic chart
lrom thc +6: sccond Latin cdition
ol Clavis apocalyptica ex innatis et
insitis visionum characteribus eruta et
demonstrata diagrammcd thc ordcr ol
thc cnd timcs as dcscribcd in scripturc.
Tough Mcdc cmphasizcd thc spiritual
rathcr than thc strictly chronological
charactcr ol thc Apocalypsc, his
works inspircd many chronologically
spccic intcrprctations. A mark ol
its signicancc during thc nglish
Rcvolution: thc Clavis apocalyptica was
translatcd into nglish in +6+ at thc
bchcst ol Parliamcnt.
[ 11]
_______________________________
J. Pcarsons Historical and Astronomical
Diagram lrom +86 is markcd out
at rcgular oncycar intcrvals lrom
+ ncv to cv. Pcarson strivcs to
corrcct Villiam Millcrs apocalyptic
calculations by cstablishing thc
prccisc datcs ol Christs lilc lrom
historical data on cclipscs ol thc sun.
According to Pcarson, thc cvidcncc
was cxcccding strong that thc Sccond
Advcnt would comc in thc lall ol
+86. Rcadcr, are you prepared:
Cartographies of Time +6o
+6+ Chapter 5: Frontier Lines
+6+ at thc bchcst ol Parliamcnt. As latc as thc +:os, no
lcss a gurc than Sir !saac Ncwton would citc Mcdc as a
ccntral rclcrcncc. Likc many ol thc Joachimitc diagrams,
Mcdcs combincs circlcs and lincs in surprising ways,
cmphasizing at oncc thc rcpctition ol Gods signs in his
tory and thc incxorablc lact ol thc judgmcnt, which Mcdc
indicatcs with a bold Fixis.
!n thc ncw Amcrican rcpublic, pamphlctccrs and
politicians claimcd that thcy wcrc bringing a ncw pcriod
ol world history into bcing. vcn thc countrys currcncy
promiscd as much, with an apocalyptic quotation lrom
\irgils lourth Eclogue, novus ordo seclorum (A ncw ordcr ol
thc agcs). Many undcrstood thc ncw Amcrican agc as thc
last act ol history and rccongurcd thc cxisting rcpcrtoirc
ol apocalyptic pattcrns to provc it.
+o
Again, millcnnial con
trovcrsics brcd millcnnial graphics, and this timc around,
chcap print lurthcr luclcd thc graphic cxplosion.
Somc Amcrican rcligious rcvivals ol thc pcriod wcrc
particularly innovativc in thcir graphics. [ gs. 1113] From thc
+8os, lor cxamplc, lollowcrs ol thc Ncw ngland ministcr
Villiam Millcr produccd stirring books, broadsidcs, pam
phlcts, and ncwspapcrs, to sprcad thc word ol thc coming
Apocalypscwhich Millcr prcdictcd lor +8. And thcy
organizcd popular camp mcctings at which many ol thcsc
graphics wcrc distributcd and displaycd. At thc ccntcr ol
all ol this activity was thc chronographic chart. Millcritc
charts took many lorms. Somc drcw on thc commonplacc
visual vocabulary ol thc timclinc, cchoing thc sobcr tcrms
in which Millcr discusscd his chronological and philologi
cal mcthods.
++
thcrs wcrc lcstooncd with laycrs ol calcu
lation that scrvcd at oncc as argumcnt and cmbcllishmcnt.
Still othcrs combincd vivid symbolic imagcs with numcri
cal calculations. Tc most spcctacular Millcritc charts wcrc
printcd on giant cloth banncrs hung lrom thc tcnts whcrc
Millcr prcachcd.
+:
Tc ccct ol thcsc camp mcctings was powcrlul, and
as John Grccnlcal Vhitticr obscrvcd in his cssay, Tc
Vorlds nd, so was that ol thc charts. Vhitticr writcs,
Trcc or lour ycars ago, on my way castward, ! spcnt an hour
or two at a campground ol thc Sccond Advcnt in ast
Kingston. Tc spot was wcll choscn. A tall growth ol pinc
and hcmlock thrcw its mclancholy shadow ovcr thc mul
titudc, who wcrc arrangcd upon rough scats ol boards and
logs. . . . Suspcndcd lrom thc lront ol thc rudc pulpit wcrc
two broad shccts ol canvas, upon onc ol which was thc gurc
ol a man, thc hcad ol gold, thc brcast and arms ol silvcr, thc
bclly ol brass, thc lcgs ol iron, and lcct ol clay,thc drcam ol
[ 12]
_______________________________
Millcritc charts such as A Chronological
Chart of the Visions of Daniel and
John, printcd by Joshua Himcs in
+8:, intcgratcd thc visual logic ol
thc timclinc, chronological calculus,
and apocalyptic symbolism in a singlc
schcmc. Tc nal datc in thc lclthand
column, +8, indicatcs thc coming
cnd ol thc world.
Cartographies of Time +6:
Ncbuchadnczzar. n thc othcr wcrc dcpictcd thc wondcrs ol
thc Apocalyptic vision,thc bcasts, thc dragons, thc scarlct
woman sccn by thc sccr ol Patmos, ricntal typcs, gurcs,
and mystic symbols, translatcd into staring Yankcc rcali
tics, and cxhibitcd likc thc bcasts ol a travclling mcnagcric.
nc horriblc imagc, with its hidcous hcads and scaly caudal
cxtrcmity, rcmindcd mc ol thc trcmcndous linc ol Milton,
who, in spcaking ol thc samc cvil dragon, dcscribcs him as
Swindging |sic| thc scaly horrors ol his loldcd tail.
+
Tc Millcritc rcpcrtoirc includcd a widc varicty ol symbolic
displays, many ol which drcw dircctly on ccnturicsold
traditions. Tcsc charts had an intrinsically chronological
structurc, likc thcir mcdicval and carly modcrn prcccdcnts,
but hcrc thc chronographic clcmcnt was lorcgroundcd,
with vivid apocalyptic imagcs inscribcd insidc mcasurcd
lramcs ol historical timc.
!n thc Millcritc charts, ol coursc, thc lramc was sym
bolic too. Tc cnd lincs ol Pricstlcys chart, at +:oo ncv and
+8oo cv, had no intrinsic signicancc. Tc datc +8oo cv was
just a round numbcr coming up in thc ncar luturc, and +:oo
ncv, thc datc thrcc thousand ycars bclorc. Tc darkly inkcd
margins ol thc Millcritc Chronological Chart of the Visions
of Daniel and John ol +8:, howcvcr, could not havc bccn
morc signicant. Tcy markcd thc bcginning and cnd ol
history itscll. !n charts likc this, thc coursc ol timc lookcd
straightlorward lrom both a graphic and a conccptual
standpoint: thc cnd was xcd, known, and almost upon us.
8ut whcn +8 camc and wcnt without incidcnt, and thcn
+8 tooa noncvcnt hcncclorth known as Tc Grcat
isappointmcntboth Millcrs prcdictions and his chro
nology charts had to bc radically rcviscd. uring thc ncxt
dccadc, many attcmpts wcrc madc to clcan up thc thcologi
cal and thc graphic mcss that +8 had brought about. [ g. 14]
8ut many ol thcsc ncw charts sucrcd thc samc latc as thc
carlicr oncs, whcn thcir own prcdictions lailcd to pan out, as
was thc casc with thc bcautilul and curious Prophetic Chart
publishcd by thc Advcntist ministcr Jonathan Cummings,
prcdicting that Christ would rcturn in +8.
!n thc lollowing dccadcs, many ol thc lactions that
cmcrgcd lrom thc ashcs ol Millcrism did away with datc
spccic prcdictions ol thc Apocalypsc. [ gs. 1517] 8ut, cvcn
among thcsc groups, intcrcst in chronology and chrono
logical charts pcrsistcd. !n +866, lor cxamplc, thc Ncw
York Prcsbytcrian prcachcr Richard Cunningham Shimcall
includcd in his book, Te Political Economy of Prophecy, a
chart ol history that lookcd virtually idcntical to Pricstlcys.
+

ccadcs carlicr in thc +8os, Shimcall, a jack ol all graphic
[ 13]
_______________________________
Tc Diagram of Prophetic Times,
According to the Chronology of Wm.
Miller, a Millcritc chart publishcd
in +8 as a loldcd inscrt in Apollos
Halcs Second Advent Manual, consists
ol a vcrtical tally ol thc ccnturics sincc
thc prcsumcd datc ol Crcation in +
ncv. Tc ccntcr column lists important
biblical cvcnts and thcir datcs givcn
in thc ycars ol thc world (+6ooo)
in thc ycars bclorc and altcr Christ
(+ ncv to +8 cv), and in tcrms ol
thc agcs ol thc patriarchs. l thc two
columns to cithcr sidc, onc lists cvcnts
dcscribcd litcrally in scripturc (thc
Flood), thc othcr lists cvcnts dcscribcd
in symbolic tcrms (thc :oo ays ol
anicl). vcnts prcdictcd in scripturc
arc distinguishcd lrom thosc givcn as
history.
+6 Chapter 5: Frontier Lines
[ 15]
_______________________________
A Chart Illustrating the Course of
Empire from the Earliest Records, Sacred
and Profane, Down to the Present Time,
publishcd by thc Prcsbytcrian ministcr
Richard Cunningham Shimcall in his
provocativcly titlcd Political Economy of
Prophecy lrom +866, cmploys a sccular
visual vocabulary in an account ol thc
rclationship bctwccn thc kingdoms
ol biblical prophccy and thosc ol
rccordcd history.
[ 14]
_______________________________
!n +8 Jonathan Cummings, onc ol
thc loundcrs ol thc Advcnt Christian
Association, publishcd his stunning
Prophetic Chart publicizing a ncw
calculation ol thc datc ol thc coming
Apocalypsc in +8. Likc Millcritc
charts ol thc prcvious dccadc,
Cummingss chart mixcs words,
numbcrs, and symbolic imagcs, but it
omits a rcgular chronological scalc.
[ 16]
_______________________________
Richard Cunningham Shimcalls
distinctivc Complete Ecclesiastical
Chart from the Earliest Records, Sacred
and Profane, Down to the Present Day
lrom +8 is a circlc in which radial
columns rcprcscnt ccnturics lrom thc
Crcation to thc Apocalypsc.
Chapter 5: Frontier Lines +6
[ 17]
_______________________________
!n +8: Richard Cunningham
Shimcall publishcd this dcnsc and
colorlul chart ol thc rst agcs ol
thc world combining gcncalogics,
maps, illustrations, and chronological
lists, and callcd it A Complete
Historical Chronological Geographical
& Genealogical Chart of the Sacred
Scriptures from Adam to Christ.
[ 18]
_______________________________
Troughout thc twcnticth ccntury,
traditions ol apocalyptic graphics
havc bccn stcadlastly maintaincd
by scriptural cxcgctcs ol many
pcrsuasions. Among thc most
rcprintcd charts arc thosc in thc ++8
volumc Dispensational Truth by thc
Pcnnsylvanian draltsmanturncd
8aptistministcr, Clarcncc Larkin.
[ 19]
_______________________________
\ictor Houtcs Zech. 6:18:
Te Church to, and Back From the
Wilderness: Her Prophetic History by
Unmistakable Symbols lrom +
rcprcscnts thc lour chariots dcscribcd
in Zcchariah, which Houtc
associatcs with stagcs in thc history
ol Christianity, culminating in thc
prophccics ol Villiam Millcr in +8
and thc lormation ol thc Scvcnth
ay Advcntists altcr thc millcnial
disappointmcnts ol +8 and +8.
Houtcs illustrations organizc
symbolic rcprcscntations around a
chronologcal schcmc.
tradcs, had produccd a massivc gcncalogy ol biblical gurcs,
and a circular chart ol history rccalling thc Discus chronologi-
cus ol thc cightccnthccntury cngravcr Christoph Vcigcl on
which thc radii rcprcscnting Tc Crcation and Tc Grand
ra ol thc Final Strugglc abut onc anothcr whcrc history
comcs lull circlc at thc cnd ol timc.
vcr thc coursc ol thc ncxt ccntury, dozcns ol vision
arics pursucd similar projccts. [ gs. 1819] Vorks in thcsc
traditions drcw on thc talcnt ol all manncr ol outsidcr
artists, including prolic diagrammcrs such as Clarcncc
Larkin, a Pcnnsylvania ispcnsationalist who camc to
thc ministry altcr a carccr as a draltsman and mcchani
cal cnginccr, and thc 8ulgarianAmcrican Advcntist \ictor
Houtc, loundcr ol thc avidian group. !n thc work ol thc
lattcr, divcrsc symbolic rcgistcrs, maps, and timclincs comc
togcthcr vividly in a scrics ol chronological tablcaux.
!n both thc Unitcd Statcs and uropc, in thc ninctccnth
ccntury, cducational timclincs appcarcd in grcat numbcrs,
as wcllin atlascs and tcxtbooks and as lrccstanding tcach
ing aids. [ gs. 2021] A survcy ol Amcrican history curricula
in thc midninctccnth ccntury shows a widc rangc ol chro
nographics in usc, including thc +8o6 Compend of General
History, by Samucl Vhclplcy, with its impcrial biographi
cal chart modclcd altcr Pricstlcys Chart of Biography, thc
+8: Outlines of Chronology ol Samucl Goodrich, and thc
+8 Elements of History, Ancient and Modern by Joscph
mcrson Vorccstcr, with a diagram similar to Pricstlcys
New Chart of History.
+
8ook catalogs and cducational,
thcological, and historical rcvicws rcgularly promotcd ncw
chronological charts, and cvcn gcncral ncwspapcrs rcvicwcd
thc works, as on July +6, +8:, whcn thc New York Observer
and Chronicle hcapcd praisc upon thc now longlorgottcn
Historical Expositor, or Chronological and Historical Charts,
dcsigncd by a worthy young gcntlcman, conncctcd with
thc Tcological Scminary ol this city and sold lor a mcrc
tric. !n this chart, thc Observer notcd, 8ricl outlincs ol
univcrsal history arc ingcniously and clcarly rcprcscntcd
making a scrics which will bc ol grcat valuc to hang up
in thc study or clscwhcrc, lor casy rclcrcncc in lcarning
lacts which might not bc othcrwisc lound altcr an hours
scarch. Charts lrom this pcriod including, lor cxamplc,
thc +8:8 Historical and Classical Atlas by Hcnry 8ostwick,
with its stylizcd gcncalogical notations, attcst to thc con
tcmporary tastc lor visual novclty. 8ut whilc virtually cvcry
publishcr toutcd thc innovations ol its own charts, many
ol thcir products wcrc not much morc than variations
on Pricstlcy. Handsomc as thcy arc, thc charts in Robcrt
Mayos +8+ View of Ancient Geography and Ancient History,
[ 20]
_______________________________
An Elementary Chart being a model
or exemplication of Henry Bostwicks
Improvement called A New Method of
representing by lines consistent with a
Scale of Time the Kindred, Genealogy,
Chronology, and Succession of Persons
distinguished in History & Fable, in
8ostwicks A Historical and Classical
Atlas, Ncw York, +8:6
John Lumans +8+ Elements of Universal History, Villiam
Hcnry !rclands +8:6 Universal Chronologist, and Gcorgc
Palmcr Putnams immcnscly popular +8 Chronology, lor
cxamplc, all hcw closcly to Pricstlcys modcls.
From thc midninctccnth ccntury, numcrous ncw
chronographic lormats bcgan to appcar. [ gs. 2223] nc
ol thc most popular Amcrican charts was publishcd in
+8 in Cincinnati by thc prolic invcntor Azcl S. Lyman,
whosc patcnts includcd rclrigcrator boxcs, pumps and
cngincs, lountain pcn nibs, milk conccntrators, mcat cur
ing machincs, and thc LymanHaskcll multichargc gun, a
largc artillcry piccc manulacturcd lor thc U.S. Army in thc
+88os that, whilc a lailurc in thc cld, succcsslully dcm
onstratcd that a shcll could bc rcpcatcdly accclcratcd by
sccondary cxplosions in a vcry long gun barrcl.
At thirtysix lcct long, Lymans chart, likc his gun,
was ovcrsizcd and just passably lunctional. Gcncrally, it
borrowcd lrom thc oldcr graphic vocabulary ol 8arbcu
ubourg, blowing it up lor casicr rcading. A dclightcd
rcvicwcr imagincd immcrsing himscll in thc gigantic
chronology: Tc studcnt may rcad |thc namcs and datcs
on Lymans chart| at thc distancc ol +o or + lcct, somc
indccd as lar o as o lcct. !n truth wc can hardly con
ccivc ol a morc plcasant cmploymcnt, than to scat oncscll
in thc ccntcr ol a room, around which thc world lrom thc
bcginning to this day is hung up, and its nations with thcir
risc, and dcclinc, and all thc important cvcnts in thcir cxact
ordcr, visiblc at onc vicw, making an imprcssion that can
not bc caccd.
+6
And, il big is thc standard, Lymans work
ccrtainly larcs wcll. 8ut, in othcr rcspccts, Lymans chart
was lcss succcsslul than many ol its contcmporarics. Still,
Lyman tricd to look ahcad. His allcgorical lrontispiccc
capturcs this aspiration niccly: in it, Fathcr Timc sits in a
contcmplativc posc with a scroll in his hand, bchind him
arc a pyramid, a Grcck ruin, and, in thc distancc, a railroad
cnginc charging lorward but not yct thcrc.
Anothcr imprcssivc cxamplc ol Amcrican chro
nographics, and onc ol thc most dircct in its idcologi
cal cxprcssion, was thc Comprehensive Chart of American
History, publishcd almost simultancously with Lymans.
Tc Comprehensive Chart, by thc cducator Marcius Villson,
author ol divcrsc tcxtbooks lor sccondary schools, was
dcdicatcd to illustrating thc implications ol what Villson
callcd thc most important cvcnt that has cvcr rcsultcd lrom
individual gcnius and cntcrprisc, thc discovcry ol Amcrica
by Christophcr Columbus.
+
Villson prcscntcd a handy
miniaturc vcrsion ol his chart in his tcxtbooks ol Amcrican
history, but thc lullsizc vcrsion ol his chart was largc cvcn
[ 21]
_______________________________
Hcnry 8ostwick attcmptcd to
combinc thc lorms ol timclincs,
gcncalogics, and historical maps in
his A Historical, Chronological, and
Genealogical Chart, comprising a Map of
Ancient Countries, and exhibiting a Scale
of Time the Origin and Revolutions of
States, and the principal Persons known
in Sacred and Profane History for 4000
years from the Creation to the Birth
of Jesus Christ and a representation
of the Degrees of Kindred by a New
Method consistent with the scale of time.
8ostwick dcsigncd a ncw systcm ol
gcncalogical notation, inscribcd it into
a chart ol history, and conncctcd thc
chart, through colorcd lincamcnts, to
a gcographical map oating abovc.
8ostwicks systcm is not cspccially
casy to rcad, but it has thc virtuc ol
cmphasizing thc dicrcncc bctwccn
conjugal and parcntal rclationships
and highlighting thc multilincar
charactcr ol gcncalogy.
[ 2223]
_______________________________
Azcl S. Lyman rst publishcd his
historical chart book in Cincinnati in
+8, it appcarcd in scvcral cditions
through +8. Tc chart has a simplc
lclttoright lormat with handcolorcd
horizontal bands indicating dicrcnt
nations, and varicd typography
distinguishing important and rclatcd
tcrms. Lymans charts wcrc somctimcs
intcgratcd with tcxt books. A study
guidc was also publishcd with cach
cdition with qucstions and a kcy so
that Lymans chart could bc uscd as
a kind ol tcxtbook all on its own. n
Lymans chart thc timclinc bursts into
a cld ol many colors altcr thc lall ol
thc Roman mpirc at 6 cv.
Chapter 5: Frontier Lines ++
[ 24]
_______________________________
Miniaturc vcrsion ol thc
Comprehensive Chart of American
History by Marcius Villson lrom
his +8 History of the United States
showing thc cmcrgcncc ol thc nation
lrom what historians ol thc day
trcatcd as obscurc prchistory
lor a classroom wall. [ g. 24] Tough shortcr than Lymans
chart, Villsons was much widcr, making it unwicldy and
impossiblc to scroll. !n addition, much ol its print is vcry
nc. Tc dimcnsions ol Villsons chart gavc him room to
projcct thc immcnsity ol thc growing nation. !l Ramsays
chart gavc thc rcvolutionarycra Unitcd Statcs thc dig
nity ol a history distinct lrom that ol its lormcr political
mastcrs, Villsons cxprcsscd thc cxpansionist dcsigns ol
thc ninctccnthccntury Amcrican rcpublic. !n Villsons
chart, columns rcprcscnting cach ol thc Amcrican statcs
plungc downward out ol thc darkncss ol thc prccolonial
past toward an illuminatcd modcrnity.
!n +8, Robcrt Hcnlopcn Labbcrton, prolcssor
ol history at 8arnard Collcgc and a spccialist in ancicnt
Grcck, publishcd a notcd historical atlas and along with
it, anothcr big and vivid chart cntitlcd History Taught by
the Eye. [g. 25] Labbcrtons chart covcrcd lortythrcc ccn
turics in ninc lcct.
+8
Likc many ninctccnthccntury chart
makcrs, Labbcrton cmphasizcd thc ncutral and scicntic
charactcr ol his work.
+
!n contrast to traditional history
books, hc said, his charts prcscrvcd that unity which
imprcsscs itscll on thc attcntion, and prcscnts thc vicissi
tudcs ol ccnturics as a vast, continuous, harmonious whole.
As such, hc addcd, thcy would bc usclul dclcnscs against
thc sophistrics ol smart magazinists, brilliant lccturcrs,
and cralty politicians.
:o
ach ol thcsc charts was imprcssivc in its own way,
but thc +8+ Synchronological Chart ol thc rcgon pionccr
ministcr Scbastian C. Adamssubscqucntly publishcd in
many cditions undcr dicrcnt titlcswas ninctccnthccn
tury Amcricas surpassing achicvcmcnt in complcxity and
synthctic powcr. [ gs. 2627] Adams, who livcd all ol his
carly lilc at thc vcry cdgc ol U.S. tcrritory, was a school
tcachcr and onc ol thc loundcrs ol thc rst 8iblc collcgc
in rcgon. 8orn in hio in +8: and cducatcd in thc
carly +8os at thc brandncw Knox Collcgc in Galcsburg,
!llinois, at thc hcart ol thc Amcrican abolitionist movc
mcnt, Adams was a voracious rcadcr, a broad thinkcr, and
an invctcratc improvcr. Tc Synchronological Chart is a grcat
work ol outsidcr thinking and a tcmplatc lor autodidact
study, it attcmpts to risc abovc thc station ol a mcrc histor
ical summary and to draw a picturc ol history rich cnough
to scrvc as a tcxtbook in itscll.
Tough in latcr ycars hc would drilt away lrom orga
nizcd rcligion, in thc bcginning, Scbastian Adamss intcr
cst in chronology was both scholarly and thcological.
Alcxandcr Campbcll, loundcr ol thc isciplcs ol Christ
and Adamss carly spiritual inspiration, had writtcn that
thc signs ol thc timcs could bc intcrprctcd only il wc
undcrstand thcir position on thc chart ol prophctic dcvcl
opmcnts.
:+
And Adamss Synchronological Chart aimcd to
aid such undcrstanding.
Likc Lymans and Villsons charts, Adamss Synchro-
nological Chart was bigscvcntccn lcct long and morc
than two lcct tallbut it was also visually richcr than its
contcmporarics. Tough hc conccivcd it in laraway Salcm,
rcgon, Adams travclcd cast to havc his chart madc by
thc virtuoso Cincinnati lithographcrs Strobridgc & Co., a
rm that produccd prccision maps, dctailcd cngravings ol
Civil Var sccncs, travclogucs, and colorlul advcrtiscmcnts
lor commcrcial clicnts including thcatcrs and circuscs. !n
its nal lorm, Adamss chart cmbodicd charactcristics ol all
ol thcsc: it was hugc and dctailcd, packcd with inlormation,
and a riot ol color.
!n its gcncral conccpt, thc Synchronological Chart owcs
a grcat dcal to thc strcamoltimc tradition, and in somc
ways, whcn it appcarcd, it was alrcady somcthing ol an
anachronism. Tc usc ol Archbishop Usshcrs canonical
datc ol oo ncv lor thc Crcationthc scamlcss transition
lrom sacrcd to sccular history, and thc various millcnnial
dcviccs, such as an imagc ol thc bcast ol thc Apocalypsc
all sccm rathcr morc backwardlooking than lorward. 8ut
Adamss chart was also a strong a rmation ol thc powcr ol
thc rcgular, mcasurcd, singlcaxis timclinc and thc impor
tancc ol visual tools in cducation.
Adams initially produccd thc chart indcpcndcntly by
sclling subscriptions and invcsting his own moncy. 8ut altcr
thc +8+ cdition, his work was pickcd up by printcrs in dil
lcrcnt Amcrican citics and thcn in ngland as wcll. !ndccd,
it is still availablc in colorlul lacsimilc today. nc ol thc
most popular and longcstrunning cditions was publishcd
by Charlcs Villiam cacon and Company in London
around thc turn ol thc twcnticth ccntury. cacons vcrsion
ol thc chart playcd down thc Amcricanism ol thc original,
rcmoving thc biccntcnnial portraits and altcring ccrtain
dctails. cacon and Company also rcmovcd most ol thc
bibliographic notcs that cstablishcd thc conncction bctwccn
Adamss work and thc tradition ol acadcmic chronology and
took Adamss namc o ol thc chart. Finally, thc company
appcndcd a chart ol gcological strata by thc !rish scicntist
dward Hull and proudly announccd this in its ncw titlc,
Deacons Synchronological Chart, Pictorial and Descriptive, of
Universal History: With Maps of the Worlds Great Empires
and a Complete Geological Diagram of the Earth, by Professor
Edward Hull, thc ambiguity ol which has long mislcd rcad
crs and catalogcrs alikc to attributc Adamss chart to Hull.
[ 26]
_______________________________
Tc Salcm, rcgon, ministcr Scbastian
C. Adamss charts wcrc a riot ol color
and dctail, including tcxt, illustrations,
and maps, all organizcd around a
mcasurcd, horizontal timclinc. Vcll
rcvicwcd and popular, Adamss chart
was most oltcn sold as an accordion
book, but it could also bc purchascd
on rollcrs, as in this third cdition lrom
+88, lor mounting on a wall.
[ 25]
_______________________________
Robcrt Hcnlopcn Labbcrton
publishcd scvcral outlincs ol history.
n his chart lrom Historical Chart, or
History Taught by the Eye lrom +8,
nations cntcr or lcavc thc stagc ol
history at dicrcnt angular paccs.
[ 27]
_______________________________
Scbastian C. Adams, A Chronological
Chart of Ancient, Modern, and Biblical
History, third cdition, Cincinnati, +88
8y thc latc ninctccnth ccntury, charts in thc manncr
ol Lyman and Adams had bccomc thoroughly intcgratcd
into thc rcgular study ol history in Amcrica and uropc.
Tc lorcc ol this dcvclopmcnt is cvidcnt not only in ninc
tccnthccntury graphics, but in thc gcncral vocabulary in
which history was discusscd. Alrcady in +8: Churchmans
Magazine in Ncw Havcn, Connccticut, rccommcndcd that
thc clcrgyman cast his cyc on thc chart ol history in ordcr
to undcrstand thc prcscnt statc ol human socicty.
::
And
an articlc in thc Ncw York Workingmans Advocate ol +8
rccounts a rabblcrousing spccch by thc !rishborn Chartist
and ncwspapcr cditor Tomas Aingc cvyr, who callcd
upon his listcncrs to look on history as a scaman looks on
his chart. cvyr argucd, !l wc cxaminc history, wc shall
nd that in thc Grccian and Roman rcpublics, whcn cach
man had his right ol soil, whcn a Cincinnatus could bc
contcntcd with his scvcn acrcs, thcy wcrc a prospcrous, dig
nicd, happy, and wisc pcoplc. 8ut whcn thc lcw bccamc
posscssors ol thc soil to thc cxclusion ol thc many, vicc and
luxury prcvailcd.
:
At lcngth, cvyr comparcd thc moncy
mcn ol Ncw York to thc patricians ol Romc, pointing out
that just as Romc had its pcriod ol dcgcncracy and violcncc
against thc working pcoplc, so too did modcrn Amcrica.
Had Columbus had a chart, his pathway to thc ncw world
would havc bccn casy. Vc arc not likc Columbus: thc chart
ol history points out thc rocks and shoals and sand banks
that wc should avoid.
:
!n +86, an articlc in New Englander magazinc titlcd
Uscs ol History lor thc Prcachcr argucd that thc chart
ol historyrclcrring both to actual charts and to thc
mctaphorical idcaappcals to thc Christian as thc map ol
!ndia appcalcd to thc sacrcd instincts ol |thc 8aptist mis
sionary Villiam| Carcy. !t rcvcals to him wholc contincnts
ol immortal bcings, born in thc dark, living in twilight,
vanishing in gloom. !t appalls him with an cxhibition ol
thc hclplcssncss ol man without thc knowlcdgc ol God,
and without thc assurancc ol a luturc lilc.
:
[ g. 28]
!n sccular historiography, thc samc convcntions wcrc
ubiquitous, but progrcss, not providcncc, was at issuc. !n a
rcport to thc Amcrican Historical Association in +8:, his
torian Jamcs Schouldcr lramcd thc grcat narrativc ol mod
crn history as a chart ol thc worlds progrcss. Hc writcs,
ur chart ol history opcns likc an atlas, it prcscnts pagc altcr
pagc ol cqual sizc, but with a lcsscning arca lor thc sakc ol
an incrcasing scalc. nc pagc cxhibits a hcmisphcrc, anothcr
a contincnt, anothcr nation, othcrs, in turn, thc Statc, thc
county, thc municipal unit. From a world wc may thus rcducc
thc locus, until wc havc manncd within thc samc spaccs a
town or city, or cvcn a singlc housc.
:6
!n thc cightccnth ccntury, Jacqucs 8arbcuubourg
lamcntcd that thc chronological chart lackcd both thc
sophistication and thc intuitivc quality ol thc gcographic
map, and Gcorg Hagclgans warncd thc rcadcr that his timc
chart could not bc ccctivcly consultcd without rclcrcncc to
a historical tcxtbook. Ninctccnthccntury chronographcrs
madc no such apologics. 8y now, thc chart had bccomc a
symbol ol historical undcrstanding itscll.
[ 28]
_______________________________
!n thc chronological chart in thc
+8: Account of the most important
and interesting religious events which
have transpired from the commencement
of the Christian era to the present,
John Varncr 8arbcr, a Connccticut
cngravcr known lor his historical and
gcographical illustrations, indicatcd
thc rclativc prcvalcncc ol Christianity,
!slam, and Paganism around thc
world in quantitativc tcrms. !n kccping
with a dcmographic pcrspcctivc,
this chart allottcd spacc according
to a rough mcasurc ol population
rathcr than thc pcrccivcd historical
importancc ol nations.
Cartographies of Time +8o
!n thc Vcstcrn world, conccpts and cxpcricnccs ol timc
changcd quickly during thc last dccadcs ol thc ninctccnth
ccntury. !n a vcry short pcriod ol timc, ncw social dcvcl
opmcnts including industrialization, urbanization, and thc
sprcad ol ncw transportation and communication tcchno
logics such as thc railroad and tclcgraph madc ncw timc
kccping convcntions unavoidablc. Morc and morc, daily
bchavior was govcrncd by clocks and watchcs. Tc corrcct
timc was no longcr cstablishcd only by local convcntion.
Timc zoncs conncctcd lar away placcs and govcrncd a
global, intcrconncctcd systcm.
Tcsc changcs, ol coursc, did not comc cntircly out
ol thc bluc. Sincc thc Rcnaissancc, thc clock had playcd
an incrcasingly important rolc in thc uropcan cultural
imagination. Alrcady in thc midscvcntccnth ccntury, carly
adoptcrs such as nglish diarist Samucl Pcpys could hardly
imaginc going without his pockct watch.
+
A thcological
trcatisc publishcd in ngland in + comparcd thc study
ol chronology to watching thc sands ol a grcat historical
hourglass, whilc anothcr, publishcd cighty ycars latcr, cnvi
sioncd it as a clock lramcd with Art . . . undcr thc Hammcr
and thc Filc lor many Ycars and madc to do its 8usincss
truly and laithlully.
:
thcrs wcrc morc skcptical, cspccially
during thc many dccadcs in which clocks ocrcd only an
approximation ol thc prccisc timc. A popular carly modcrn
dictum statcd that chronologcrs and clocks ncvcr agrcc.
vcntually, howcvcr, timc picccs achicvcd an imprcs

sivc lcvcl ol prccision. uring thc cightccnth ccntury,
chronomctric tcchnologics wcrc substantially advanccd, as
cvidcnccd by thc marinc chronomctcr submittcd by John
Harrison lor thc 8ritish govcrnmcnts Longitudc Prizc in
+6+. Vith Harrisons H chronomctcr, global synchro
nization had bccomc a practical, not just a thcorctical,
possibility. At thc samc timc, clocks and watchcs bccamc
widcly acccssiblc to bourgcois consumcrs and intcgratcd
into thc practiccs ol cvcryday lilc, though thcy somctimcs
mct considcrablc rcsistancc. !n lactorics thcy wcrc uscd to
imposc ncw disciplinc on rcluctant workcrs.
uring thc
ninctccnth ccntury, nally, undcr thc inucncc ol lactory
schcdulcs, railroad timc, and longdistancc communication
via tclcgraph, thc idca ol a singlc, unilorm labric ol timc
bccamc sccond naturc in uropc and Amcrica. 8y thc turn
ol thc ccntury, having thc timc was no longcr a sign ol
prcstigc, and lor morc and morc pcoplc, living by thc clock
was a mattcr ol ncccssity.
As mcasurcd timc pcnctratcd into cvcr morc domains
ol cultural lilc, so did thc graphic lramcworks ol chronog
raphy. [ gs. 12] Tc coordination ol timc lramcs (through
Chapter &:
A Tinkcrcrs Art
+8+ Chapter &: Tinkerers rt
tcchnologics such as thc marinc chronomctcr and convcn
tions such as intcrnational timc zoncs) brought chrono
graphics into play in many ncw arcas as wcll. Much has
bccn madc ol thc cultural impact ol thc rst photographs
ol thc carth takcn in thc +6os, ol thc vision ol onc con
tinuous and conncctcd world that thosc picturcs providcd.
8ut alrcady in thc ninctccnth ccntury, synchronous maps
showing data rcadings lrom dicrcnt gcographical loca
tions takcn at thc samc momcnt providcd somcthing
conccptually similar. For cxamplc, by placing timccodcd
mctcorological data lrom distant locations on a singlc map,
thc \ictorian polymath Francis Galtona grcat graphic
innovator, as wcll as a loundcr ol cugcnics, psychomctrics,
lorcnsic scicncc, and mctcorologywas ablc to crcatc a vir
tual world picturc illustrating thc global intcrdcpcndcncc
ol wcathcr systcms and thc rcgularity ol wind pattcrns.

Galtons charts arc not chronological in thc samc scnsc as
Pricstlcys, but thcir principlcs arc closcly allicd: as syn
chronous charts, Galtons arc likc vcrtical sliccs through
Pricstlcy giving data lrom many placcs at onc point in
timc, and thcy do similar work, dcmonstrating pattcrn and
synchronism.
vcntually, thc dcvclopmcnt ol longdistancc com
munication tcchnologics such as thc tclcgraph and thc
tclcphonc madc thc coordination ol timc lramcs a mat
tcr ol practical cxpcricncc, not only a scicntic projcction.
[ g. 3] And all ol this was capturcd in cvolving graphic
lorms. Vhcn thc Titanic sct sail on its rst and nal voyagc
on April +o, ++:, its path was chartcd by both thc Vhitc
Star Linc, which owncd thc ship, and by thc Marconi
Tclcgraph Company, which providcd its tclcgraph opcrator.
Vhilc thc shipping linc mappcd thc routc ol thc Titanic on
traditional marinc charts, thc Marconi Tclcgraph Company
cmploycd a ncwcr systcm ol rcprcscntation dcvclopcd lor
thc Frcnch railroads in thc +8os.
6
Rathcr than plotting thc
Titanics gcographical location, Marconis North Atlantic
Communication chart showcd whcrc thc ship was at cach
point in timc in rclation to othcr ships carrying Marconi
opcrators. Tis diagram allowcd opcrators to plan shipto
ship tclcgraph rclays so that mcssagcs could bc transmittcd
ovcr vcry long distanccs and lrom lar out at sca.
Tc Marconi chart lrom April ++: bccamc iconic
whcn it was publishcd altcr thc sinking ol thc Titanic, onc ol
thc rst grcat mcdia cvcnts cxpcricnccd across thc world in
somcthing approximating rcal timc. As thc chart indicatcs,
whcn thc Titanic struck an iccbcrg at ++:o v: on April +,
++:, tcn ships carrying Marconi opcrators, including thc
Ola., thc Niagara, thc Mount Temple, thc Carpathia, and thc
[ 1]
_______________________________
For twcntyrstccntury rcadcrs, it is
sccond naturc to think ol timclincs
as scaling smoothly lrom largc to
small, lrom ccnturics to dccadcs to
ycars, months, days, minutcs, and
scconds. 8ut lor carlicr rcadcrs, thcsc
translations wcrc not so simplc.
Prior to national and intcrnational
standardizations ol timc in thc last
dccadcs ol thc ninctccnth ccntury,
complcx corrcspondcncc chartssuch
as Alvin Jcwctt Johnsons +8
Diagram Exhibiting the dierence of time
bet.een the places sho.n . !ashington,
lrom Johnsons Ne. Illustrated Family
tlas of the !orldwcrc ncccssary to
cstablish cxact synchronisms across
gcographical spacc.
Cartographies of Time +8:
[ 2]
_______________________________
Francis Galton did pionccring work
both in thc study ol wcathcr and in
its mapping. !n Meteorographica, or
Methods of Mapping the !eather, lrom
+86, Galton prcscntcd a varicty ol
mctcorological diagrams including
synchronous charts such as thc onc
dcpictcd hcrc, indicating wcathcr
conditions, baromctric prcssurc, and
wind dircction at a singlc historic
momcnt across thc gcographic spacc
ol uropc.
[ 3]
_______________________________
To chart communication links among
ships carrying tclcgraph opcrators,
thc Marconi Tclcgraph Company
cmploycd a systcm dcvclopcd
dccadcs carlicr lor usc in thc Frcnch
railroads. n thc Marconi Tclcgraph
Communication Charts, cach linc
rcprcscnts thc routc ol a singlc ship.
Numbcrs at thc top and bottom
indicatc thc datcs ol dcparturc and
arrival. !ntcrscctions indicatc thc
carlicst timc that ships can bc in thc
samc longitudc at bcst avcragc spccds.
Togcthcr, thc lincs dcpict thc shilting
wirclcss communication nctwork
linking togcthcr thc North Atlantic.
Tc Titanic linc can bc lound in thc
THU. ++ column.
+8 Chapter &: Tinkerers rt
[ 4]
_______________________________
Tc Scientic merican Feference Book
lor ++ glosscd ovcr thc Titanic
tragcdy, displaying two Marconi charts
lrom +o and +++. Tc irony in thc
caption uscd with thc charts sccms not
to havc bccn intcntional.
Californian, wcrc in wirclcss rangc, and thc Californian was
only ninctccn milcs away. 8ut thc Californian had signcd
o thc wirclcss nctwork at ++:o v:. Tc Carpathia got thc
ncws on thc rst call at +::+ ~:, but as thcy wcrc lty
cight milcs out, thcy did not arrivc at thc sccnc until two
hours latcr. 8y that point thc ncws had alrcady gottcn back
to Ncw York and hit thc strccts.
!n thc lollowing days, thc scnsc ol tragcdy was hcight
cncd by thc graphic showing just how many ships wcrc ablc
to hcar but not act.
[ g. 4] Tc pathos was still powcrlul two

ycars latcr whcn thc Scientic merican Feference Book pub
lishcd two ol Marconis North Atlantic Communication
Charts sidc by sidc, onc lrom cccmbcr +o and onc lrom
cccmbcr +++, just lour months bclorc thc sinking ol thc
Titanic, to show how salc thc nctworkcd North Atlantic
had, in thcory, bccomc. Tc caption bclow thc two charts
conspicuously omittcd rclcrcncc to thc cvcnts ol April +,
++:, stating simply, Scvcn ycars latcr thc intcrlacing lincs
show possiblc intcrcommunications which havc robbcd thc
sca ol many ol its tcrrors. Phcnomcnal incrcasc in wirc
lcss activity.
8
Tc charts, ol coursc, did nothing to savc
thc Titanic, but thcy did providc a striking imagc ol thc
conncctcd tcmporal labric that thc tclcgraph nctwork had
crcatcd.
Tc latc ninctccnth ccntury also saw thc rapid dcvcl
opmcnt ol rcaltimc rccording tcchniqucs, somc ol thc
most signicant ol which wcrc thc work ol thc Frcnch
physician ticnncJulcs Marcy, an innovator in thc cld ol
chronophotography. [ gs. 510] Marcy was both an cxpcri
mcntcr and a thcorist, and hc was wcll vcrscd in thc tra
dition ol chronographic rcprcscntation. !n contrast to his
rcnowncd Amcrican contcmporary adwcard Muybridgc,
Marcys intcrcsts cxtcndcd lar bcyond photography, which
hc thought ol as only onc instrumcnt in thc largc and
cxpanding chronographic tool kit. For cxamplc, in physiol
ogy, an arca in which hc was particularly knowlcdgcablc,
Marcy pointcd to scvcral rcccnt chronographic invcntions
including thc colorlully namcd sphygmograph, hacmo
dromograph, cardiograph, and myographthc rst thrcc
dcsigncd to makc graphic rccordings ol thc activity ol thc
hcart ovcr timc, thc last, that ol thc ncurophysiological
systcm.
For Marcy, thcsc ncw dcviccs all rcprcscntcd a dcvclop

mcnt ol thc chronographic tradition ol Pricstlcy and Playlair,
and hc was cxplicit about thc conncction. 8ut whilc Pricstlcy
and Playlair crcatcd systcms lor representing tcmporal phc
nomcna, Marcys intcrcst was in graphically recording thcm.
For Marcy, rcmoving human and linguistic mcdiation lrom
[ 510]
_______________________________
ticnncJulcs Marcys book Mo.ement,
publishcd in Frcnch in +8, dcpicts a
chronophotographic gun capablc ol
shooting imagcs at intcrvals ol +/+: ol
a sccond, a hodograph dcsigncd to
rccord thc hool strikcs ol a galloping
horsc, and many othcr mcchanisms lor
making visual rccords ol movcmcnt.
Marcy draws dircctly on thc graphic
cxamplcs ol thc cightccnthccntury
chronographcrs but aims to mcchanizc
thc proccss that thcy had undcrtakcn
by hand. Alrcady in thc cightccnth
ccntury, Marcy points out, thc visual
lorms ol Pricstly and Playlair had
important analogucs in cxpcrimcntal
scicncc.
thc rcprcscntational proccss was thc culminating stcp in thc
cmcrgcncc ol chronography as a scicntic tcchniquc. !t was
at oncc a stcp bcyond Pricstlcy and Playlairand bcyond
thc cightccnthccntury scicntists such as AntoincFranois
\inccnt and Gcorgcs Claudc Goion, whosc chronogra
phics wcrc still bascd on transcriptions ol dataand a vin
dication ol thcm.
+o
Marcy writcs,
!n cxpcrimcnts, lor instancc, which dcal with timc mcasurc
mcnts, it is ol immcnsc importancc that thc graphic rccord
should bc automatically rcgistcrcd, in lact, that thc phcnom
cnon should givc on papcr its own rccord ol duration, and
ol thc momcnt ol production. Tis mcthod, in thc cascs in
which it is applicablc, is almost pcrlcct. !n othcr instanccs
photography comcs to thc rcscuc, and aords accuratc mca
surcmcnts ol timc cvcnts which cludc thc nakcd cyc. Tc pro
ccss which thus scrvcs to rcgistcr thc duration and scqucncc
ol cvcnts constitutcs a mcthod callcd chronography.
++
Marcy shows that by thc cnd ol thc ninctccnth ccn
tury thc idca ol rcaltimc data rccording had alrcady bccn
around lor somc timc. Howcvcr, hc argucs that a widc
intcrcst in tcchnologics lor data rccording was much morc
rcccnt. And thc work ol modcrn scholars has bornc this
out. !n thc midscvcntccnth ccntury, thc nglish polymath
Christophcr Vrcn had skctchcd a dcsign lor a wcathcr
clock, an instrumcnt mcant to automatically rccord wind
dircction, rainlall, and tcmpcraturc on a moving chart. 8ut
Vrcn conccivcd ol his rccording dcvicc as only a rcgistcr ol
raw data, hc ncvcr intcndcd to display thc platc on which
thc mctcorological data wcrc rccordcd.
+:
vcr thc coursc
ol thc cightccnth ccntury, various rccording dcviccs wcrc
dcvclopcd along a principlc similar to that ol Vrcn. Likc
thc wcathcr clock, Jamcs Vatts graphic prcssurc rccordcr
was dcsigncd to capturc inlormation, not to display it. 8ut
thc usclul pattcrns that it drcw and thc principlc ol its
opcration wcrc clcarly not lost on Villiam Playlair, who
workcd in Vatts shop as a young man.
+
8y thc ninctccnth ccntury, graphs appcarcd rcgularly
alongsidc tablcs in many scicntic and tcchnical clds.
Pricstlcy and Playlair and thcir many continucrs in statisti
cal graphics wcrc instrumcntal in this proccss, but so wcrc
thc invcntors ol rccording dcviccs in thc tradition ol Vrcn
and Vatt. Ninctccnthccntury invcntors laborcd to crcatc
ncw chronographic instrumcnts in many domains. Tc rst
known phonographic instrumcnt, thc phonautograph pat
cntcd by thc Frcnch typographcr douardLon Scott dc
Martinvillc in +8, produccd nothing morc than jaggcd
lincs scratchcd onto papcr coatcd with lampblack.
+
Vhcn,
in thc +8os, milc 8crlincr and Tomas dison cach cou
plcd a similar rccording conccpt with a mcchanism lor sound
rcproduction, Scott dc Martinvillc protcstcd not only that
his idca had bccn pillcrcd but that it had bccn dcnaturcd: hc
argucd that thc phonautograph was mcant to rcgistcr sound
in a graphic lorm appropriatc lor mcasurcmcnt and analysis,
not to rcproducc it lor cntcrtainmcnt.
+
Rcgardlcss ol thc application, all ol thc carly phono
graphic dcviccs had an intrinsically chronographic com
poncnt, as thcy wcrc dcsigncd to tracc changcs in sound
ovcr timc. [ g. 11] !n contrast, thc photograph was dcsigncd
to capturc an instant. 8ut, on account ol this vcry qual
ity, thc photograph, too, could bc cmploycd as a kind timc
machinc. Scholars and cntrcprcncurs wcrc quick to apprc
ciatc thc valuc in this. !n +86, thc samc ycar that Scbastian
Adams rclcascd his sccond cdition ol thc Chronological
Chart of ncient, Modern, and Biblical History, thc photog
raphcr Charlcs . Moshcr managcd to install a mcmorial
vault containing photographs ol Chicagos promincnt and
notsopromincnt citizcns (thc lattcr paid to bc includcd)
in Chicagos City Hall.
+6
Moshcrs vault was onc ol thc rst
timc capsulcs. According to his plan, thc vault would bc
scalcd at thc cnd ol thc Ccntcnnial xhibition in Chicago,
not to bc cxhibitcd again bclorc thc biccntcnnial cclcbra
tion ol +6. As it turns out, Moshcrs projcct was only a
partial succcss. Chicagos old City Hall was razcd in +o8,
and thc mcmorial vault was dcstroycd. 8ut Moshcrs pho
tographs wcrc savcd, surviving to bc cxhibitcd in +6, and,
with luck, again in :o6 and oncc a ccntury lrom thcn on.
At thc cnd ol thc ninctccnth ccntury, photographic
tcchnology was spccding up. [ g. 12] Vhilc carly pho
tography produccd intriguing tcmporal cccts including
blurs and disappcaranccssomc ol which wcrc cvcntually
cxploitcd by artists such as thc luturist Anton 8ragaglia
thc tcchnology did not immcdiatcly lcnd itscll to thc
mcasurcmcnt ol timc.
+
8ut with thc dcvclopmcnt ol last
mcchanisms, camcras bccamc availablc lor chronographic
uscs. !nstrumcnts such as thc +8 re.ol.er photographique
ol thc Frcnch astronomcr Picrrc Julcs Csar Jansscn cap
turcd rcmarkablc imagcs. Jansscns re.ol.er could shoot
lortycight scqucntial imagcs at intcrvals ol just ovcr onc
sccond. Jansscn lamously cmploycd a similar instrumcnt,
an astronomical rcvolvcr that rcd oncc cvcry scvcnty
scconds, to rccord thc transit ol \cnus on cccmbcr 8,
+8. Jansscn proclaimcd that thc photographic platc was
thc ncw rctina ol thc scicntist.
+8
And hc might wcll havc
addcd, ol thc chronographcr too.
[ 11]
_______________________________
!n thc +8os, thc Chicago
photographcr Charlcs . Moshcr, who
stylcd himscll thc National Historical
Photographcr to Postcrity, was sclling
a vision ol thc luturc. Sittcrs who paid
to havc portraits madc could havc
thcm committcd to a mcmorial vault,
which was to bc scalcd in +86 at thc
Amcrican Ccntcnnial cclcbration and
rcopcncd in +6 at thc 8iccntcnnial.
Moshcrs was onc ol thc rst datc
spccic timc capsulcs, but it did not
survivc a ccntury. Tough thc vault was
lost whcn Chicago built a ncw City
Hall, thc imagcs wcrc savcd.
__________
icni:o. Charlcs . Moshcr Papcrs.
Chicago Historical Socicty.
Tough it may bc morc apparcnt in thc work ol Marcy,
Jansscn, and thcir latc ninctccnthccntury contcmporarics,
chronography was a tinkcrcrs art lrom thc vcry bcgin
ning. uscbius was an carly adoptcr, cmploying thc ncw
codcx book lor his Chronicle, as was Rolcvinck, who uscd
thc movcablctypc printing prcss lor his ltccnthccntury
Fasciculus temporum (8undlc ol datcs). !n thc cightccnth
ccntury, 8arbcuubourgs conccpt lor a chronographic
machinc was cdgy cnough to carn an cncomium in idcrots
Encyclopedie, and Adamss Chronological Chart of ncient,
Modern, and Biblical History ranks among thc monumcn
tal cxamplcs ol ninctccnthccntury chromolithography. At
cach momcnt in its history, thc timc chart has pushcd at
thc boundarics ol availablc graphic mcdia.
vcn as thcy innovatcd, chronographcrs ol thc cigh
tccnth and ninctccnth ccnturics also lookcd back. [ g. 13]
vcry rcadcr ol Rcvclation, altcr all, kncw how ccctivcly
thc scroll could stand lor somcthing cosmiccvcn thc
world itscll: And thc hcavcn dcpartcd as a scroll whcn it is
rollcd togcthcr.
+
And altcr thrcc ccnturics ol chronogra
phics printcd in books and on broadsidcs, thc scroll bcgan
to rccmcrgc both as a mcchanical support lor thc timclinc
and as a symbol ol chronological timc. 8arbcuubourgs
Chronographie uni.erselle uscd a scrolling mcchanism,
as did thc tiny Pocket Tablet of Chronology publishcd by
Villiam arton in +8+. 8lanchcts +8 Catholic Ladder,
and Adamss +8+ Chronological Chart of ncient, Modern,
and Biblical History wcrc scrolls, too. Tc lrontispiccc lor
thc +86 Horae pocalypticae, or, Commentary on the
pocalypse, Critical and Historical by thc nglish millcnni
alist scholar dward 8ishop lliott was only dcsigncd to
look likc onc, but usc ol thc imagc suggcsts how vcry livcly
a mctaphor was thc scroll ol timc.
Modcrn scrolls wcrc, ol coursc, vcry dicrcnt lrom thc
gcncalogical parchmcnts ol thc Middlc Agcs. [ gs. 1417]
Tcy wcrc mass produccd and rclativcly incxpcnsivc, and
thcy rccctcd thc convcntions ol thc mcasurcd timclinc
that had achicvcd such succcss in thc cightccnth ccntury.
!n contrast to ancicnt scrolls, which prcccdcd thc codcx
and mcdicval scrolls, thcsc modcrn scrolls wcrc spccically
dcsigncd to addrcss thc limitations ol thc printcd book.
Tc scroll, ol coursc, had limitations too: though it ocrcd
visual continuity (important in thc graphic rcprcscntation
ol chronological scqucncc), it sacriccd casc ol usc (impor
tant in works ol rclcrcncc).
Ninctccnthccntury chronographcrs cxpcrimcntcd
with cvcry lormat thcy could gct thcir hands on. [ gs. 1819]
!n addition to rclcrcncc works, thcy madc gamcs and toys
[ 12]
_______________________________
!llustration ol thc photographic disc
uscd by Picrrc Julcs Csar Jansscn to
photograph thc transit ol \cnus, lrom
ticnncJulcs Marcy, Mo.ement, +8
++ Chapter &: Tinkerers rt
[ 13]
_______________________________
Scroll chart lrom dward 8ishop
lliotts multivolumc study, Horae
pocalypticae, or, Commentary on the
pocalypse, Critical and Historical, rst
publishcd in London, +8
[ 1415]
_______________________________
At vc ccntimctcrs in hcight, Dartons
Pocket Tablet of Chronology: From the
Creation of the !orld to the Year ::,
is among thc smallcst chronographic
scroll charts cvcr publishcd.
[ 1617]
_______________________________
Stream of Time: Intended for Young
Persons. To Be Filled Up During a
Course of Historical Feading, London,
+8. Tis scroll chart, ncarly thirty
lcct long, is wound on a rollcr xcd
in a dccorativc box. At thc top, thc
scroll has a widc arca paintcd bluc to
indicatc thc sourcc ol all things at thc
Crcation, oo ycars bclorc Christ.
Tc lclt sidc ol thc chart is dcvotcd
to Gcncral History: Ancicnt and
Modcrn, thc right sidc, to Scripturc
History, rcplaccd in a latcr cra by
8ritish History. n this Princcton
Univcrsity copy, thc rst cntry is thc
birth ol Scth, thc last is thc Grcat
xhibition ol +8+ in London.
+ Chapter &: Tinkerers rt
[ 18]
_______________________________
A board gamc publishcd in Paris
altcr ++, thc Tableau cronologique
de lhistoire uni.erselle en forme de jeu
bcgins in thc ycar + ol thc Vorld
with Adam and cnds on Scptcmbcr +,
++, with thc acccssion ol Louis X\.
8oard gamcs ol this typc bccamc vcry
popular in uropc and ngland during
thc ninctccnth ccntury. Tc gcncral
rulcs arc printcd on thc gamc, and thc
spccic instructions arc inscribcd ovcr
many ol thc individual spaccs on thc
gamc board. Playcrs wih thc bad luck
to land on thc pcnultimatc ycar ++,
lor cxamplc, wcrc instructcd to rcturn
to thc ycar +++.
[ 19]
_______________________________
!allis Ne. Game of Uni.ersal History
and Chronology lrom +8o is a
handcolorcd gamc shcct dividcd in
twclvc and mountcd on lincn. !t has
spaccs lor such cvcnts as thc rst usc
ol papcr in ngland, thc invcntion
ol cngraving, and thc discovcry ol
longitudc.
and mcchanisms ol many dicrcnt kinds. Chronological
amuscmcnts, such as simplc board gamcs in which playcrs
rollcd dicc to racc along a historical path, wcrc alrcady
popular by thc cnd ol thc cightccnth ccntury, and with
chcapcr printing tcchniqucs, dcvcloping consumcr mar
kcts, and a growing awarcncss ol thc valuc ol visual cdu
cation, thcy continucd to prolilcratc in thc lollowing
ccntury.
:o
!n gcncral, carly chronological gamcs wcrc lairly
straightlorward: thc usual layout is a continuous spiral,
playcrs bcgin at thc outcr cdgc and, by rolling dicc or somc
thing similar, advancc toward thc ccntcr, or clsc thcy bcgin
at thc ccntcr and do thc rcvcrsc. Spaccs arc markcd cithcr
with datcs or with notablc cvcnts such as coronations,
battlcs, and trcatics. Tc basic goal is to gct to thc to thc
cnd ol thc board rst. Racc gamcs such as thcsc, ol coursc,
could bc organizcd around any thcmc at all, but thc struc
turc ol chronology suitcd thcm particularly wcll: chrono
logical subjcct mattcr providcd a rationalc lor thc lincar
structurc ol gamcs, and it gavc thcm an intcrnal tcnsion,
as playcrs had opportunitics to jump ahcad ol onc anothcr
and to lcaplrog, likc thc timc travclcr ol LouisSbasticn
Mcrcicrs +6 Te Year :,,c: Dream if E.er Tere !as
One, ovcr dangcrous and cxciting cvcnts.
:+
Anothcr tclling cightccnthccntury divcrsion is thc
chronological puzzlc. Hcrc, thc plcasurc principlc is a bit
dicrcnt. As in most puzzlcs, thc idca is to rcasscmblc
an imagc that has bccn brokcn apart, but thc satislaction
comcs lrom succcsslully sorting out scattcrcd lragmcnts
ol history.
Tcrc wcrc othcr chronology gamcs too: chutcs and
laddcrs, cards, chcckcrs, and conccntration, and othcrs that
involvcd morc complcx rulcs with banking, challcngcs, and
thc likc. Many wcrc adaptablc to othcr subjccts. [ gs. 2025]
Tc modicd chcckcrboard patcntcd in Chicago by thc
Prcsbytcrian ministcr and high school tcachcr Jamcs V.
Larimorc in +88 is a good cxamplc. Larimorcs gamc board
could bc uscd as a tool lor tcaching in any cld that rcquircd
mcmorization, but lor him, as lor his contcmporarics,
chronology was thc cld ol mcmorization par cxccllcncc.
Larimorcs gamc was simplc, barcly an invcntion, rcally: a
plain matrix upon which inlormation could bc inscribcd
so that playcrs, using thc usual rulcs ol chcckcrs, would
constantly bc vicwing lacts that thcy nccdcd to mcmorizc.
According to Larimorc, thcsc would bc absorbcd plcasur
ably and without any spccial cort. !n his illustration (with
a somcwhat jarring indicrcncc to catcgory), Larimorc
gavc thc lollowing two phrascs as cxamplcs ol thc kind ol
[ 2022]
_______________________________
!nvcntors in latc ninctccnth and
carly twcnticthccntury Amcrica
lcd a widc rangc ol applications to
patcnt chronology gamcs and dcviccs
including Jamcs V. Larimorcs +88
chcckcrboard, John A. Colcs chart
systcm lrom +8+, and Valtcr A.
Hammctts ++o playing cards. Colcs
systcm was bascd on Joscph Pricstlcys
cightccnthccntury conccpt, but his
dcsign calls lor rcmovablc cards cut
to dicrcnt lcngths to rcprcscnt lincs
and cvcnts and a tin casc to hold thcm
in placc. Hammctts playing dcck
containcd 8 cards, cnough to covcr
lour ycars, onc month pcr card.
[ 23]
_______________________________
A jigsaw puzzlc in 6 picccs callcd
History of France Chronologically
arranged from the Feign of Pharamond
rst King to that of Louis the Sixteenth,
London, +:. Tis was apparcntly
intcndcd as a companion to Rcvcrcnd
Mr. Coopcrs +86 Te History of
France. ach ol thc ncly cut woodcn
puzzlc picccs carrics a portrait ol thc
king or quccn with a tcxt dcscribing
thc important cvcnts ol thc rcign.
[ 2425]
_______________________________
ozcns ol historical card gamcs
wcrc produccd in thc mid and latc
ninctccnth ccntury. As with board
gamcs, somc ol thcsc wcrc only history
thcmcd. thcrs, such as Uncle Sams
Game of merican History lrom +8+,
and Historical musement: Ne.
and Entertaining Game on the History
of England publishcd in Albany,
Ncw York, in +8, rcquircd rcal
chronological knowlcdgc. !n thcsc
gamcs opponcnts try to namc cvcnts
listcd on othcr playcrs cards.
[ 2627]
_______________________________
Mark Twain, Mark T.ains Memory-
Builder: Game for cquiring and
Fetaining ll Sorts of Facts and Dates,
Hartlord, Connccticut, +88
lacts that might bc incorporatcd: Adam to Christ, ,oo
ycars, Air is a mixturc ol oxygcn and nitrogcn.
Tc ninctccnthccntury Amcrican writcr Samucl L.
Clcmcns, bcttcr known by his pcn namc, Mark Twain, was
lascinatcd by ncw tcchnologics. Hc lamously lost his shirt
invcsting in thc Paigc Compositor, somconc clscs conccpt
lor an automatic typcsctting machinc, but hc also hcld
thrcc patcnts ol his own, nonc ol which brought him such
nancial hcartachconc lor a sclladhcsivc scrapbook, onc
lor an adjustablc garmcnt strap, and onc lrom +88 lor a
chronology gamc.
Tc conccpt ol Twains gamc was straightlorward: play
crs would namc thc datcs ol signicant historical cvcnts,
carning thc right to push pins into a cld ol numbcrcd
spaccs. [ gs. 2628] !n rcsponsc to qucrics lrom thc Unitcd
Statcs Patcnt cc, Twain carclully distinguishcd his gamc
lrom othcr chronology gamcs alrcady patcntcd including
\ictor Klobassas Ccntcnary Gamc, thc dcsign ol which
was singlcd out by thc patcnt inspcctor as suspiciously closc
to Twains. 8ut, as Twain argucd succcsslully, thc two rcally
had nothing in common bcyond thc thcmc ol chronology.
Klobossas patcnt was lor a gamc ol chancc with a circular
board that involvcd littlc morc chronology than thc display
ol datcs. Twain callcd it a gambling apparatus.
::
!n contrast, Twains gamc prcsupposcd a thorough
knowlcdgc ol history.
:
His board contains no historical
inlormation: it is a simplc chronological tcmplatc in which
cvcry datc is cquivalcnt to cvcry othcr. !n this rcspcct, it
is a truly modcrn chronology gamc. Likc Pricstlcy, Twain
was lascinatcd by synchronisms. As Twain says, nc oltcn
knows a lot ol odds and cnds ol lacts bclonging in a ccrtain
pcriod but happcning in widcly scparatcd rcgions, and as
thcy havc no conncction with cach othcr, hc is apt to lail
to noticc that thcy are contcmporancous, but hc will noticc
it whcn hc comcs to group thcm on this gamcboard. For
instancc, it will surprisc him to noticc how many ol his his
torical acquaintanccs wcrc walking about thc arth, widcly
scattcrcd, whilc Shakcspcarc livcd.
:
Twain bclicvcd in
mcmorizing lots ol datcs, but lor him thc payo was not just
accumulating lacts, it was crcating a skclcton lor rcal knowl
cdgc. Twain saw history as a trcasury ol mcmorablc storics,
and hc thought that his gamc would clicit thcsc by a pro
ccss ol suggcstion. Tc accidcntal mcntion ol Vatcrloo,
by onc playcr, hc writcs, may turn loosc lrom thc othcr an
inundation ol Frcnch history. Tc vcry mcntion ol any vcry
conspicuous cvcnt in thc history ol any nation will bring
bclorc thc vision ol thc advcrsarics thc minor lcaturcs ol thc
historical landscapc that strctchcs away lrom it.
:
[ 28]
_______________________________
!n its rcsponsc to Mark Twains rst
application lor his Memory-Builder,
thc Unitcd Statcs Patcnt cc askcd
Twain to distinguish bctwccn his
gamc and othcr cxtant chronology
gamcs, including \ictor Klobassas
Centenary Game, patcntcd in +8.
Twain rcplicd that his and Klobassas
gamcs wcrc not at all alikc: his was a
gamc ol knowlcdgc, Klobassas a gamc
ol chancc.
Twains gamc play was simplc and adaptablc. Tc basic
vcrsion pittcd two playcrs hcad to hcad trying to namc cvcnts
and datcs and to ll cach datcd holc in thc chronological
gamc board. Tc gamc could bc playcd until thc board was
llcd or thc playcrs knowlcdgc ol history was cxhaustcd,
to a timc limit or a dcsignatcd point total. Tcn points wcrc
awardcd lor giving thc datc ol a monarchs acccssion, vc
points lor a battlc, and onc point lor any othcr historical
cvcnt. Points could also bc won lor stating misccllancous
lacts unrclatcd to chronology but intcrcsting and worth
whilc to know. Tough Twain gavc dicrcnt valucs to dil
lcrcnt kinds ol lacts, hc did not mcan to suggcst that somc
lacts (acccssions, battlcs) wcrc morc lundamcntally impor
tant than othcrs, only that thcy rcprcscntcd kcy markcrs in
thc chronological landscapc. And hc dcsigncd his gamc to
bc winnablc on thc basis ol knowing minor lacts as wcll as
major oncs. !n thc hypothctical gamc sccnario that hc givcs
with his rulcs, thc playcr with morc minor lacts managcs to
ckc out a victory. Tc moral: Tc minor cvcnts ol history
arc valuablc, although not always showy and picturcsquc.
:6

!n Twains vicw, thc biggcst and thc smallcst cvcnts in his
tory wcrc all potcntially dramatic occasions, and, as in his
Connecticut Yankee in King rthurs Court, all availablc lor
ironic rcdcploymcnt and juxtaposition.
!n thc latcr ninctccnth ccntury, thc spirit ol chrono
graphic innovation was in thc air. [ g. 29] Somc invcntors
pickcd up whcrc Christoph Vcigcl, invcntor ol thc circular
Discus chronologicus, and carlicr cngravcrs had lclt o. !n
+88, lor cxamplc, thc 8rooklyn ministcr Jamcs M. Ludlow
patcntcd and publishcd a Concentric Chart of History with
thc ncwly cstablishcd publishing vcnturc ol Funk and
Vagnalls. Likc Vcigcls chart, Ludlows was bascd on a
simplc uscbian lormat. 8ut instcad ol using a rcctangu
lar book binding or a circular postcr, Ludlows chart has
thc lorm ol a lan with lcavcs shapcd likc pic wcdgcs. Tcsc
wcdgcs arc stackcd, and attachcd at thc point so that thcy
can bc swivclcd out and vicwcd cithcr individually or in
juxtaposition. Tc conccpt rcscmblcs thc volvcllca circu
lar chart with a rotating pointcrbut hcrc, thc picccs ol
thc chart thcmsclvcs movc. 8y constructing his dcvicc in
this way, Ludlow hopcd to combinc thc bcst ol thc book
(capacity, random acccss) with thc bcst ol thc chart (synop
tic prcscntation, intuitivc usc ol visual spacc).
!n +8 an rcgon rabbi, Jacob 8loch, patcntcd a
graphic work that brilliantly capturcd thc lccling ol his
torical accclcration charactcristic ol thc latc ninctccnth
ccntury. [ gs. 3032] His Chronological Skeleton Chart took
thc lorm ol a spiral rathcr than a group ol conccntric circlcs
[ 29]
_______________________________
Jamcs M. Ludlows +88 Concentric
Chart of History, a radiallylolding
synchronous chart allowcd uscrs
to casily juxtaposc historical cvcnts
lrom dicrcnt parts ol thc world. His
publishcrs, !saac Funk and Adam
Vagnalls, also publishcd a blank
vcrsion ol thc Concentric Chart that
thc uscr could ll with ncw contcnt.
Cartographies of Time :oo
[ 30]
_______________________________
!n his +8 patcnt lor a Chronological
Skeleton Chart, Jacob 8loch writcs,
Tc rcmotcr thc cvcnt rccordcd
thc smallcr it will appcar, and thc
morc rcccnt thc occurrcncc thc morc
conspicuously will it bc shown. 8y
this arrangcmcnt thc prcscnt stands
promincntly bclorc us, whilc thc
bygonc timc gradually rcccdcs lrom
vicw until lost into a mcrc point in thc
timclinc ol my chart.
[ 31]
_______________________________
li Nash Moycr, Chart Dra.ing
Instrument patcnt, +oo. Moycr was
an cntrcprcncur who manulacturcd
and sold school supplics in
Toronto. His dcvicc lor drawing
chronology charts workcd much likc
a gcomctrical compass, and it was
adaptablc to many dicrcnt uscs,
but hc advcrtiscd it spccically lor
making chronological charts.
[ 32]
_______________________________
Valtcr Lyon Sinton, Portablc
8lackboard patcnt, +8. Sinton
was an associatc ol thc Montrcal
physician Nclson Lovcrin, who had
dcbutcd a popular chart systcm
at thc !ntcrnational xhibition in
Philadclphia in +86, and a principal
in thc Canadian Comparativc
Synoptical Chart Company. Hc
dcsigncd a portablc blackboard lor usc
with Scailcs synoptical systcm.
:o+ Chapter &: Tinkerers rt
[ 33]
_______________________________
Villards Temple of Time lrom +86
is a thrccdimcnsional projcction
ol historical chronography by thc
pionccring woman cducator and
loundcr ol thc Troy Fcmalc Scminary,
mma Villard. !n thc tcmplc,
standing columns rcprcscnt ccnturics:
thosc on thc right arc cmblazoncd
with thc namcs ol important historical
gurcs ol thc old world, thosc on
thc lclt, ol thc ncw. Tc oor shows
a historical strcam chart. Tc cciling
lunctions as a chart ol biography.
Villiards colorlul chart was also
rcproduccd in miniaturc in hcr
+8o tcxtbook Uni.ersal History in
Perspecti.e.
Cartographies of Time :o:
as in thc charts ol Vcigcl and Ludlow. 8loch had noticcd
that chronological charts uscd in history classcs wcrc oltcn
only partially llcd. Typically, hc said, scctions on modcrn
history wcrc dcnscly packcd with inlormation whilc morc
distant pcriods wcrc only barcly llcd or cntircly blank. As
an altcrnativc to thc spatially challcngcd rcctilincar lormat,
8loch proposcd a chart bascd on a conic spiral. 8y plac
ing thc start datc lor any chronology at thc ccntcr ol thc
cxpanding spiral, 8loch ncatly climinatcd thc problcm ol
blank spacc that Pricstlcy had papcrcd ovcr with blazons,
dcdications, and cxplanations. At thc samc timc, hc pro
vidcd a gcomctric analoguc lor historical mcmory as hc
undcrstood it. Historical mcmory, hc thought, was strong
lor rcccnt cvcnts and wcak lor distant oncs (narrowing
progrcssivcly, as in his diagram). And, in limitcd ways, this
is ccrtainly right. 8ut as a gcncral thcory, it loundcrs on
thc many cxamplcs ol distant historical cvcnts that rctain
grcat cultural importancc. !t sccms a strangc thing lor a
rabbi, whosc stock and tradc is old storics, to ovcrlook
but apparcntly to a lronticr rabbi in ninctccnthccntury
Amcrica this conic vicw ol historical mcmory madc at lcast
passablc scnsc.
For all ol thc innovations toutcd in thc chronographic
patcnts ol thc latc ninctccnth ccntury, howcvcr, nothing
could changc thc lact that, in thc cnd, somconc had to usc
thcsc things. ncyclopcdic timc charts wcrc tools ol rclcr
cncc and visualization, and lcw ol thcsc writcrs imagincd
that a studcnt ol history would attcmpt to mcmorizc all ol
thc data prcscntcd on thcir charts. Pricstlcy, lor his part,
argucd strcnuously that such an approach would dclcat
thc vcry purposc ol thc timclinc. Hc contcndcd that thc
valuc ol thc timclinc lay in its ability to relie.e thc stu
dcnt ol thc unncccssary burdcn ol mcmorization. 8ut, likc
it or not, in history, thc cort ol mcmorization could not
bc cntircly avoidcd. For cvcrything that was said during
thc cightccnth ccntury and altcr about thc dulling ccct
ol rotc mcmorization, in practicc, committing inlormation
to mcmory rcmaincd onc ol thc principal goals ol primary
and sccondary history tcaching. And, as Twains gamc sug
gcsts, not cvcryonc vicwcd this as a bad thing.
To thc contrary, ninctccnthccntury cducators cxprcsscd
a grcat lascination with mncmonics as wcll as rclcrcncc.
[ g. 33] Somc, such as thc pionccring Amcrican cduca
tor mma Villard, rcvivcd oldcr mncmonic lorms. !n
onc work, Villard, who loundcd scvcral schools lor girls
and publishcd cducational works on history, gcography,
and biology, rcsituatcd thc strcam ol history in thc spacc
ol a Rcnaissancc mcmory thcatcr. Hcr +86 Temple of
:o Chapter &: Tinkerers rt
[ 34]
_______________________________
A blank tcmplatc rcprcscnting onc
ccntury lrom lizabcth Palmcr
Pcabody, Te Polish-merican System
of Chronology, Feproduced, .ith Some
Modications, from General Bems
Franco-Polish Method, 8oston and
Ncw York, +8o
Time was bcautilully printcd in vibrant color on a jct
black background. Structurally, it was cntircly within thc
ninctccnthccntury strcamoltimc gcnrc promotcd by
Johann Fricdrich Strass. 8ut, lor both practical and sym
bolic rcasons, Villard also lound it usclul to rclcr back to
a much oldcr tradition that thc Rcnaissancc had inhcritcd
lrom classical antiquity, in which mcmorization was sccn
as itscll a valuablc intcllcctual pcrlormancc. !n Villards
Temple of Time, as in thc Rcnaissancc mcmory thcatcrs, a
studcnt bcgan by committing an claboratc building lacadc,
or scvcral ol thcm, to mcmory, thcn placcd thc datcs, lacts,
or words to bc mcmorizcd on thc lacadc, nichc by nichc
and column by column.
:
thcr mncmonic systcms did away as bcst thcy could
with vcstigcs ol thc old. Tc incipicnt graphic modcrnism
in thcsc ninctccnthccntury visual approachcs is cxprcsscd
most clcarly in thc highly abstract Polish Systcma tcn
bytcn grid mncmonic chart llcd with simplc colors and
lincsdcvclopcd by Antoni Jawiski in thc +8:os and
popularizcd by thc Polish national hcro Gcncral Jzcl 8cm
in thc +8os and os.
To an outsidcr, thc Polish Systcmcmploying chrono
logical tablcs with no datcs, words, or imagcsmay appcar
mystilying. [ g. 34] 8ut oncc lcarncd, it isnt hard to usc.
First, thc studcnt nccds to bccomc lamiliar with thc tcn
bytcn grid itscll, sincc no datcs arc givcn on thc charts.
To gurc out whcn an cvcnt took placc, thc novicc stu
dcnt counts boxcs (onc box can signily a ycar, a dccadc, or
a ccntury, dcpcnding on thc scalc uscd), thc advanccd stu
dcnt bccomcs lamiliar cnough with thc charts to calculatc
thc datc automatically just by obscrving thc position ol a
squarc in thc grid. Ncxt, thc studcnt nccds to undcrstand
thc mcaning ol thc small thrccbythrcc grids cmbcddcd in
cach ol thc individual chronological squarcs on thc chart.
Placcmcnt on thc small grids dctcrmincs thc typc ol cvcnt
(battlc, trcaty, marriagc, and so lorth). Tcn, thc studcnt
nccds to bc lamiliar with thrcc simplc symbols, a squarc, a
trianglc, and an X. Tcsc modily thc typc ol cvcnt. Finally,
shc or hc has to know what colors arc assigncd to what
countrics. Tc mcanings ol thc colors and divisions vary in
dicrcnt cditions ol thc systcm, but thc basic principlc ol
thc systcm is always thc samc: placcmcnt on thc largc grid
givcs thc datc, on thc small grid, thc typc ol cvcnt, and color
givcs thc nations involvcd.
!l a studcnt using Nclson Lovcrins vcrsion ol thc
systcm wishcd to indicatc that a rcvolution took placc in
Amcrica in +6, shc or hc would choosc thc tcnbytcn
grid lor thc cightccnth ccntury, and thc squarc lor thc
[ 3537]
_______________________________
Nclson Lovcrin, chart apparatus in
Lo.erins Historical Centograph and
Slate, Montrcal, +86
scvcntysixth ycar ol thc ccntury (locatcd in row scvcn,
column six), thcn, using thc corrcct color lor thc 8ritish
colonics in North Amcrica, thc studcnt would paint a lull
squarc in thc ccntcr ol thc lowcr row (dcsignatcd lor insub
ordination). [ gs. 3537] !l +6 brought only a rcvolt and
not a rcvolution, thc studcnt would paint a trianglc, il only
a conspiracy and not a rcvolt, an X.
Tough mostly lorgottcn today, in its timc, this systcm
swcpt across uropc and North Amcrica. !n thc +8os, it
was approvcd lor usc across thc cntirc Frcnch cducational
systcm, and ovcr thc ncxt dccadcs it wcnt through many
ocial rcvisions. !n thc +8os, it gaincd an unlikcly but
pcrsuasivc advocatc in thc Amcrican lizabcth Palmcr
Pcabody, an cducation rclormcr, pionccr ol thc kindcr
gartcn movcmcnt, and sistcrinlaw to Horacc Mann and
Nathanicl Hawthornc. And in thc +8os, ncw vcrsions
wcrc promotcd in Canada and thc Unitcd Statcs.
:8
According to thc invcntors ol thc Polish Systcm, past
chronographcrs had bccn right to makc thc conncction
bctwccn gcographic maps and timc maps: chronology, likc
gcography, could bc rcprcscntcd graphically, which madc it
both casicr to lcarn and casicr to rcmcmbcr. 8ut Jawiski
and 8cm also saw thc analogy bctwccn timc maps and gco
graphic maps as a distraction, sincc it cmphasizcd thc lacts
to bc mcmorizcd rathcr than training thc mcmory itscll.
8oth rcjcctcd thc notion ol a visual tcrritory ol history in
lavor ol a visiblc but lcaturclcss mncmonic cld. Tc movc
to abstraction, ol coursc, was not cntircly ncw, Pricstlcy had
startcd it alrcady. 8ut Pricstlcys charts lunctioncd morc
likc maps: in thcm, continuous timc was rcprcscntcd by
continuous graphic spacc. Not so in Jawiski. Hcrc, ycars
arc rcprcscntcd by simplc coordinatcs in a matrix.
!n Francc, thc Polish Systcm was praiscd lor its ccc
tivcncss in hclping studcnts mcmorizc largc amounts ol
inlormation, but in thc Unitcd Statcs, thc prcvailing opin
ion was dicrcnt. [ gs. 3839] Tcrc, its principal advocatc
was lizabcth Palmcr Pcabody, a mcmbcr ol thc transccn
dcntalist circlc and a pcdagogical thcorist still wcll rcmcm
bcrcd lor promoting thc dcvclopmcntal importancc ol play.
n thc surlacc ol things, thc rigid Polish Systcm sccms an
odd lascination lor hcr. 8ut lascination it was. Shc pub
lishcd thc rst ol hcr scvcral cditions ol thc Polish-merican
System in +8o, and lor thc ncxt dccadc, shc promotcd thc
systcm tirclcssly. Shc cvcn commissioncd a purposcbuilt
paint sct lor lling in thc charts, which shc sold and advcr
tiscd cvcrywhcrc shc travclcd.
Pcabodys cxplanation ol thc Polish Systcm is scnsi
tivc and rcvcaling, and opcns a ncw pcrspcctivc on thc timc
[ 3839]
_______________________________
!n +8o thc Amcrican
transccndcntalist lizabcth Palmcr
Pcabody publishcd hcr Polish-merican
System of Chronology, Feproduced .ith
Some Modications, from General
Bems Franco-Polish Method. Pcabody
travclcd thc Unitcd Statcs promoting
hcr book, blank charts, and a spccial
sct ol paints to bc uscd lling thcm in.
Shc pointcd out that il a school lound
it absolutcly impossiblc to acquirc
a paint sct, a systcm ol numbcrs
could bc uscd instcad ol colors, but
whcn this is donc, shc wrotc, a vast
advantagc is givcn up. Many cxtant
copics ol Pcabodys books show thc
ingcnuity and application ol thcir
prcvious owncrs.
Cartographies of Time :o6
chart bcyond qucstions ol rclcrcncc and ol mcmory. For
Pcabody, thc chronological chart lunctioncd as a schcmc
lor organizing crcativc thought. Pcabody was strongly
opposcd to rotc cducation. No child, shc said, should cvcr
bc lorccd to rcad anything lcss than a work ol gcnius. Shc
was particularly opposcd to thc usc ol cpitomcs and survcy
tcxts in thc study ol history, as shc lclt thcy blcd history
ol its passion and intcrcst and turncd it into a numbing
cxcrcisc in rccitation. At thc samc timc, shc rccognizcd that
lcarning history lrom writcrs ol gcniusHcrodotus, Livy,
Mullcr, Nicbuhr, and so lorthwas dicult. Tc Polish
charts would aid such rcading not as chcat shccts but as
work shccts lor thinking through and organizing idcas. All
truc cducation in history, writcs Pcabody, is a communion
upon thc cvcnts ol thc past. And shc continucs, Vhat
! cspccially valuc 8cms invcntion lor is this: that it docs
not prctcnd to bc what an outlinc ncvcr can bc, namcly: a
pcrlcct lramc work lor history.
:
Tc rcsults ol Pcabodys
appropriation ol thc Polish Systcm arc both handsomc and
surprising: surviving copics ol thc charts in librarics look
nothing likc onc anothcr. ach bcars thc imprint ol an
individual studcnts imagination.
Chart systcms likc Jawiskis and 8cms wcrc dcsigncd
to makc studcnts into tcmporal cartographcrs, though,
likc thc sca chart in Lcwis Carrolls Te Hunting of the
Snark, thc tcrrain that thcy wcrc to map was abstract and
unmarkcd. [ g. 40] Tc +866 Map of Time by John Milton
Grcgory, thcn Michigan supcrintcndcnt ol schools, makcs
thc analogy cxplicit. Tough his map was littlc morc
than a vcbyvc grid, a simplicd vcrsion ol Jawiski,
hc bclicvcd it providcd a tcrrain ol visual association no
lcss intuitivc than that ol a gcographic map. Tc ccntury
stands lorth bclorc thc cyc with a broad, Statclikc cxpansc,
whilc its dccadcs and ycars lic clcarly markcd and casily
distinguishcd, likc so many countics and townships. !t is
in no vcry narrow scnsc, thcrclorc, a map ol timc, and, il
propcrly uscd, will bc lound to aid thc studcnt and rcadcr
ol History, as maps ol thc contincnts aid thc studcnt ol
Gcography.
o
!da P. Vhitcomb, anothcr latcninctccnthccntury
cducator, madc a similar claim. Chronological charting,
shc argucd, was as important as any othcr kind ol visual
cducation, including an cducation in historical imagcs.
Shc writcs, |Tomas 8abington| Macaulays comparison
bctwccn History and Historical Romancc applics lorcibly
to classicd and unclassicd school study. Hc says: l thc
two kinds ol composition, into which History has bccn
dividcd, onc may bc comparcd to a map, thc othcr to a
[ 40]
_______________________________________________

Tc 8cllman himscll thcy all praiscd to thc skics
Such a carriagc, such casc and such gracc!
Such solcmnity, too! nc could scc hc was wisc,
Tc momcnt onc lookcd in his lacc!
Hc had bought a largc map rcprcscnting thc sca,
Vithout thc lcast vcstigc ol land:
And thc crcw wcrc much plcascd whcn thcy lound it to bc
A map thcy could all undcrstand.
Vhats thc good ol Mcrcators North Polcs and quators,
Tropics, Zoncs, and Mcridian Lincs:
So thc 8cllman would cry: and thc crcw would rcply
Tcy arc mcrcly convcntional signs!
thcr maps arc such shapcs, with thcir islands and capcs!
8ut wcvc got our bravc Captain to thank
(So thc crcw would protcst) that hcs bought us thc bcst
A pcrlcct and absolutc blank!
ccan Chart and cxccrpt lrom Lcwis Carrolls Te
Hunting of the Snark, London, +86
paintcd landscapc. Tc picturc, though it placcs thc coun
try bclorc us, docs not cnablc us to asccrtain with accuracy
its dimcnsions, distanccs, and anglcs, thc map givcs us cxact
inlormation as to thc bcarings ol thc various points, and is
a morc usclul companion to thc travclcr or thc gcncral than
thc paintcd landscapc. Vhitcombs own +88 Students
Topical History Chart claimcd not mcrcly to tracc thc lacts
ol history onto to thc studcnt mind but to brand thcm
into it.
+
Mark Twain, though his board gamc alrcady rcp
rcscntcd a ncw takc on thc problcm ol chronographics,
continucd to puzzlc and invcnt through thc +88os and
os. !n +8, lourtccn ycars altcr hc rst publishcd Mark
T.ains Memory-Builder, Twain wrotc a magazinc articlc
cntircly dcvotcd to thc subjcct. Tc articlc, How to Makc
History atcs Stick, brimmcd with Twains charactcristic
humor.
:
!n it, hc bcmoancd his own dicultics rcmcm
bcring things, datcs abovc all. vcr thc ycars, hc said, hc
had implcmcntcd numcrous aids and cxpcdicnts. At onc
point, whcn hc was having troublc committing a spccch to
mcmory, hc camc up with thc idca ol writing notcs on thc
tips ol his ngcrs so that hc could casily rclcr to thcm whilc
hc talkcd. Tis backrcd. Hc rcmcmbcrcd thc spccch but
irritatcd thc audicncc, which had troublc undcrstanding
why thc cstccmcd spcakcr sccmcd to bc gazing idly at his
ngcrnails.
Tc solution, Twain discovcrcdor rcdiscovcrcd, sincc
it is csscntially thc standard mcthod ol classical mncmon
icswas to lay down a strong systcm ol visual association
and commit that to mcmory. [ gs. 4142] Hc bcgan doing
this lor his spccchcsdrawing littlc picturcs to hclp call up
a subjcct and somctimcs in twistcd and humorous ways, as
lor cxamplc, whcn hc uscd a picturc ol lightning to rcmind
him to talk about San Francisco, sincc according to Twain,
thcrc is no lightning in San Franciscoand thcn applicd
thc mcthod to thc hardcr subjcct ol chronology. Tc kcy
to it all, Twain argucd, was doing it yourscll. !t was not
cnough to usc somconc clscs systcm. Tat could hclp, no
doubt, but to rcally commit somcthing to mcmory you had
to gurc it out yourscll. Twain writcs,
atcs arc dicult things to acquirc, and altcr thcy arc
acquircd it is dicult to kccp thcm in thc hcad. 8ut thcy arc
vcry valuablc. Tcy arc likc thc cattlcpcns ol a ranchthcy
shut in thc scvcral brands ol historical cattlc, cach within
its own lcncc, and kccp thcm lrom gctting mixcd togcthcr.
atcs arc hard to rcmcmbcr bccausc thcy consist ol gurcs,
gurcs arc monotonously unstriking in appcarancc, and thcy
[ 4142]
_______________________________
!n his +8 articlc, How to Makc
History atcs Stick, Mark Twain
ocrcd a scrics ol pictographs to aid
in mcmorizing thc chronology ol thc
nglish monarchs. Most wcrc bascd
on linguistic associations: hcn lor
Hcnry, whalc lor Villiam, stccr lor
Stcphcn, and so on. Tcsc could thcn
bc laid out on a mncmonic timclinc
rcvcrsing at cach changc ol rcgimc.
Twain suggcstcd rcdrawing cach
cartoon as many timcs as thcrc wcrc
ycars in a monarchs rcign. Tat, hc
said, would ink thc imagc indclibly
into your mind.
Cartographies of Time :o8
dont takc hold, thcy lorm no picturcs, and so thcy givc thc
cyc no chancc to hclp. Picturcs arc thc thing.
!n his articlc, Twain givcs numcrous cxamplcs ol his

own mncmonics, lunny combinations ol vcrbal and visual
play. For thc chronology ol nglish kings, hc crcatcd pic
tographs bascd on allitcration: thc Hcnrys arc hcns, thc
Stcphcns arc stccrs, thc Villiams arc whalcs, and thc
dwardslcct tippcd up on thcir chairs, pcns in hand, and
malicc in thcir cycsarc cditors.
Twains imagcs wcrc crudc, but this didnt mattcr to him.
[ gs. 4345] Tc point, hc said, was just to bc ablc to rcmcm
bcr. Tus, Twain givcs us his somcwhat manglcd imprcs
sion ol dward !!!, a litcrary critic who has pullcd out
his carvingknilc and his tomahawk and is starting altcr a
book which hc is going to havc lor brcaklast.
Nonc ol this dccoration should bc takcn to suggcst that

Twain thrcw out thc idca ol a timclinc. [ g. 46] Far lrom it:
in Twains systcm, you start by making picturcs, thcn you pin
thcm to thc wall in chronological ordcr likc kings marching
in proccssion.
!n good wcathcr, Twain suggcstcd, a similar

arrangcmcnt could bc implcmcntcd outdoors. Hc taught his
daughtcrs to mark o a road or path in cqual lcngths, call
thosc lcngths ycars, and thcn post stakcs at kcy momcnts.
Twain was not thc only onc to suggcst scnding childrcn out
to play in thc chronological cld. !n an carly promotion ol
his own chronological systcm, Jawiski had suggcstcd that
his colorlul matriccs would makc a wondcrlul plan lor a
gardcn. r, il timc did not pcrmit a horticultural approach,
a playing cld could simply bc markcd o by ribbons indi
cating conqucsts, acccssions, and othcr grcat cvcnts.
Nonc ol Twains invcntions was intcndcd as art, and
Twain jokcd hcartily about his poor dralting skills. [ g. 47]
!l hc could do it, anyonc could, hc said. His idca was to
makc history visiblc, touchablc, cvcn walkablc, to makc thc
childrcn in his houschold see what othcrwisc thcy might
only read. Yct, in Twain, as in Jawiski, 8cm, and Pcabody,
thcrc is a surprising incitcmcnt to artistic practicc. Not to
high art, not to considcrcd acsthctics, but to a kind ol tin
kcrcrs art, doodlcs in thc margins ol history.
[ 4345]
_______________________________
Mark Twain, mncmonic cartoons ol
dward !, dward !!, and dward !!!,
lrom How to Makc History atcs
Stick, +8. Twain writcs, dward !.
Tat is an cditor. Hc is trying to think
ol a word. Hc props his lcct on a chair,
which is thc cditors way, thcn hc can
think bcttcr. ! do not carc much lor
this onc, his cars arc not alikc, still,
cditor suggcsts thc sound ol dward,
and hc will do. ! could makc him
bcttcr il ! had a modcl, but ! madc this
onc lrom mcmory. 8ut is no particular
mattcr, thcy all look alikc, anyway.
Tcy arc conccitcd and troublcsomc,
and dont pay cnough. dward was
thc rst rcally nglish king that had
yct occupicd thc thronc. Tc cditor
in thc picturc probably looks just as
dward lookcd whcn it was rst bornc
in upon him that this was so. His
wholc attitudc cxprcsscd gratication
and pridc mixcd with stupclaction and
astonishmcnt.
[ 47]
_______________________________
Antoni Jawiski, Tableau muet ser.ant
aux Exercices Chronologiques et autres de
la Methode dite Polonaise, Paris, +8
[ 46]
_______________________________
Mark Twain, drivcway lrom How to
Makc History atcs Stick, Harpers,
+8. Twain proposcd marking o a
road or path in cqual lcngths, calling
thosc lcngths ycars, and thcn posting
stakcs at kcy momcnts. Hc had donc
this vcry thing with his own daughtcrs.
Not only did it succccd in ovcrcoming
thcir distastc lor chronology, it stuck
thc datcs pcrmancntly lor Twain
himscll. Hc writcs, whcn ! think ol
thc Commonwcalth ! scc a shady littlc
group ol thcsc small saplings which
wc callcd thc oak parlor, whcn ! think
ol Gcorgc !!!, ! scc him strctching
up thc hill, part ol him occupicd by a
ight ol stonc stcps\ictorias rcign
rcachcd almost to my study door on thc
rst littlc summit, thcrcs sixtccn lcct
to bc addcd now, ! bclicvc that that
would carry it to a big pinctrcc that
was shattcrcd by somc lightning onc
summcr whcn it was trying to hit mc.
Cartographies of Time :+o
Most imagcs arc not art . . . . An imagc takcn at random is
morc likcly to bc an idcographic script, a pctroglyph, or a
stockmarkct chart than a painting by cgas or Rcmbrandt,
just as an animal is morc likcly to bc a bactcrium or a bcc
tlc than a lion or a pcrson. . . . Tc varicty ol inlormational
imagcs, and thcir univcrsal dispcrsion as opposcd to thc lim
itcd rangc ol art, should givc us pausc. At thc lcast it may
mcan that visual cxprcssivcncss, cloqucncc, and complcxity
arc not thc proprictary traits ol nc art . . . .
Jamcs lkins
!n art today, chronography sccms to bc just about cvcry
whcrc. !n monumcnts and mcmorials, whcrc historical
notation scrvcs civic purposcs, gurcs ol chronological
timc arc cspccially common. From thc work ol Amcrican
artists, such as Shcila Lcvrant dc 8rcttcvillcs urban his
tory palimpscst sct in thc sidcwalks ol L.A.s Littlc Tokyo
to Maya Lins scrics ol chronological monumcnts includ
ing thc \ictnam \ctcrans and thc Civil Rights mcmo
rials, to thc work ol dcsign rms, such as thc Gatcs ol
Timc at thc lormcr sitc ol thc Murrah Fcdcral 8uilding
in klahoma City, our mcmorials and public art installa
tions conrm thc ccntral rolc that datcs play in our col
lcctivc mcmory.
Chronological thcmcs and structurcs appcar in lcss
convcntional contcxts too, likc thc solcmn Date Paintings ol
Japancsc artist n Kawara, thc pcn and papcr travcl itincr
arics ol 8clgian artist Christoph Fink, thc abstract somatic
diarics ol San Francisco artist Katic Lcwis, thc ironic timc
lincs ol utch conccptualist Marjolijn ijkman, and thc
apocalyptic mappings ol thc Chincsc artist Huang Yong
Ping. [ gs. 110] Tcsc and many othcr contcmporary works
cxplorc and critiquc our graphic vocabularics ol timc.
l coursc, thcrc havc always bccn artistic chronogra
phics. From uscbius to Pricstlcy and lrom Pricstlcy to
our own day, scholars havc produccd untold numbcrs ol
bcautilul chronographic artilacts. Fcw ol thcsc, howcvcr,
wcrc cvcr intcndcd as art. !n this rcspcct, thc chronological
chart sharcs a status with an cntirc rangc ol inlormational
or utilitarian imagcs such as thosc discusscd by Amcrican
art historian Jamcs lkinsgraphs, charts, and diagrams,
maps, gcomctric gurcs, notations, plans, tcchnical draw
ings, schcmata, and so lorth.
+
Until rcccntly, chronography rcmaincd csscntially thc
domain ol thc scholar, thc tcchnician, thc amatcur, and thc
visionarythc historian who is not an artist, thc dcsigncr
who is not a historian, or thc sccr who is ncithcr but who
lor onc rcason or anothcr has appropriatcd this sct ol
Chapter :
utsidc and !nsidc
:++ Chapter : Outside and Inside
[ 3]
_______________________________
!n rcccnt ycars monumcntal art has
bccomc incrcasingly prccisc in its usc
ol chronology. At thc klahoma City
National Mcmorial and Muscum,
dcsigncd by thc 8utzcr Partncrship,
commcmorating thc +68 livcs lost
in thc + bombing ol thc Alrcd P.
Murrah Fcdcral 8uilding, two Gatcs
ol Timc lramc thc mcmorial spacc.
According to thc muscum, thc ast
Gatc rcprcscnts :o+ ~: on April +,
and thc innoccncc ol thc city bclorc
thc attack. Tc Vcst Gatc rcprcscnts
:o ~:, thc momcnt wc wcrc
changcd lorcvcr, and thc hopc that
camc lrom thc horror in thc momcnts
and days lollowing thc bombing.
[ 45]
_______________________________
!n Littlc Tokyo in Los Angclcs,
Calilornia, thc artist Shcila Lcvrant
dc 8rcttcvillc has laid chronologics
into thc sidcwalks. Hcr +6 Omoide
no Shotokyo (Rcmcmbcring ld
Littlc Tokyo), placcs datc lists at thc
cntranccs to storcs and rcsidcnccs
along thc ccntral strcct ol thc old
JapancscAmcrican district showing
thc namcs ol cvcnts and occupants likc
a palimpscst.
[ 12]
_______________________________
!n Maya Lins + work, Te !omens
Table, in Ncw Havcn, Connccticut,
numbcrs spiral out lrom thc ccntcr ol
a largc stonc slab indicating how many
womcn wcrc cnrollcd in Yalc Univcrsity
programs in cach ycar sincc its lound
ing. Tc spiral bcgins with a scrics ol
zcros, until thc numbcrs start to mount
in thc +8os. Tc spiral lorm suggcsts a
continual opcning through timc.
Cartographies of Time :+:
[ 6]
_______________________________
!n works such as his :oo+ tlas of
Mo.ements, a kind ol ow chart madc
with pcncil, papcr, and scissors, thc
8clgian artist Christoph Fink takcs
landscapc art in a ncw dircction.
Finks graphically improvisational
workswhcthcr papcr charts, ccramic
sculpturcs, or wirc lramcsarc projcc
tions ol his minutcly rccordcd voyagcs
around thc world. His gcographics
arc so prccisc as to bc cvancscing: in
his univcrsc, no spacc cxists outsidc
ol timc.
Chapter : Outside and Inside
[ 78]
_______________________________
Tc work :c: Days lrom :oo by
thc Amcrican artist Katic Lcwis is
a laycring ol scnsations. Tc visual
spacc ol thc work is an abstract map
ol thc human body, datcd pinholcs
indicatc scnsc cvcnts, synchronisms
arc indicatcd by rcd string. Sccn lrom
abovc, thc rcsult is a rccord ol spatial
dcnsitics, lrom thc sidc, a stratigraphy
ol momcnts.
Cartographies of Time :+
:+ Chapter : Outside and Inside
[ 9]
_______________________________
Marjolijn ijkmans !andering
through the Future lrom :oo is both a
vidco and a print timclinc ol visionary
ction. !n it, lms arc organizcd
not in ordcr ol thcir production, but
according to thcir imagincd sctting in
luturc historical timc.
Cartographies of Time :+6
[ 10]
_______________________________
Timc, chancc, and lortunc arc
rccurrcnt thcmcs in thc work ol thc
Chincsc artist Huang Yong Ping. !n
his Carte du Monde (:ooo:oo), a
datcd chronology ol luturc disastcrs
unravcls across thc spiraling strip ol an
cvisccratcd globc.
graphic tools. And much ol what is most visually intcr
csting in chronography prior to thc twcnticth ccntury
Lorcnz Fausts statuc ol anicl, Christoph Vcigcls Discus
chronologicus, thc homcmadc Chart for John Dickinson, liza
Spaldings Protestant Ladder, thc bcautilully pixclatcd
matriccs ol lizabcth Palmcr Pcabodys studcntshas
ariscn lrom this.
Many ol thc most appcaling chronological charts
comc lrom amatcurs, traincd in ncithcr chronology nor
art. [ gs. 1112] Tc bcautilul Histomap, lor cxamplc, a
strong scllcr lor Rand McNally lor ovcr lty ycars altcr
its dcbut in ++, was not thc crcation ol a traincd his
torian.
:
!ts author, John Sparks, was thc Amcrican plant
managcr lor thc Swissowncd Ncstl Corporation during
thc intcrwar pcriod. Hc was a history bu, and bccausc
his work rcquircd that hc travcl long distanccs by train, hc
always carricd with him a history book and a blank notc
pad. Vhilc hc travclcd, hc llcd his pads with namcs and
datcs scrawlcd in ballpoint. Vhcn hc rcturncd homc, hc
cut his notcs into slips and pastcd thcm onto a massivc
chart lor his own rclcrcncc.

xplaining his corts, Sparks citcd thc philosophcrs
Allrcd North Vhitchcad and Hcrbcrt Spcnccr as inu
cnccs.
From thc rst, hc drcw thc notion that graphic

[ 1112]
_______________________________
John Sparks, Te Histomap, Ncw York,
++
Cartographies of Time :+8
mcthods ocrcd a mcans ol intcgrating quantitativc and
qualitativc studics, lrom thc sccond, thc crcdo that mod
crn lilc rcquircs cvcr morc strcnuous corts at managing
inlormation. Vhcn a mans knowlcdgc is not in ordcr,
Spcnccr wrotc, thc morc ol it hc has, thc grcatcr will bc
his conlusion ol thought.
Tc notion that anyonc clsc

might bc intcrcstcd in Sparkss homcmadc chart camc as
a happy surprisc, as did thc strong visual ccct ol its pub
lishcd vcrsion. ncc hc had thc tastc lor charts, hc ncvcr
lost it. vcntually, hc drcw up ncw charts on othcr subjccts,
including two that wcrc publishcd, a Histomap of Feligion
and a still morc ambitious Histomap of E.olution: Earth,
Life and Mankind for Ten Tousand Million Years.
6
!n thc +os, thc scllstylcd historian cxtraordinary,
Carlcton 8rown, also caught thc charting bug. [ g. 13] Undcr
thc auspiccs ol thc History !nstitutc ol Amcrica, thcn
producing lavish color rcproductions ol thc +8o Birds
of merica by thc naturalist John Jamcs Audubon, 8rown
bcgan to draw up a gigantic intcrconncctcd chronological
chart scrics to covcr all ol world history callcd History on
Parade. At onc hundrcd lcct long and vc lcct high, thc
ncvcrcomplctcd chart scrics would havc dwarlcd cvcn
Jacqucs 8arbcuubourgs Chronographie uni.erselle.
8ut only onc chart in 8rowns giant scrics sccms cvcr to
havc bccn publishcd, loncly numbcr ninc, covcring thc
ninctccnth ccntury. At lcast, this is thc only onc that has
lclt a tracc in any Amcrican library. !n 8rown, cvcry
thing comcs togcthcr: scholarly aims, amatcur pursuits,
invcntivc graphics invcntcd by a noninvcntor, and a grcat,
unrcalizcd cncyclopcdic lascination. Hcrc, thc timc chart
had its Ahab, its icl, and its gdcn Nash all rollcd
into onc.
Chronology bcgan to inltratc thc tcrritory ol art itscll
in thc +os. [ g. 14] !n +6, Allrcd H. 8arr Jr., thc lound
ing dircctor ol thc Muscum ol Modcrn Art (:o:~) in Ncw
York, publishcd his inucntial book Cubism and bstract
rt, a companion to an cxhibition by thc samc namc.
Tc
cxhibition was notablc in many ways: it markcd thc rst
timc that many scminal modcrnist works wcrc displaycd in
thc Unitcd Statcs, it madc a strong casc lor thc rolc ol cub
ism in thc dcvclopmcnt ol modcrnism, and it inauguratcd a
scrics ol cxhibitions on dicrcnt aspccts ol modcrn art that
would hclp dcnc thc mission ol thc Muscum ol Modcrn
Art. Morcovcr, it was thc rst Amcrican cxhibition to pro
vidc a comprchcnsivc vicw ol uropcan modcrnism in a
scllconsciously historical contcxt. !t markcd a watcrshcd
not only in thc history ol twcnticthccntury modcrnism,
but in its historiography as wcll.
Cartographies of Time ::o
[ 13]
_______________________________
Carlcton 8rown, chart and pocm lrom
History on Parade, chart ninc, Ncw
York, +6
::+ Chapter : Outside and Inside
Scrcnc ! saw thc acts ol man
!n agcs past on land and sca,
Vith colorcd graphs, ! paint thc paths
And chart thc coursc ol History.
No prcjudicc is in my thcmc,
! coldly statc cach striking lact,
8oth pcn and paint brush in this schcmc
Arc uscd to contrast cvcry act.
Nor critics sco shall mar my stand,
Gainst quibbling tongucs wcllcallouscd !,
And rcvcl in thc work in hand,
And scorn thc ranting critics cry.
And six grand ycars ol dctailcd toil,
Rcscarch, crossrclcrcncc, linc by linc
Ah! Fricnd, ! burncd thc midnight oil
To intcrlock this hugc dcsign.
Tc lamous mcn and all thcir acts:
Troughout, ! call A spadc a spadc,
And so, Fricnd, consult thc lacts
And scan thisHistory on Paradc.
Somctimcs chronological ambitions
outrun practicality. Had it cvcr bccn
lulllcd, Carlcton 8rowns +6
proposal lor a chronological chart
scrics callcd History on Parade would
havc dwarlcd cvcn thc lootlong
Chronographie uni.erselle ol Jacqucs
8arbcuubourg. A tcascr lor thc
scrics camc with a pocm printcd
on thc back that capturcs both
thc ambition and thc lolly ol thc
chronographic obscssion.
Cartographies of Time :::
Tis is nowhcrc morc cvidcnt than in thc diagram
ol artistic inucncc displaycd at thc cxhibition and thcn
printcd on thc covcr ol 8arrs book, which projccts thc
undcrlying argumcnts ol thc cxhibition in a stylizcd and
cconomical lorm. n thc chart, cubism appcars as a lun
damcntal transition in thc history ol art. Abovc it arc
arraycd thc namcs ol important ninctccnthccntury artists,
including Rcdon, van Gogh, Gauguin, Czannc, Scurat,
and Rousscau, whosc work, in 8arrs vicw, most inucnccd
cubism and thc movcmcnts with which it was associatcd.
Tc lincagc that 8arr lays out is not simplcthroughout,
hc asscrts a tcnsion bctwccn a gcomctric and an organic
tcndcncy constitutivc ol thc modcrn cldbut his chart
makcs a strong argumcnt lor thc importancc ol a historical
intcrprctation ol modcrnism and a spccically chronologi
cal undcrstanding ol its stagcs.
8arr dcalt with thc rclationship bctwccn visual lorms
in art and history in othcr works too. [ g. 15] uring thc
+os and os, hc uscd anothcr kind ol timc chart in intcr
nal mcmos plotting thc collccting stratcgy ol thc muscum.
!n thcm, hc dcpictcd thc :o:~ collcction as a torpcdo
(hclplully cquippcd with a propcllcr) moving through timc.
!n thc luturc, 8arr suggcstcd, thc bordcrs ol thc modcrn
would gradually advancc, lcaving various works in its wakc,
thcsc wcrc thcn to bc donatcd to thc Mctropolitan Muscum
ol Art and rcsituatcd in a longcr history ol art. Tough
roughly drawn, thc torpcdo diagrams arc, in lact no lcss
stylizcd than thc covcr chart imagc lor Cubism and bstract
rt and no lcss lorcclul in thcir argumcnt lor a cohcrcnt and
dircctional movcmcnt in thc history ol thc modcrn.
!n onc scnsc, 8arrs diagrams wcrc not so dicrcnt
lrom thc oncs that hc had madc in his art history courscs at
Princcton and Harvard in thc +:os. 8ut his application ol
thcsc lamiliar tcchniqucs at :o:~ was provocativc: in prc
scnting thc timclinc itscll as a modcrnist artilact, 8arr sug
gcstcd a ncw alliancc bctwccn thc practiccs ol scholarship
and thosc ol art. Vhat is morc, by combining gcncalogical
and chronological clcmcnts in his chart, 8arr cchocd thc
tcnsion bctwccn thc organic and thc gcomctric around
which thc cubism cxhibition was organizcd.
Prior to 8arr, a lcw artists had madc gcsturcs toward
thc artistic potcntial ol thc art history diagram. [ g. 16] !n
thc sccond dccadc ol thc twcnticth ccntury, whilc hc was
cditing thc ada journal ,: and bclorc his turn to surrcal
ism, thc FrancoCuban artist Francis Picabia cxpcrimcntcd
with thc visual vocabulary ol thc tcchnical diagram. !n somc
instanccs, Picabia copicd dircctly lrom tcchnical illustra
tions lound in magazincs and manuals. !n othcrs, hc drcw
[ 14]
_______________________________
Allrcd H. 8arr, Jr. Covcr ol thc
cxhibition cataloguc Cubism and
bstract rt, Ncw York, Tc Muscum
ol Modcrn Art, +6. sct, printcd
in color, / x +o +/.
__________
Allrcd H. 8arr, Jr. Papcrs, .c.. Tc
Muscum ol Modcrn Art Archivcs, Ncw
York. (MA:o8) Location: Tc Muscum ol
Modcrn Art, Ncw York, NY, U.S.A. Photo:
igital !magc Tc Muscum ol Modcrn
Art/Liccnscd by SCALA/Art Rcsourcc, NY.
!magc Rclcrcncc: ART+6++
:: Chapter : Outside and Inside
[ 15]
_______________________________
Allrcd H. 8arr, Jr. Torpcdo diagrams
ol thc idcal pcrmancnt collcction
ol thc Muscum ol Modcrn Art, as
advanccd in + (top) and in ++
(bottom). Prcparcd by Allrcd H.
8arr, Jr. lor thc Advisory Committcc
Rcport on Muscum Collcctions,
++.
__________
Tc Muscum ol Modcrn Art Archivcs,
Ncw York: Allrcd H. 8arr Jr. Papcrs, a.+
(MAo) Location: Tc Muscum ol Modcrn
Art, Ncw York, NY, U.S.A. Photo: igital
!magc Tc Muscum ol Modcrn Art/
Liccnscd by SCALA/Art Rcsourcc, NY.
!magc Rclcrcncc: ART+66::
[ 16]
_______________________________
Francis Picabia, untitlcd diagram lrom
Dada, ++
Cartographies of Time ::
his own playlul diagrams, as in thc untitlcd ++ diagram
ol modcrn art that hc publishcd in thc journal Dada.
Picabias diagram lor Dada is not cxactly a chronologi
cal chart. Tc rclationships that it dcpicts arc thcmatic and
associativc and it lacks a rcgular mcasurc. Noncthclcss, in
his sclcction ol graphic clcmcnts and arrangcmcnt ol namcs,
Picabia scllconsciously draws on thc visual vocabulary ol
chronography. Tc rclationships dcpictcd arc chronologi
cal: thc namcs linc up, with thc carlicst group, including
!ngrcs, Corot, Czannc, and Rodin, at thc bottom, and thc
latcst group, including 8raquc, Arp, uchamp, and Tzara,
arrangcd in a circlc around a clock lacc at thc top, likc
componcnts ol an alarm or a bomb. 8ut thc imagc rclics
on thc vicwcr to rccognizc and projcct implicit rclation
ships, to scc in thc work an asil chronological chart. !n
Picabias imagc, thc chronological gcsturc is still implicit,
and it would still bc dccadcs bclorc artists would bcgin to
thcmatizc chronology morc commonly.
8arrs +6 chart was both inucntial and symptom
atic, it cxprcsscd thc growing importancc ol both art history
and curatorial practicc to thc scllconccption ol modcrn
art. !t gcsturcd implicitly to thc rclationship bctwccn art
and graphic dcsign that was ccntral to thc :o:~ projcct.
And it rcposcd thc qucstion ol how to ncgotiatc thc linc
bctwccn art and nonart that had bccn so lorcclully statcd
by ada.
!n thc art world ol thc +os and os, timc charts
appcarcd in many popular and scholarly vcnucs. [ gs. 1719]
!n his ++ book Der !eg aus dem Chaos: Eine Deutung
des !eltgeschehens aus dem Fhythmus der Kunstent.icklung
(Tc path out ol chaos: An intcrprctation ol world history
lrom thc rhythm ol thc dcvclopmcnt ol art), thc Gcrman
art historian Paul Ligcti illustratcd his cyclical thcory ol
art history in a scrics ol wavclorm charts.
8
ric Ncwtons
++ pockct survcy lor Pcnguin, European Painting and
Sculpturea book distributcd to Amcrican armcd lorccs
during thc Sccond Vorld Varincludcd a bcautilully styl
izcd gcncalogical trcc diagram drawing on thc inlographic
convcntions ol Charlcs Joscph Minard.
n Ncwtons
chart, artistic importancc was indicatcd by sizc: grcat art
ists wcrc shown as largc circlcs, minor artists as small oncs.
A +8 catalog lor an cxhibition ol abstract, gcomctric art
in Francc callcd Fealites Nou.elles includcd its own timc
chart, a kind ol homagc to 8arr, but rcdrawn in thc stylc ol
thc art whosc story it outlincd.
+o
Timc charts wcrc important cnough in thc art world ol
thc +os to inspirc satircs as wcll as subvcrsions. [ gs. 2021]
Tc most lamous ol thcsc is thc cartoon scrics How to
[ 17]
_______________________________
Paul Ligcti, wavc lorm chart ol
thc history ol art lrom Der !eg
aus dem Chaos. Eine Deutung des
!eltgeschehens aus dem Fhythmus der
Kunstent.icklung, Munich, ++
[ 18]
_______________________________
ric Ncwton, chart ol art history
lrom European Painting and Sculpture,
Harmondsworth, ++
[ 19]
_______________________________
Untitlcd diagram ol thc dcvclopmcnt
ol nongurativc art in Fealites
Nou.elles (Paris) No. :, +8, cditcd by
A. Frdo Sids
::6
[ 20]
_______________________________
!sidorc !sou, L volution dc la
scnsibilit tcchniquc dans la posic
(Tc cvolution ol thc tcchnical
scnsitivity in poctry) lrom Introduction
une nou.elle poesie et une nou.elle
musique, Paris, +
[ 21]
_______________________________
Tc sixth installmcnt in thc How to
Look cartoon scrics by thc abstract
cxprcssionist paintcr Ad Rcinhardt
publishcd in thc ncwspapcr PM in
+6 and . Many ol Rcinhardts
cartoons includcd takcos on
inlormation graphics, including thc
gcncalogical trcc in How to Look at
Modcrn Art. Troughout thc scrics,
lincar timclincs wcrc common too,
as hcrc, in Rcinhardts pop history ol
rcalism and abstraction.
__________
:oo8 statc ol Ad Rcinhardt/Artists
Rights Socicty (ARS), Ncw York. !magc
Courtcsy ol Ad Rcinhardt Foundation.
[ 22]
_______________________________
Raymond Locwy, volution Charts,
ca. +. Locwys charts show a
historical movcmcnt toward acsthctic
simplicity in many dicrcnt domains
ol industrial dcsignin thc tclcphonc,
thc motorcar, thc drcss, thc housc,
thc ship, thc shoc, thc clock, thc winc
glass, thc chair, and, disconccrtingly,
thc lcmalc body, which in his
dcpiction gocs lrom lull gurcd to rail
thin, and nally disappcars complctcly.
[ 23]
_______________________________
Marccl 8rcucr, in 8auhausFilm:
Funl Jahrc Lang (A 8auhaus lm: vc
ycars), Bauhaus, +:6
Look at Modcrn Art publishcd by thc abstract cxprcssion
ist paintcr Ad Rcinhardt in +6 and +. Rcinhardts
scrics both armcd and pokcd lun at 8arrs gcncalogy ol
modcrn art. !n thc bcst known ol Rcinhardts charts, 8arrs
namcs and catcgorics arc inscribcd on a cartoon ol a trcc
ol art losing lcavcs and branchcs undcr thc dcad wcight ol
bad idcas and patronagc. Tough lcss rcmarkcd, lincar tim
lincs arc ubiquitous throughout thc scrics, as in Rcinhardts
+6 cartoon account ol thc history ol rcalism and abstrac
tion callcd simply How to Look. !n +, thc lcttrist poct
!sidorc !sou publishcd his Introduction une nou.elle poesie
et une nou.elle musique (!ntroduction to a ncw poctry and
a ncw music), complctc with thc history ol modcrn poctry
gurcd in chronological diagrams.
++
!n contrast to thc sobcr
historicism ol so many chronographics, !sous diagrams
wcrc csscntially manilcstos: thcy illustratcd a highly par
ticular rcading ol thc history ol poctry, convcrging in !sous
poctry ol lcttcrs and cxpanding cvcr outward lrom thcrc.
Picabia, !sou, and Rcinhardt blurrcd thc linc bctwccn
charts and art. 8ut lor graphic dcsigncrs ol thc pcriod,
thcrc wasnt rcally any linc to blur. [ gs. 2223] !n +6, thc
inucntial Amcrican industrial dcsigncr Raymond Locwy
publishcd thc rst ol many chronologics ol thc history ol
dcsign. Likc !sou, Locwy portraycd history as a movcmcnt
in thc dircction ol his own stylc, thc strcamlincd dcco
look, as cxcmplicd by his + Scars Coldspot rclrig
crator, + S+ stcam locomotivc, and + Studcbakcr
Champion. Tough antic and occasionally scllmocking,
Locwys charts showcd o his work to grcat ccct. n
thc onc hand, thcy dcpictcd his dcsigns, on thc othcr, thcy
cmbodicd thcm. Nor was this kind ol scllconsciousncss
limitcd to popular commcrcial dcsign. Alrcady in +:6, thc
8auhaus architcct Marccl 8rcucr had publishcd a chronol
ogy ol dcsign history, with a similar punch linc. !n an illus
tration lrom thc rst issuc ol thc 8auhaus journal, 8rcucr
showcd thc cvolution ol 8auhaus dcsign ovcr vc ycars as
a scrics ol datcd imagcs ol cvcr simplcr chairs, culminating
with a pcrson rcclining on an invisiblc column ol air.
!n thc widcr culturc, thc +os and os wcrc a boom
timc lor chronological charts. [ gs. 2427] As in past ccn
turics, tcchnological dcvclopmcnts and apocalyptic visions
combincd to inspirc ncw intcrcst in visions ol timc as in
thc lamous oomsday Clock ol thc Bulletin of the tomic
Scientists which rcvivcd an old millcnnial gurc and cchocd
haunting imagcs ol clocks stoppcd in thcir tracks by rcal
world atomic bombs. 8ut not all was dcstruction and anxi
cty. For tcchnoutopians such as R. 8uckminstcr Fullcr,
thc timc chart took on an iconic charactcr, providing an
Cartographies of Time ::8
[ 24]
_______________________________
Pockct watch owncd by Kcngo
Nikawa, arrcstcd at thc timc ol thc
atomic blast abovc Hiroshima on
August 6, +, at 8:+ ~:
[ 25]
_______________________________
oomsday clocks on thc covcrs ol
thc Bulletin of the tomic Scientists,
+:oo
[ 26]
_______________________________
R. 8uckminstcr Fullcr, Prole of the
Industrial Fe.olution as Exposed by the
Chronological Fate of cquisition of the
Basic In.entory of Cosmic bsolutes, +
[ 27]
_______________________________
R. 8uckminstcr Fullcr, Shrinking of
our Planet by Mans Increased Tra.el
and Communication Speeds round the
Globe, +6
[ 28]
_______________________________
Gordon Moorc, Cramming Morc
Componcnts onto !ntcgratcd
Circuits, lrom Electronics, +6
[ 29]
_______________________________
Ray Kurzwcil, Countdown to
Singularity, Logarithmic, :oo
appcaling tcchnical lorm lor cxprcssions ol progrcss. !n +,
Fullcr publishcd a particularly bcautilul cxamplc combin
ing clcmcnts ol thc classic dcsigns ol Joscph Pricstlcy and
Villiam Playlair, dcmonstrating that thc world was on thc
vcrgc ol a tcchnological rcvolution that would put an cnd
to both povcrty and war. !n thc chart, callcd Prole of the
Industrial Fe.olution as Exposed by the Chronological Fate of
cquisition of the Basic In.entory of Cosmic bsolutesTe ,:
Elements, Fullcr attcmptcd to corrclatc scicntic discovcr
ics with social changc. Fullcr saw scicncc and tcchnology
changing cvcr morc rapidly, and hc positcd that progrcss
in thosc domains was scllrcinlorcing. Hc also bclicvcd
that tcchnical progrcss would cnablc social rcvolutions.
According to Fullcrs original dcsign, a historical thrcshold
in both scicncc and socictythc point whcn thc powcr ol
livingry would surpass that ol wcaponrywould comc
around +o. !n thc +6os, howcvcrin a gcsturc rcminis
ccnt ol thosc ol millcnnialists in prcvious ccnturicsFullcr
pushcd thc datc lorward to :ooo, and it can only bc a mat
tcr ol spcculation what hc might do now.
!n thc changing visual contcxt ol thc latcr twcnti
cth ccntury, cvcn purcly tcchnical charts could bccomc
iconic, as in thc casc ol a simplc linc graph publishcd by
!ntcl Corporation loundcr Gordon Moorc in Electronics
magazinc in April +6. [ gs. 2829] Moorcs graph, an
othcrwisc unrcmarkablc curvc, projcctcd cxponcntial acccl
cration in thc proccssing spccd ol computcrs through thc
lorcsccablc luturc. Tough hc amcndcd it slightly latcr,
Moorcs prcdiction has provcd so ncar to corrcct that in
thc intcrvcning ycars it has comc to bc known as Moorcs
Law.
+:
And Moorcs succcss has spawncd othcr, similar
graphics including Ray Kurzwcils charts ol thc coming
Singularity, a tcchnological takco so rapid and pro
lound it rcprcscnts a rupturc in thc labric ol human his
tory.
+
Vhcn cvaluatcd lor thcir accuracy, Fullcrs, Moorcs,
and Kurzwcils charts larc dicrcntly: Fullcr, not so wcll
(or not yct), Moorc, grcat so lar, Kurzwcil, only timc will
tcll. 8ut lrom thc point ol vicw ol graphic rcprcscntation,
thcy all do admirably. ach dcmonstratcs thc powcr ol thc
cxponcntial curvc as a rcprcscntation ol historical changc,
cach is a powcrlul cxprcssion, and cxpansion, ol thc graphic
intuition ol Pricstlcy and Playlair.
Tc timc chart cntcrcd into art dcnitivcly in thc mid
+6os, in thc work ol thc Fluxus artist Gcorgc Maciunas.
+

Maciunas was many thingsa thcorist, provocatcur, pcr
lormancc artist, imprcsariobut along with all ol thcsc,
hc was a passionatc chart makcr. Maciunas camc to his art
charts with scrious historical prcparation. Likc 8arr, hc rst
[ 31]
_______________________________
Gcorgc Maciunas, manuscript chart ol
Russian History, carly +os
__________
Courtcsy ol thc Gilbcrt and Lila Silvcrman
Fluxus Collcction, ctroit. Photograph:
Hcrman Scidl/Salzburg in association with
Astrit Schmidt8urkhardt.
[ 32]
_______________________________
Arthus C. Caspari rcading Gcorgc
Maciunass manilcsto, whilc Nam
Junc Paik unlurls Maciunass chart,
Vuppcrtal, Gcrmany, +6:
__________
Roll Jahrling.
[ 30]
_______________________________
Gcorgc Maciunas, Fluxus (Its
Historical De.elopment and Felationship
to .ant Garde Mo.ements), ca. +66
__________
Hcrman Scidl/Salzburg in association with
Astrit Schmidt8urkhardt.
: Chapter : Outside and Inside
bcgan making thcm in history classcs. Tcsc carly pcn and
papcr collagcs scrvcd a practical purposc as study aids, but
lor Maciunas thcy also opcncd up ncw ways ol sccing. vcr
timc, hc addcd to thcm, laycring notcs upon notcs, lolding
thcm togcthcr.
!n thc carly 6os, as Maciunas bcgan to lormulatc thc
idcas bchind Fluxus, hc rcturncd to chart making with
panachc, as in thc analytic chart ol timc and spaccbascd art
that hc dramatically rcvcalcd during a rcading ol his nco
ada manilcsto in +6:. (!n thc actual cvcnt, Maciunass
chart was unlurlcd by lcllow artist Nam Junc Paik.)
[ gs. 3032] Tc basic structurc ol thc chronological charts
that Maciunas bcgan making in thc lollowing ycars is
lamiliar: in thcm, a strcam rcprcscnts thc crisscrossing ows
ol inucncc among artists and movcmcnts, plottcd against
timc. 8ut, unlikc 8arr and his contcmporarics, Maciunas
trcatcd chart making as an artistic practicc.
Maciunas publishcd thc rst ol thcsc chronographic
charts, Fluxus (Its Historical De.elopment and Felationship
to .ant Garde Mo.ements), in a Czcch art journal in
+66.
+
Tc dozcn or so dicrcnt charts that lollowcd wcrc
publishcd in magazincs, distributcd by hand, sold as broad
shccts, and, notably, includcd in FluxkitsMaciunass
packagcd collcctions ol lound and labricatcd objccts.
+6

!ronics arc cvcrywhcrc, ol coursc. Fluxus promotcd itscll as
a nonmovcmcnt, a blurring ol thc distinction bctwccn art
and lilc. Yct Maciunass charts unapologctically apply 8arrs
principlcs ol distinction and dclincation. !n lact, Maciunas
argucd that because Fluxus was a nonmovcmcnt opcrating
in thc tcrritory bctwccn art and nonart, it was cspccially
important to bc clcar about whcrc boundary lincs lay. Tc
Fluxcharts providcd an cxamplc ol thc curious art/non
art objcct that was charactcristic ol Fluxus production. At
thc samc timc, likc parallcl works by graphic artists such
as Stclan Tcmcrson and groups such as Ant Farm, thcy
illustratcd thc curious ncw graphic contcxt in which thc
charts ol uscbius or Pricstlcy might nally bc undcrstood
in acsthctic tcrms.
For both conccptual and timcbascd art, thc potcntial
ol chronography was immcnsc, and in thc +os and 6os,
artists such as thc composcr John Cagc rcckoncd with it
lrom scvcral dicrcnt pcrspcctivcs. [ gs. 3334] Much ol
Cagcs work lrom this pcriod dcalt dircctly with qucstions
ol timc. His lamous +: composition cntitlcd , spcci
cd a pcriod ol lour minutcs and thirtythrcc scconds in
which musicians wcrc to rclrain lrom playing thcir instru
mcnts. Tc scorc lor , was a sct ol writtcn dircctions.
8ut Cagc trcatcd othcr scorcs graphically. !n thc samc
[ 33]
_______________________________
John Cagc, scorc lor Imaginary
Landscape, No. , +:
__________
Music ivision, Tc Ncw York Public
Library lor thc Pcrlorming Arts, Astor,
Lcnox, and Tildcn Foundations. Courtcsy ol
Hcnmar Prcss.
[ 34]
_______________________________
Pagcs and lrom Kurt Schwittcrs
on a Timc Chart, by Stclan
Tcmcrson, rst publishcd in
Typographica, no. +6, +6
ycar, lor cxamplc, Cagc appropriatcd a traditional chro
nographic lormat lor thc scorc ol anothcr chancc com
position, Imaginary Landscape, No. , which calls lor a
pcrlormcr to play bricl sclcctions lrom : rccords according
to a timc schcmc structurcd likc Joscph Pricstlcys Chart of
Biography.
+
And throughout Cagcs musical work, thc con
ccptual rcsonanccs with Pricstlcyproblcms ol duration,
synchronism, pattcrn, and accidcntarc strong.
uring thc lollowing two dccadcs, politically cngagcd
artists bcgan to usc timc charts in thc manncr ol historians
and sociologists, as lor cxamplc, in Hans Haackcs diagram
ol thc shcll gamc ol rcal cstatc transactions govcrning thc
slums ol Ncw York City in his Shapolsky et al., Manhattan
Feal Estate Holdings, a Feal Time Social System, as of May
:, :,:. [ g. 35] As graphics, Haackcs charts arc simplc:
datcd transaction lincs mark apparcntly indcpcndcnt trans
lcrs ol propcrty lrom onc company to anothcr. 8ut, vicwcd
togcthcr, thcsc lincs rcvcal an intricatcly intcrconncctcd
latticc ol a singlc largc nancial cntity with intcrcsts in a
vast numbcr ol Manhattan propcrtics. Haackcs projcct,
which intcndcd to turn thc muscum spacc into an activ
ist lorum, was a provocation that workcd, both at thc lcvcl
ol politics and lorm: his Guggcnhcim show was canccllcd,
stirring much dcbatc and protcst.
Tc Japancsc artist n Kawara tricd a dicrcnt
approach to chronography: rcaltimc painting. [ gs. 3637]
Sincc +66, Kawara has bccn painting thc currcnt datc,
onc day at a timc. ach ol his Date Paintings is bcgun and
nishcd on thc samc day that it rccords, and thc work con
tains nothing morc than thc datc itscll, rcndcrcd in thc
stylc ol a local ncwspapcr. Tc Date Paintings arc rcaltimc
rccordings, but, in thcm, Kawara upcnds assumptions about
what rcaltimc rccordings should show. !n contrast to morc
lamiliar rcaltimc rccords such as cincma and chronopho
tography, in which high ratcs ol sampling pcrmit a good
approximation ol pcrccptual cxpcricncc, Kawaras work
slows timc down to thc rhythm ol print lorms such as thc
calcndar, thc diary, and thc ncwspapcr.
Kawaras work asscrts not only thc tcmporal charactcr
ol painting but thc importancc ol chronographic rcprcscn
tation to our ability to comprchcnd that tcmporality in thc
rst placc. [ g. 38] Tc datcs to which his work rclcrs arc
rcal, visiblc cultural artilacts, not cvcrywhcrc idcntical. !n
ccct, thc Date Paintings lunction likc a giant macroscopic
lcns locuscd on thc surlacc ol a Pricstlcy chart, rcvcaling
thc bcautilul and disconccrting matcriality ol our tcmporal
rcprcscntations.
[ 35]
_______________________________
!n Shapolsky et al., Manhattan Feal
Estate Holdings, a Feal Time Social
System, as of May :, :,:, thc artist
Hans Haackc traccd thc complcx lcgal
and nancial transactions ol a largc
Manhattan propcrty company and its
many shclls and subcntitics through
photographs, tcxt, and diagrams. Tc
installation, planncd lor an cxhibition
at thc Guggcnhcim Muscum in Ncw
York in ++, was canccllcd bccausc ol
controvcrsy ovcr its political contcnt.
__________
:oo8 Artists Rights Socicty (ARS),
Ncw York/\G 8ildKunst, 8onn.
[ 36]
_______________________________
n Kawara, nc Tousand ays nc Million
Ycars, installation at ia Ccntcr lor thc Arts,
January +cccmbcr +, +
__________
Photo: Cathy Carvcr. Courtcsy ia Art Foundation.
[ 38]
_______________________________
Stray biographical dot lrom Joscph
Pricstlcys Chart of Biography
__________
Courtcsy ol thc Amcrican Philosophical
Socicty.
[ 37]
_______________________________
n Kawara, :cc Years Calendar
(:,,&, Days), August 6, :ooo
__________
Collcction ol n Kawara. Courtcsy ol
n Kawara.
!n thc ycar :ooo, two grcat public timclincs wcrc inaugu
ratcd in Ncw York City, dircctly across Ccntral Park lrom
onc anothcr, thc Harriet and Fobert Heilbrunn Cosmic
Path.ay at thc Amcrican Muscum ol Natural History and
thc Timeline of rt History at thc Mctropolitan Muscum
ol Art. Tough thc two projccts wcrc planncd scparatcly
and without rclcrcncc to onc anothcr, it is not cntircly an
accidcnt that thcy appcarcd simultancously: both wcrc thc
rcsult ol charitablc gilts by thc Hcilbrunn lamily during
thc +os, and what morc auspicious timc to unvcil a big
timc projcct than a ycar ol millcnnial cnthusiasm:
Tc timclincs makc a striking contrast with onc anothcr:
thc Cosmic Path.ay traccs thc history ol thc univcrsc lrom
thc 8ig 8ang to thc prcscnt, thc Timeline of rt History,
culturc sincc thc cavc paintings at Lascaux. Tc rst is a
gargantuan structurc, a pcdcstrian ramp ovcr o lcct long,
suspcndcd high abovc thc oor ol thc Amcrican Muscum ol
Natural History, thc sccond, a virtual spacc madc up ol morc
than twcntyvc thousand pagcs ol inlormation acccssiblc
anywhcrc in thc world through an intcrnct conncction.
Tc dicrcnccs could hardly bc morc pronounccd or
morc charactcristic ol thc momcnt: on onc hand, stccl and
glass, on thc othcr, bytc and pixcl. 8ut dcspitc this, thcsc
two grcat projccts, likc thcir host institutions, arc cousins.
Just as no visitor would havc any troublc rccognizing thc
Mctropolitan Muscum ol Art or thc Amcrican Muscum ol
Natural History as a muscum, nonc would hcsitatc to call
cithcr ol thcsc projccts a timclinc. 8oth arc rcgular, mca
surcd, visual chronologics, both cmphasizc thc importancc
ol scalc, succcssion, and simultancity, both assimilatc masscs
ol lacts in a singlc, unicd structurc, both projcct objcctivity,
ncutrality, and simplicity. Vhat is morc, both thc Cosmic
Path.ay and thc Timeline of rt History dcal with immcnsc
chronological spans, thc history ol thc univcrsc dating back
thirtccn billion ycars, and thc history ol art going back
twcntyvc thousandcxactly thc kind ol grand synthcsis
that wc cxpcct lrom big timclincs and big muscums.
8ut, whilc both thc Cosmic Path.ay and thc Timeline
of rt History cmbody many ol thc classic charactcristics
ol a timclinc, ncithcr is cntircly typical. [ gs. 13] !n thc
rst placc, both arc hugc bcyond cvcn thc inatcd modcls
ol thc ninctccnth ccntury. !ndccd, in thc Cosmic Path.ay,
sizc and scalc arc thc vcry point ol thc cxcrcisc: at thc start,
thc pathway is mcant to lccl ovcrwhclmingly largc. vcn
to approach it, visitors must rst conlront thc magnitudc
ol thc Haydcn Planctarium, a massivc mctal sphcrc sus
pcndcd two storics abovc thc ground within an cvcn largcr
glass structurc.
8ig Timc
Chapter :
: Chapter : Big Time
Tc Cosmic Path.ay is dcsigncd to allow thc visitor to
lccl as wcll as to scc thc immcnsity ol history. At its start,
thc visitor mcasurcs hcr or his stridc, not in spacc but in
timc. n thc path, an avcragc adult covcrs about six million
ycars in a stcp. 8ut sincc cvcry stridc is a littlc dicrcnt,
cach muscum visitor advanccs through thc millcnnia at hcr
or his own historical pacc. Amid all thc digital wondcrs
ol thc muscum, this stroll through thc history ol thc uni
vcrsc is rclrcshingly analog. !l thc crowds arcnt pushing too
much and thc wcathcr is good, visitors can takc thcir timc
and soak up both inlormation lrom thc instructivc pan
cls and sun strcaming down through thc giant glass cubc
around thc planctarium.
Tcrc is a lot to lcarn on thc Cosmic Path.ay: at cach
point, pancls idcntily momcnts in cosmic history lrom thir
tccn billion ycars ago down to thc prcscnt. And, undcr thc
last pancl, thc Cosmic Path.ay has a surprisc: onc strand
ol human hair is strctchcd taut, its width rcprcscnting
thirty thousand ycars, thc lcngth ol timc lrom thc carlicst
known cavc painting in uropc to thc inauguration ol thc
pathway.
Across Ccntral Park in thc Mctropolitan Muscum ol
Art, somcthing dicrcnt is undcr way. [ gs. 45] Tcrc, thc
qucstion ol how much physical spacc to allot to thc agcs
ol timc has bccn mootcd. To rcprcscnt a catalog ol ovcr
two million prccious artilacts lrom all ovcr thc world, thc
Mct has madc its Timeline of rt History cntircly clcctronic.
Although thc Mcts timclinc sta has an occ, sccrctcd
away in thc attics ol thc bchcmoth muscum, thc Timeline
itscll is nowhcrc and cvcrywhcrc, tcns ol thousands ol
imagcs and pagcs ol inlormation navigablc in dozcns ol
dicrcnt ways. Hcrc, travcrsing history at oncs own pacc
has an cntircly dicrcnt mcaning. Likc thc Cosmic Path.ay,
thc Mct intcrlacc uscs historical chronology as its primary
indcx. 8ut hcrc, timc is only onc organizing structurc, onc
possiblc projcction ol history. Uscrs also movc through thc
Timeline of rt History by travcrsing gcographical maps and
scarching namcs and subjccts.
!n lact, thc Mcts wcbsitc is a timclinc only whcn
vicwcd lrom onc pcrspcctivc. As its dcsigncrs cmphasizc,
it is rcally an inlormation databasc. !t will continuc to grow
in sizc, and cvcntually gain morc scarch capabilitics and
morc schcmcs ol visualization. Vhcn it was rst char
tcrcd, thc Timeline was approachcd with somc trcpidation
by thc muscums curators. Pcrsuading all dcpartmcnts to
spcak with onc voicc and through onc channcl was a tall
ordcr, but by all accounts thc cort was usclul and instruc
tivc. !t quickly bccamc clcar that thc timclinc mctaphor
[ 13]
_______________________________
Harriet and Fobert Heilbrunn Cosmic
Path.ay, Rosc Ccntcr lor arth and
Spacc, Amcrican Muscum ol Natural
History, Ncw York, :ooo
was alrcady built into thc projcct ol thc muscum. !n lact, it
sccmcd so csscntial that it was hard to undcrstand why it
had only just now bccn madc cxplicit.
And big timclincs arc not only popular in traditional
muscums or in thc Vcst. [ g. 6] vcn lor a visitor with
no background in Chincsc art or history, thc Timeline of
Chinese rt in thc National Palacc Muscum in Taipci is
casy to lollow and undcrstand. Tc samc is truc ol thc play
lul timclinc ol modcrn art dcsigncd by Sarah Fanclli lor thc
Tatc Modcrn in London. Fancllis timclinc is also availablc
in a winsomc, brown and pink accordion book that allows
thc curious visitor to takc homc a bit ol Tatc stylc and somc
chronological knowlcdgc all in onc packagc.
+
vcn hcrc,
at an cpiccntcr ol postmodcrn rcprcscntation, thc graphic
timclinc is not only surviving, it is thriving. And, il a ccr
tain irony is now possiblc and cvcn typical in thc gcnrc, thc
oldlashioncd justthclacts historical timclincs arc also
doing wcll. Tcrc is hardly a muscum gilt shop thcsc days
whcrc you cannot purchasc a copy ol History by the Meter, a
lullon, backtobasics historical timclinc clcvcrly printcd
on a lolding mctcr stick. And, as with Fancllis book, thc
crossovcr valuc has turncd out to bc cnormous. !t is not
cnough to takc in thcsc historical graphics at thc muscum,
thc public wants to takc thcm homc too.
l coursc, somcthing is lostor at lcast changcd
whcn massivc timclincs arc translormcd into pockctablc
commoditics. [ g. 7] !n timclincs, thc visual intcrlacc is
cvcrything. Cybcrnctic thcorists arc lond ol saying that
morc is dicrcnt. !n thc rcalm ol thc timclinc, big is dicr
cnt. Sincc thc aim ol thc timclinc is synoptic, thc morc thc
rcadcr sccs, thc morc shc can do. Tats why thc takchomc
vcrsions ol thcsc largc installations lold or roll or com
prcss in somc way: so that, on hcr living room oor, shc
can sprcad thcm out to rcgain somcthing ol thc ccct ol
largc dimcnsions. !n lact, onc ninctccnthccntury timclincr,
thc Madison Avcnuc cxccutivc Manly M. Gillam, madc
this vcry argumcnt whcn his application lor a patcnt was
rcjcctcd. Tc Patcnt cc, hc said, in his succcsslul appcal,
was unablc to disccrn thc intuitivc valuc ol his timclinc
systcm bccausc its rcgulations pcrmittcd him to submit
only a miniaturc rcprcscntation. His chart systcm, which
appcars to bc a lorcbcar ol 8arrs torpcdocs, was approvcd
on Fcbruary :+, +8.
:
Tcsc varicd projccts arc, ol coursc, only somc rcccnt
cxamplcs ol thc timclinc gonc giant. [ g. 8] Tc carly lorc
runncrs ol modcrn timclincsancicnt lists ol kings and
consuls and mcdicval gcncalogical scrollswcrc oltcn
massivc in thcir proportions so that thcy could bc displaycd
[ 6]
_______________________________
Sarah Fanclli, installation vicw ol thc
Tate rtist Timeline, London, :oo6
[ 45]
_______________________________
Mctropolitan Muscum ol Art,
Timeline of rt History, wcbsitc
launchcd in :ooo
:+ Chapter : Big Time
lor public glory. Tc Fasti Consulares, which Augustus had
carvcd in +8+ ncv on an arch at thc castcrn cnd ol thc
Roman Forum, listcd occupants ol thc rotating consular
chairs ol thc Roman govcrnmcnt. Likc many ol his othcr
actions, Augustuss canonization ol carlicr Roman his
tory was prcscntcd as thc rcstoration ol a tradition. !n thc
last ccnturics ol thc Roman Rcpublic, thc public consular
lists displaycd both thc calcndar, as it movcd through thc
ycar with its lcstivals and markct days, and thc history ol
Romc, as a ncw pair ol consuls, who wcrc clcctcd annu
ally, markcd cach ycar. Traditionally, whcn Romans datcd
an cvcnt in carly history or rccallcd thc happicr timcs ol
thcir youth, thcy did so by rclcrring to a particular consul
ship. Augustus, howcvcr, changcd thc lasti in vital ways. Hc
linkcd consular ycars to Romcs history sincc its lounding,
thus changing thc public ordcr ol timcand indicating
that Roman timc bcgan in thc monarchy that thc Rcpublic
rcplaccd. Augustus appcarcd so many timcs in thc list
that thc consuls undcrstood thcir statuslikc thcir rcla
tion to timchad changcd.
Giovanni 8attista Pirancsis

cightccnthccntury cngravings ol thcsc ruincd artilacts arc
potcnt rcmindcrs not only ol thc cphcmcrality ol human
achicvcmcnt but ol thc cultural powcr ol thc giant chrono
graphic lorm. As Pirancsi shows through his imagcs ol thc
ruincd fasti consulares, thc Forum was, among othcr things,
a chronographic spacc.
Tcsc stratcgics ol scalc survivcd thc agcs. [ g. 9]
An claboratc Ehrenpforte (honorary gatc), dcsigncd by
Albrccht urcr around ++6 lor thc mpcror Maximilian
!, displaying thc Habsburg gcncalogy and its political
achicvcmcnts, was ncvcr mcant to bc built, but this in
no way diminishcs its monumcntality, cithcr in conccpt
or in lact. Tc cngravings lor his Ehrenpforte makc up an
clcphant lolio ol lortyvc loldcd platcs that, whcn pastcd
togcthcr, takc up an cntirc wall. Maximilian saw this arch
as a visual countcrpart to thc physical oncs through which
hc and his wilc, Margarct ol Austria, had passcd whcn
thcy madc thcir lormal joyous cntrics into citics in thc
Low Countrics, which shc govcrncd. Around its thrcc
small portalsthc Portal ol Famc, thc Portal ol Honor
and Powcr, and thc Portal ol Nobilityurcr and his
collaborators arrangcd what amountcd to a history ol thc
Habsburgs. Tis history startcd in Troy, camc down to thc
prcscnt, and includcd all thc prcvious Roman cmpcrors
lrom Julius Cacsar on, Maximilians anccstors, and his rcla
tivcs by marriagccspccially promincnt oncs likc Richard
thc LionHcartcd. Tc onc Habsburg saint, Lcopold,
occupics a promincnt placc on onc ol thc columns, ncar
[ 7]
_______________________________
:ccc Years: History by the Meter
__________
MctcrMorphoscn :ooo. www.
mctcrmorphoscn.dc
[ 8]
_________________________________
Giovanni 8attista Pirancsi, Fasti
Consulares Fomanorum a Fomulo rege
usque ad Tiberium Caesarem (Roman
consular lasti lrom thc rcign ol Romulus
to Tibcrius Cacsar), Romc, +6+
thc tops, in tabcrnaclcs, stand thc lour Habsburgs who had
scrvcd as king or cmpcror ol Gcrmany bclorc Maximilian.
Hc himscll appcars high up in thc ccntcr, scatcd in statc
and surroundcd by animals and othcr symbols: a culogy in
rcconstructcd gyptian hicroglyphs. Tc cntcrprisc madc
a lormidablc kind ol scnsc out ol history. Tc Ehrenpforte,
crcatcd, likc modcrn timc spaccs, by collaboration among
artists and scholars, invitcd its vicwcrs to walk through
history itscll. Tis madc thcm lccl as humblc as its mod
crn countcrparts makc thcir visitorsnot bccausc it was
so long, but bccausc it was so thickly pcoplcd with grcat
mcn and womcn, and thc cmpcror himscll dominatcd thc
production.
Tcsc oldcr displays ol chronology wcrc not always

gigantic. [ g. 10] Tcy wcrc somctimcs cast in miniaturc
lor thc dclight ol thc uscras in thc casc ol thc chrono
logical jcwclry crcatcd in +:o by thc Spanish dcsigncr
Francisco Asscnsio lor thc Frcnch king Louis X\!. !n thc
carly modcrn pcriod, thcsc hctcrogcnous chronographic
lorms wcrc as culturally ccntral as thc timclinc has bccomc
in thc modcrn.
Sincc thc cightccnth ccntury, thc timclinc has bccomc
such a commonplacc cxprcssion ol historical rclationships
that it blcnds into thc cultural background as naturally as
lists and gcncalogics did in thc worlds ol Augustus and
Maximilian. Tis is not to say that thc timclinc has lorccd
thcsc or othcr tcmporal lorms lrom thc cld. To thc con
trary, our graphic world is llcd with tablcs and trccs and
circlcs that would bc instantly rccognizablc to our carly
modcrn prcdcccssors. Vhat is notablc about thc lunction
ol thc timclinc in modcrnity is that it opcratcs so scam
lcssly in thc graphic background, organizing and structur
ing othcr lorms ol graphic rcprcscntation, as il it wcrcnt
cvcn thcrc.
!n thc modcrn historical imagination, thc timclinc
plays a spccial rolc: it appcars as a graphic instantiation
ol history itscll. [ g. 1112] !n lact wc noticc it only whcn
somconc with thc graphic imagination ol a J. J. Grandvillc
or Saul Stcinbcrg mixcs it up and scts it all askcw. Vc think
ol thc timclinc not as a tcchnical achicvcmcnt in graphic
dcsign, but as thc barc rcmaindcr whcn cvcrything clsc has
bccn scrapcd away. Historically spcaking this is lar lrom
thc casc. Tc timclinc did not prcccdc our othcr ways ol
rcprcscnting historical timc, nor has it cvcr cmbodicd thc
purc valuc ncutrality that many havc wishcd to attributc
to it. !t arosc as a ncw way ol cxprcssing and quantizing
chronological rclationships. And it caught on prcciscly
bccausc it capturcd thc historical spirit ol thc momcnt.
[ 9]
_______________________________
Albrccht urcr, Ehrenpforte, ca. ++6

Arguably, thc timclinc has ncvcr bccn morc important
or morc ubiquitous than it is today. vcn in contrast to
its grcat popularity in print lorm, in intcractivc mcdia, thc
timclinc is cvcrywhcrc. Along with thc list and thc link,
thc timclinc is onc ol thc ccntral organizing structurcs ol
thc contcmporary uscr intcrlacc.
Tc rcasons lor this arc

not hard to lathom: thc shccr volumc ol inlormation now
rcadily availablc in clcctronic lorm puts indcxing systcms
ol all sorts at a prcmium, and thc availability ol dynamic,
animatcd lorms ol prcscntation placcs spccial cmphasis
on timc as an axis ol organization. An important part ol
thc appcal ol thc timclinc in thc contcxt ol thc at and
cvcrcxtcnding planc ol inlormation is that it ocrs stabil
ity. Tc world may bc gctting smallcr and inlormation may
bc moving lastcr, but in thc rcalm ol thc timc codc, somc
scmblancc ol thc rcal sccms always prcscnt.
Tis is nowhcrc morc apparcnt than in thc cxploding
cld ol chronological wcb :.o and opcn sourcc applica
tions. Tc graphically simplc oncs likc Googlc Ncws and
Financc, with thcir scaling bar charts and linc graphs, arc
alrcady ubiquitous, and ncw graphic applications arc cmcrg
ing all thc timc. !n rcccnt ycars, intcrnct startups, such as
Miomi, Similc, Mncmograph, ipity, and thc Longvicwcr
ol thc Long Now Foundation havc suggcstcd ncw ways
to aggrcgatc and intcgratc chronological data lrom many
sourccs. Programs and wcbsitcs such as thcsc blur thc
boundary bctwccn political and pcrsonal chronologics as
uscrs post datalrom thcir livcs, thc ncws, history books
all togcthcr. Tcsc arc grassroots timclincs, but thcir ambi
tions arc no lcss grand than thc muscum timclincs discusscd
abovc. To thc contrary, by working on thc principlcs ol thc
wiki, a wcbsitc anyonc may cdit, and data scraping, using a
soltwarc program to collcct data lrom othcr soltwarc pro
grams, thc ultimatc scopc ol grassroots timclincs may bc
much morc cxtcnsivc than was achicvcd by thc timc charts
ol thc past, with thcir idcntiablc authors and artists.
8ut, whilc this ncwcst gcncration ol timclincs promiscs
chronological abundancc as wc havc ncvcr had it bclorc, it
is not clcar that it promiscs an advancc, cxactly. From thc
bcginning, thc biggcst challcngc ol thc timc chart was not
to includc morc data, but to clarily a historical picturc
to ocr a lorm that was intuitivc and mncmonic, and that
lunctioncd wcll as a tool ol rclcrcncc. Vhcthcr or not thc
wcb :.o vcrsions ol thc timclinc will bc up to this task is
still to bc sccn. Vhat can bc said with ccrtainty is that thcy
lormalizc aspccts ol thc timc chart that wcrc prcviously a
mattcr ol artistic judgmcnt. !n doing so, thcy highlight thc
continuing vitality ol this rcmarkablc cultural lorm.
[ 10]
_______________________________
Francisco Asscnsio. Chronologie des
rois de France, et ans de leur mort selon
le calendrier royal de Paris, de l an
:,c. Fac-simile et copie en grand de
l inscription dune bague dediee Louis
X!I (Chronology ol thc kings ol
Francc, and ycars ol dcath according to
thc royal calcndar ol Paris, ol thc ycar
+o. Facsimilc and cnlargcd copy ol
thc inscription ol a ring dcdicatcd to
Louis X\!), ca. +o
Chapter : Big Time
[ 11]
_______________________________
Saul Stcinbcrg, Untitled, +6
__________
Tc Saul Stcinbcrg Foundation, Ncw York.
Tc Saul Stcinbcrg Foundation/Artist
Rights Socicty (ARS), Ncw York.
[ 12]
_______________________________
!heel of Fashion, lrom J. J. Grandvillc,
Un autre monde; transformations,
.isions, incarnations...et autres choses,
Paris, +8
Notcs
Chapter :
Timc in Print
+ For intcrdisciplinary pcrspcctivcs on graphic rcprcscntation, cpistcmol
ogy, and acsthctics, scc dward Tultc, Te !isual Display of Quantitati.e
Information (Chcshirc, CT: Graphics Prcss, :oo+), Tultc, Beautiful
E.idence (Chcshirc, CT: Graphics Prcss, :oo6), Michacl Lynch and
Stcvc Voolgar, cds., Fepresentation in Scientic Practice (Cambridgc,
MA: M!T Prcss, +o), 8rian S. 8aigric, cd., Picturing Kno.ledge:
Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of rt in Science
(Toronto: Univcrsity ol Toronto Prcss, +6), Jamcs lkins, Te Domain
of Images (!thaca: Corncll Univcrsity Prcss, +), 8arbara Maria
Staord, rtful Science: Enlightenment Entertainment and the Eclipse
of !isual Education (Cambridgc, MA: M!T Prcss, +), Carolinc A.
Joncs and Pctcr Galison, cds., Picturing Science, Producing rt (Ncw
York: Routlcdgc, +8), Lorrainc aston, Tings that Talk: Object
Lessons from rt and Science (Ncw York: Zonc 8ooks, :oo). Tc clas
sic works in thc cld arc ticnncJulcs Marcy, La Methode graphique
dans les sciences experimentales (Paris: G. Masson, +88) and H. Gray
Funkhouscr, Historical cvclopmcnt ol thc Graphical Rcprcscntation
ol Statistical ata, Osiris (+): :6o. Scc also, Stcphcn
Fcrguson, Systcm and Schcma: Tabulae ol thc Filtccnth to ightccnth
Ccnturics Rcccntly Acquircd by thc Princcton Univcrsity Library, in
Princeton Uni.ersity Library Chronicle , no. + (Autumn +8): o.
: viatar Zcrubavcl, Time Maps: Collecti.e Memory and the Social Shape
of the Past (Chicago: Univcrsity ol Chicago Prcss, :oo). For timc in
cartography, scc Valtcr A. Goart, Historical tlases: Te First Tree
Hundred Years, :c:c (Chicago: Univcrsity ol Chicago Prcss,
:oo), Jcrcmy 8lack, Maps and History: Constructing Images of the Past
(Ncw Havcn: Yalc Univcrsity Prcss, +), Arthur Howard Robinson,
Early Tematic Mapping in the History of Cartography (Chicago:
Univcrsity ol Chicago Prcss, +8:), Alcssandro Sca, Mapping Paradise:
History of Hea.en on Earth (Chicago: Univcrsity ol Chicago Prcss,
:oo6), J. 8. Harlcy and avid Voodward, Te History of Cartography
vols. (Chicago: Univcrsity ol Chicago Prcss, +8).
For a modcrn cxamplc, scc Harry lmcr 8arncs, History of Historical
!riting, :nd cd. (Ncw York: ovcr, +6), citcd also in Haydcn Vhitc,
Tc \aluc ol Narrativity in thc Rcprcscntation ol Rcality, in Te
Content of the Form: Narrati.e Discourse and Historical Fepresentation
(8altimorc: John Hopkins Univcrsity Prcss, +8), +:.
Vhitc, \aluc ol Narrativity, .
!bid., 6.
6 !bid., 6.
Romila Tapar, History and Beyond (Ncw York: xlord Univcrsity Prcss,
:ooo).
8 Robcrto 8izzocchi, Genealogie incredibili: Scritti di storia nell Europa
moderna (8ologna: !l Mulino, +), Christianc KlapischZubcr,
Larbre des familles (Paris: ditions dc la Martinirc, :oo), Rosamond
McKittcrick, History and Memory in the Carolingian !orld (Cambridgc:
Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss, :oo), McKittcrick, Perceptions of the Past
in the Early Middle ges (Notrc amc: Univcrsity ol Notrc amc Prcss,
:oo6). Scc also Anthony Gralton, !hat !as History? Te rt of History
in Early Modern Europe (Cambridgc: Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss,
:oo), ch. .
Gcorgc Lako and Mark Johnson, Philosophy in the Flesh: Te Embodied
Mind and Its Challenge to !estern Tought (Ncw York: 8asic 8ooks,
+), +.
: Notes
+o V. J. T. Mitchcll, Spatial Form in Litcraturc: Toward a Gcncral
Tcory, in Te Language of Images, cd. V. J. T. Mitchcll (Chicago:
Univcrsity ol Chicago Prcss, +8o), :.
++ !bid.
+: Villiam Shakcspcarc, Macbeth ..+8:8, in Te Fi.erside Shakespeare,
cd. G. 8lakcmorc vans (8oston: Houghton Miin, +).
+ J. Hillis Millcr, Timc in Litcraturc, Daedalus (Spring :oo): 88.
+ n gcncalogy and thc trcc lorm, scc cspccially, Mary 8ouquct, Family
Trccs and Tcir Anitics: Tc \isual !mpcrativc ol thc Gcncalogical
iagram, Journal of the Foyal nthropological Institute :, no. + (+6):
66, Robcrt J. Hara, Trccs ol History in Systcmatics and
Philology, Memorie della Societ Italiana di Scien.e Naturali e del Museo
Ci.ico di Storia Naturale di Milano :, no. + (+6): 8+88, Hara,
Systcmatic Gcncralization, Historical Fatc and thc Spccics Problcm,
Systematic Biology :, no. (+): :+6, Carlo Ginzburg, Family
Rcscmblanccs and Family Trccs: Two Cognitivc Mctaphors, Critical
Inquiry o, no. (Spring :oo): .
+ Anthony Gralton, Joseph Scaliger: Study in the History of Classical
Scholarship, : vol. (xlord: Clarcndon, +8).
+6 Pctrarchs notcs arc rcconstructcd lrom surviving copics by Giuscppc
8illanovich, Un nuo.o esempio delle scoperte e delle letture del Petrarca
L Eusebio-Girolamo-PseudoProspero, Schriltcn und \ortragc dcs
Pctrarca!nstituts Koln, (Krclcld: Schcrpc, +).
+ Scc thc splcndid study ol Philip 8cncdict, Graphic History: Te !ars,
Massacres and Troubles of Tortorel and Perrissin (Gcncva: roz, :oo).
n thc housc ol c 8ry scc Susanna 8urghartz, cd., Ins.enierte !elten:
Die .est-und ostindischen Feisen der !erleger de Bry, :,c:&c (8ascl:
Schwabc, :oo), Tomas Hariot, briefe and true report of the ne.
found land of !irginia, cd. Susanna 8crg, Karcn Kuppcrman, and Pctcr
Stallybrass (Charlottcsvillc: Univcrsity Prcss ol \irginia, :oo), and
Michicl van Grocscn, Te Fepresentations of the O.erseas !orld in the De
Bry Collection of !oyages (:,c:&,) (Lcidcn and 8oston: 8rill, :oo8).
+8 Alcxandcr Ross, Te history of the .orld; the second part in six books, being
a continuation of the famous History of Sir !alter Faleigh...beginning
.here he left...at the end of the Macedonian kingdom (London: J. Saywcll,
+6:), prclacc.
+ anicl Roscnbcrg, Joscph Pricstlcy and thc Graphic !nvcntion ol
Modcrn Timc, Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture 6 (Spring :oo):
+o.
:o Joscph Pricstlcy, Description of a Ne. Chart of History (+6), in Te
Teological and Miscellaneous !orks of Joseph Priestley, cd. John Towill
Rutt, : vols. (London: G. Smallcld, +8+), ::8o.
:+ Laurcncc Stcrnc, Te Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman
(+66, rcpr., Ncw York: V. V. Norton, +8o), :6.
:: Hcnri 8crgson, Matter and Memory, trans. N. M. Paul and V. S. Palmcr
(Ncw York: Zonc 8ooks, +88), :o.
: lal Staplcdon, Last and First Men: Story of the Near and Far Future
(London: Mcthucn, +o).
Chapter :
Timc Tablcs
+ For a much lullcr account ol this story, scc Anthony Gralton and
Mcgan Villiams, Christianity and the Transformation of the Book
(Cambridgc, MA: 8clknap Prcss ol Harvard Univcrsity Prcss, :oo6).
: 8rian Crokc, Tc riginality ol uscbius Chronicle, merican Journal
of Philology +o (+8:): +:oo.
\cspasiano da 8isticci, Te !espasiano Memoirs: Li.es of Illustrious Men
of the X!th Century, trans. Villiam Gcorgc and mily Vatcrs (Toronto
and 8ualo: Univcrsity ol Toronto Prcss in association with thc
Rcnaissancc Socicty ol Amcrica, +), +.
uscbius, Chronicum, trans. Jcromc (\cnicc: Ratdolt, +8), unpaginatcd,
translation is minc (as arc all othcrs unlcss a modcrn translation is citcd).
Kathlccn 8iddick, Te Typological Imaginary: Circumcision, Technology,
History (Philadclphia: Univcrsity ol Pcnnsylvania Prcss, :oo), 6.
For morc gcncral inlormation on thc lorms uscd by mcdicval world
chroniclcrs, scc Gcrt Mclvillc, Gcschichtc in graphischcr Gcstalt:
8cobachtungcn zu cincr spatmittclaltcrlichcn arstcllungswcisc,
Geschichtsschreibung und Geschichtsbe.usstsein im spaten Mittelalter, cd.
Hans Patzc (Sigmaringcn: Torbcckc, +8), +6.
6 Scc thc rcccnt apprcciation by Albrccht Classcn, Vcrncr Rolcvinks
Fasciculus Temporum: Tc History ol a Latc Mcdicval 8cst Scllcr, or, thc
First Hypcrtcxt, Gutenberg Jahrbuch (:oo6): ::o.
Scc Genealogia Christi (8arcclona: Molciro, :ooo), a volumc ol cssays
that accompanics thc lacsimilc cdition Genealogia Christi roll, Romc,
8ibliotcca Casanatcnsc, MS :, scc csp. Migucl \ivancos, Tc
Genealogia Christi by Pctcr ol Poiticrs, Genealogia Christi, +:.
8 Christianc KlapischZubcr, Lrbre des familles (Paris: ditions dc la
Martinirc, :oo).
Gabricllc Spicgcl, Gcncalogy: Form and Function in Mcdicval
Historical Narrativc, History and Teory :: (+8): .
+o Vcrncr Rolcvinck, Fasciculus temporum (\cnicc: Gcorg Valch, +), +
vcrso.
++ Rolcvinck, Fasciculus temporum, + vcrso.
+: Scc lor cxamplc thc classic work ol Robcrt Scribncr, For the Sake of
Simple Folk: Popular Propaganda for the German Feformation, :nd cd.
(xlord: Clarcndon Prcss, +).
+ Adrian Vilson, Te Making of the Nuremberg Chronicle (Amstcrdam:
Nico !sracl, +8).
+ Rolcvinck, Fasciculus temporum, + vcrso.
+ Scc Vilson, Making of the Nuremberg Chronicle.
+6 n chronologcrs corts to nd gcncalogical room lor thc Ncw Vorld
pcoplcs, scc Giuliano Gliozzi, damo e il nuo.o mondo: La nascita
dell antropologia come ideologia coloniale: dalle genealogie bibliche alle
teorie ra..iali (:cc:cc) (Florcncc: La Nuova !talia, +), lor
Chincsc chronology scc dwin J. \an Klcy, uropcs iscovcry ol
China and thc Vriting ol Vorld History, merican Historical Fe.ie.
6 (++): 88, and lor gyptian chronology and its rclation to
Chincsc scc Anthony Gralton, Kirchcrs Chronology, in thanasius
Kircher: Te Last Man !ho Kne. E.erything, cd. Paula Findlcn (Ncw
York, Routlcdgc, :oo), ++8. Tc lullcst study ol thc cxpan
sion ol chronology, now in much nccd ol updating, is still Adalbcrt
Klcmpt, Die Sakularisierung der uni.ersalhistorischen uassung; .um
!andel des Geschichtsdenkens im :&. und :. Jahrhundert (Gottingcn:
Mustcrschmidt, +6o).
+ n Annius and his work scc cspccially Anthony Gralton, Defenders
of the Text (Cambridgc, MA: Harvard Univcrsity Prcss, ++), ch. ,
Valtcr Stcphcns, Giants in Tose Days: Folklore, ncient History, and
Nationalism (Lincoln: Univcrsity ol Ncbraska Prcss, +8), !ngrid
Rowland, Te Culture of the High Fenaissance: ncients and Moderns
in Sixteenth-Century Fome (Cambridgc: Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss,
+8), Rowland, Te Scarith of Scornello: Tale of Fenaissance Forgery
(Chicago: Univcrsity ol Chicago Prcss, :oo).
+8 Paulus Constantinus Phrygio, Chronicum (8ascl: Hcrwagcn, +), +
vcrso. For a lullcr analysis ol this and many ol thc othcr tabular works
discusscd hcrc, scc 8cnjamin Stcincr, Die Ordnung der Geschichte: Historische
Tabellen.erke in der Fruhen Neu.eit (\icnna: 8ohlau, :oo8).
+ Robcrto 8izzocchi, Genealogie incredibili: scritti di storia nell Europa
moderna (8ologna: !l Mulino, +), Larry Silvcr, Marketing
Maximilian: Te !isual Ideology of a Holy Foman Emperor (Princcton:
Princcton Univcrsity Prcss, :oo8), +.
:o Rcincr Rcincck, Oratio de historia (Franklurt: Vcchcl, +8o), :.
:+ Rcincck, Oratio de historia, :.
:: Scc . P. Valkcr, Unclean Spirits: Possession and Exorcism in France
and England in the Late Sixteenth and Early Se.enteenth Centuries
(Philadclphia: Univcrsity ol Pcnnsylvania Prcss, +8+).
: anicl ::: (King Jamcs \crsion).
: Scc Arnaldo Momigliano, Essays on ncient and Modern Judaism, cd.
Silvia 8crti, trans. Maura MascllaGaylcy (Chicago: Univcrsity ol
Chicago Prcss, +), ch. .
: Rolcvinck, Fasciculus temporum, + rccto.
:6 Lorcnz Faust, natomia statuae Danielis (Lcpizig: Stcinmann, +8),
o. Scc thc vcry lull study by Tomas Rahn, Gcschichtsgcdachtnis am
Korpcr: Furstlichc Mcrk und Mcditationsbildcr nach dcr Vcltrcichc
Prophctic dcs :. 8uchcs anicl, in Seelenmaschinen, cd. Jorg Jochcn
8crns and Vollgang Ncubcr (\icnna: 8ohlau, :ooo), :+6+.
: Majoric Rccvcs and 8catricc HirschRcich, Te Figurae of Joachim of
Fiore (xlord: Clarcndon Prcss, +:), Rccvcs, Joachim of Fiore and
the Prophetic Future (London: SPCK, +6), 8crnard McGinn, Te
Calabrian bbot: Joachim of Fiore in the History of !estern Tought (Ncw
York: Macmillan, +8).
:8 Scc Nicholas Poppcr, Abraham, Plantcr ol Mathcmatics: Historics ol
Mathcmatics and Astrology in arly Modcrn uropc, Journal of the
History of Ideas 6 (:oo6): 8+o6.
: For grcat conjunction thcory and world history, scc Laura Smollcr,
History, Prophecy, and the Stars: the Christian strology of Pierre dilly,
:c:,:c (Princcton: Princcton Univcrsity Prcss, +). Tc story is
carricd down into thc sixtccnth ccntury by Robin 8arncs, Prophecy and
Gnosis: pocalypticism in the !ake of the Lutheran Feformation (Stanlord:
Stanlord Univcrsity Prcss, +88), and Claudia 8rosscdcr, Im Bann
der Sterne: Caspar Peucer, Philipp Melanchthon und andere !ittenberger
strologen (8crlin: Akadcmic\crlag, :oo).
o Scc Jamcs 8arr, Vhy thc Vorld Vas Crcatcd in oo 8C: Archbishop
Usshcr and 8iblical Chronology, Bulletin of the John Fylands Uni.ersity
Library of Manchester 6 (+88): 6o8.
+ on Camcron Allcn, Te Legend of Noah: Fenaissance Fationalism in
rt, Science, and Letters (+, rcpr. Urbana: Univcrsity ol !llinois Prcss,
+6), Klcmpt, Sakularisierung der uni.ersalhistorischen uassung,
Paolo Rossi, Te Dark byss of Time: the History of the Earth . the
History of Nations from Hooke to !ico, trans. Lydia Cochranc (Chicago:
Univcrsity ol Chicago Prcss, +8), ric Jorink, Het boeck der natuere:
nederlandse geleerden en de .onderen .an Gods Schepping, :::
(Lcidcn: Primavcra Pcrs, :oo6), Tijs Vcststcijn, Spino.a sinicus: An
Asian Paragraph in thc History ol thc Radical nlightcnmcnt, Journal
of the History of Ideas 68 (:oo): 6+.
:+ Notes
Chapter
Graphic Transitions
. Gcncsis ..: (King Jamcs vcrsion).
a For Tcmporarius on Romc scc H. J. rasmus, Te Origins of Fome in
Historiography from Petrarch to Peri.onius (Asscn: \an Gorcum, .6a).
Scc Arno 8orst, Te Ordering of Time: From the ncient Computus to
the Modern Computer (Cambridgc: Polity, .), and G. \. Coync, M.
A. Hoskin, and . Pcdcrscn, cds., Gregorian Feform of the Calendar
(\atican City: Pontica Acadcmia Scicntiarum, Spccola \aticana, .).
n thc voguc lor thcsc historical calcndars scc Max ngammarc,
Lordre du temps: l in.ention de la ponctualite au X!Ie sicle (Gcncva:
roz, acc).
Samucl Quicchcbcrg, Inscriptiones .el tituli theatri amplissimi (Munich:
8crg, .6), lol. 8 ij rccto, lor a modcrn cdition containing thc Latin
tcxt and a Gcrman translation scc Harrict Roth, Der nfang der
Museumslehre in Deutschland: Das Traktat Inscriptiones .el Tituli Teatri
mplissimi .on Samuel Quiccheberg (8crlin: Akadcmic, accc), ,,
translation is ours (as arc all othcrs unlcss a modcrn translation is citcd).
6 Quicchcbcrg, Inscriptiones, lol. A iij vo, Roth, nfang der Museumslehre
in Deutschland, 6,.
, Scc lor cxamplc Anthony Gralton, Rcnaissancc Historics ol Art and
Naturc, in Te rticial and the Natural: n E.ol.ing Polarity, cd.
8crnadcttc 8cnsaudc\inccnt and Villiam R. Ncwman (Cambridgc,
MA: M!T Prcss, acc,), .a.c, and Gralton, !hat !as History?
Te rt of History in Early Modern Europe (Cambridgc: Cambridgc
Univcrsity Prcss, acc,), ch. .
Nicholas Jardinc, Te Birth of History and Philosophy of Science: Keplers
Defence of Tycho against Ursus, .ith Essays on its Pro.enance and
Signicance (Cambridgc: Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss, .), Anthony
Gralton, Defenders of the Text (Cambridgc, MA: Harvard Univcrsity
Prcss, ..), ch. ,.
John Hcilbron, Te Sun in the Church: Cathedrals as Solar Obser.atories
(Cambridgc, MA: Harvard Univcrsity Prcss, .).
.c Quotcd by John Hcilbron, 8ianchini as an Astronomcr, in Francesco
Bianchini (zoo:z,:,) und die europaische gelehrte !elt um z,cc, cd.
\alcntin Kockcl and 8rigittc Solch (8crlin: Akadcmic \crlag, acc), 66.
.. Franccsco 8ianchini, La istoria uni.ersale pro.ata con monumenti e gu-
rata con simboli degli antichi, and cd. (Romc: Antonio dc Rossi, .,,), a..
.a Tamara Griggs, Univcrsal History lrom CountcrRclormation to
nlightcnmcnt, Modern Intellectual History (acc,), aa.a.
. Scc anicl Roscnbcrg, arly Modcrn !nlormation vcrload, Journal
of the History of Ideas 6, no. . (acc): ., and, in thc samc issuc, thc
articlcs by Ann 8lair, 8rian gilvic, Jonathan Shcchan, and Richard
Yco, Nocl Malcolm, Tomas Harrison and his Ark ol Studics:
An pisodc in thc History ol thc rganization ol Knowlcdgc, Te
Se.enteenth Century . (acc): .6aa.
. Vilhclm Schmidt8iggcmann, Topica uni.ersalis: Eine Modellgeschichte
humanistischer und barocker !issenschaft (Hamburg: Mcincrs, .),
onald Kcllcy, Vriting Cultural History in arly Modcrn uropc:
Christophc Milicu and His Projcct, Fenaissance Quarterly a, no.
a (Summcr .), a6, Martin Gicrl, Pietismus und ufklarung:
Teologische Polemik und die Kommunikationsreform der !issenschaft am
Ende des z,. Jahrhunderts (Gottingcn: \andcnhocck & Ruprccht, .,),
Franoisc Vaquct, cd., Mapping the !orld of Learning: the Polyhistor of
Daniel Georg Morhof (Vicsbadcn: Harrassowity, accc), Martin Mulsow,
Practiccs ol Unmasking: Polyhistors, Corrcspondcncc, and thc 8irth
ol ictionarics ol Pscudonymity in ScvcntccnthCcntury Gcrmany,
Journal of the History of Ideas 6, (acc6): a.c, Michacl Carhart,
Historia Litcraria and Cultural History lrom Mylacus to ichhorn,
in Momigliano and ntiquarianism: Foundations of the Modern Cultural
Sciences, cd. Pctcr Millcr (8ualo: Univcrsity ol Toronto Prcss, acc,),
.ac6
. Johanncs 8uno, Uni.ersae historiae cum sacrae tum profanae idea
(Franklurt and Lcipzig: Apud viduam Rcinhardi Vacchtlcri, typis
Christoph. 8alth. Lampii, .6), ...a.
.6 Scc Jan Chiapusso, 8achs Attitudc Towards History, Musical
Quarterly (.), 6..
., Scc Gcrhard Strasscr, Johanncs 8unos Mncmotcchnischc
\crlahrcn, in Seelenmaschinen: Gattungstraditionen, Funktionen und
Leistungsgren.en der Mnemotechniken .om spaten Mittelalter bis .um
Beginn der Moderne, cd. Jorg Jochcn 8crns and Vollgang Ncubcr
(\icnna: 8ohlau, accc), Gottlricd Lcibniz, Schriften und Briefe
.ur Geschichte, cd. MaltcLudoll 8abin and Gcrd van dcr Hcuvcl
(Hannovcr: Hahn, acc), 66,.
. Giambattista \ico, Ne. Science, trans. avid Marsh (London: Pcnguin,
acc.), .
. !bid., . n \icos cultural history scc Arnaldo Momigliano, \icos
Scicnza nuova: Roman 8cstioni and Roman roi, History and
Teory (.66): a, Gianlranco Cantclli, !ico e Bayle: Premesse per
un confronto (Napoli: Guida cditori, .,.), Scrgio Landucci, I loso e
i sel.aggi. z8cz,8c (8ari: Latcrza, .,a), Paolo Rossi, Te Dark byss
of Time: Te History of the Earth and the History of Nations from Hooke
to !ico, trans.Lydia G. Cochranc (Chicago: Univcrsity ol Chicago
Prcss, .), Cantclli, Mente corpo linguaggio: Saggio sull interpreta.ione
.ichiana del mito (Florcncc: La Nuova !talia, .6), Harold Stonc, !icos
Cultural History: the Production and Transmission of Ideas in Naples,
zo8z,c (Ncw York: . J. 8rill, .,).
Chapter ,
. Jacqucs 8arbcuubourg, Chronographie, ou, Description des tems: conte-
nant toute la suite des sou.erains de l uni.ers . des principaux e.enemens
de chaque siecle depuis la creation du monde jusqu present; en trente-cinq
planches gra.ees en taille-douce . reunies en une machine dun usage facile
. commode (Paris: chcz lautcur, .,), .
a Jcan Rou, Tables historiques, chronologiques, . genealogiques: contenant ce
qui sest passe de plus memorable depuis la creation du monde (Paris: chcz
lautcur, .6,a,).
Scc Jcan Rou, Memoires inedits et opuscules, cd. F. Vaddington (Paris:
Agcncc ccntralc dc la Socit pour lhistoirc du protcstantismc lranais,
.,).
Francis Tallcnts, .ie. of uni.ersal history: from the creation, to the
destruction of Jerusalem by drian, in the year of the .orld ,c8,, and
of Christ z (London: Littlcbury, ct. al., .6). n Tallcnts, scc J.
V. Ashlcy Smith, Modcrn History as Subjcct Mattcr lor Highcr
ducation: Tc Contribution ol Francis Tallcnts, Paedagogica Historica
X\ (.,): ...
Nicolas Lcnglct du Frcsnoy, Chronological tables of uni.ersal history,
sacred and profane, ecclesiastical and ci.il; from the creation of the .orld, to
the year one thousand se.en hundred and forty-three. !ith a preliminary
discourse on the short method of studying history; and a catalogue of books
necessary for that purpose; .ith some remarks on them. . . . , a vols. (London:
A. Millar, .,6a), p. vol. ., i.
6 Nicolas Lcnglct du Frcsnoy, Ne. method of studying history: recommend-
ing more easy and complete instructions for impro.ements in that science
than any hitherto extant: .ith the .hole apparatus necessary to form a
perfect historian (London: V. 8urton, .,a). First Paris cdition .,..
, !bid., i.
n thc succcss ol thc book, scc also thc dcdication to Parsonss transla
tion ol Andr Flibicns Te Tent of Darius Explaind, or, Te Queens of
Persia at the Feet of lexander (London: Villiam Rcdmaync lor thc
author, .,c).
Jcns 8irchcrod, Lumen historiae sacrae .eteris . no.i testamenti per
tabulas chronologicas (Copcnhagcn: Johannis Philippi 8ockcnhocr and
Johann Licbc, .6,).
.c Valtcr A. Goart, Tc Front Mattcr ol J. G. Hagclganss .,. tlas
historicus at thc Princcton Univcrsity Library and thc ran Laor
Cartographic Collcction, Jcrusalcm, Princeton Uni.ersity Library
Chronicle 6, no. . (acca): ..6a.
.. Girolamo Andrca Martignoni, Spiega.ione della carta istorica
dell Italia, e di una parte della Germania dalla nascita di Gesu Cristo
no all anno MDCC (Romc: Antonio dc Rossi, .,a.), Martignoni,
Explication de la carte historique de la France et de l ngleterre depuis
la naissance de Jesus-Christ jusqu l an MDCC (Romc: Antonio dc
Rossi, .,a.).
.a Jacqucs 8arbcuubourg, Chronographie uni.erselle (Paris: 8arbcu
ubourg, Lamotc, Flcury, .,), Stcphcn Fcrguson, Tc ., Carte
Chronographique ol Jacqucs 8arbcuubourg, Princeton Uni.ersity
Library Journal a, no. a (..): .cac.
. Jacqucs 8arbcuubourg, Chronographie, ou Description des temps,
contenant toute la suite des sou.erains des di.ers peuples, des principaux
e.enements de chaque sicle, et des grands hommes qui ont .ecu depuis la
creation du monde, jusqu la n du dixhuitime sicle (Paris: Paulin, .).
. Tomas Jccrys, Chart of Uni.ersal History (London: Tomas Jccrys,
n.d., ca. .,c). n thc chart itscll, Jccrys says that his work is bascd on
an carlicr Frcnch cxamplc, but wc havc not yct dctcrmincd his sourcc.
. Joscph Pricstlcy, Description of a Chart of Biography (.,6), in Te
Rutt, a vols. (London: G. Smallcld, ..,), vol. a, 6,.
.6 !bid., vol. a, ,c.
., !bid., vol. a, 6.
. !bid., vol. a, ,c.
. !bid.
ac Joscph Pricstlcy, Lectures on History and General Policy (.,), in Te
Rutt, a vols. (London: G. Smallcld, ..,), vol. a, ..
a. !bid., vol. a, .6. Vith only vcry lcw cxccptions such as thc ancicnt
poct Sappho, thc gurcs on Pricstlcys chart wcrc mcn. PicrrcNicolas
Chantrcaus Science de lhistoire: contenant le systme general des connois-
sances acquerir a.ant detudier lhistoire, et la methode sui.re quand on
se li.re ce genre detude, de.eloppee par tableaux synoptiques, vols. (Paris:
Goujon ls, .c.c6) takcs somc stcps toward thc inclusion ol womcn.
aa Joscph Pricstlcy, Description of a Ne. Chart of History (.,6), in Te
Rutt, a vols. (London: G. Smallcld, ..,), vol. a, c.
a !bid., vol. a, ..
a Pricstlcy, Lectures on History, vol. a, ..
a !bid., vol. a, c.
a6 rasmus arwin, Plan for the Conduct of Female Education (crby: J.
rcwry, .,,), a, .a., Robcrt Stcclc, A Cataloguc ol 8ooks, Cambridge
Maga.ine: or, Uni.ersal Fepository of rts, Sciences, and the Belles Letters,
no. !X (London, Scptcmbcr .,6): 6, Hcstcr Chaponc, Letters on
the Impro.ement of the Mind, ddressed to a Young Lady (London: J.
Valtcr and C. illy, .,6), ac,, Maria dgcworth and Richard Lovcll
dgcworth, Practical Education, a vols. (London: J. Johnson, .,), vol. a,
.aa.
a, Jccrys Taylor, Harrys Holiday, or the Doings of One !ho Had Nothing to
Do (London: Rcst Fcnncr, ..).
a Pricstlcy, Description of a Chart of Biography, vol. a, ,6.
a !bid., vol. a, ,,6.
c n Pricstlcys thcorics ol progrcss and thc millcnnium, scc cspc
cially Jack Fruchtman, Te pocalyptic Politics of Fichard Price and
Joseph Priestley: Study in Late Eighteenth Century English Fepublican
Millennialism (Philadclphia: Amcrican Philosophical Socicty, .),
and Clarkc Garrctt, Joscph Pricstlcy, thc Millcnnium, and thc Frcnch
Rcvolution, Journal of the History of Ideas , no. . (.,): .66.
. Pricstlcy, Description of a Chart of Biography, vol. a, ,.
a !bid., vol. a, ,.
: Notes
!bid., vol. a, a6.
!bid., vol. a, ,.
!bid., vol. a, 6.
6 !bid., vol. a, 6,.
, !bid.
Goart, Historical tlases, 8lack, Maps and History, avid Rumscy
and dith M. Punt, Cartographica Extraordinaire: Te Historical Map
Transformed (Rcdlands, CA: SR! Prcss, acc).
Abraham rtclius, Teatrum orbis terrarum (Paris: .,a), ., citcd in
Goart, Historical tlases, .. Scc also Cathcrinc Homan, La gcnsc dc
latlas historiquc cn Francc (.6c.cc): Pouvoirs ct limitcs dc la cartc
commc ocil dc lhistoirc, Bibliothque de l cole des chartes . (accc):
,.a.
c Goart, Historical tlases, .cc, .c...
. !bid., .a.
a !bid., c..
!bid., .a.
Villiam Playlair, Te Commercial and Political tlas, Fepresenting, by
Means of Stained Copper-Plate Charts, the Exports, Imports, and General
Trade of England: Te National Debt, and Other Public ccounts (London:
J. cbrctt, .,6). Scc also, Howard Vaincr, Graphic Disco.ery: Trout in
the Milk and Other !isual d.entures (Princcton: Princcton Univcrsity
Prcss, acc), , Albcrt 8idcrman, Tc Playlair nigma, Information
Design Journal 6, no. . (.c): a6, Patricia Costiganavcs, Somc
bscrvations on thc csign ol Villiam Playlairs Linc Graphics,
Information Design Journal 6, no. . (.c): a,, rica Royston,
Studics in thc History ol Probability and Statistics !!!: A Notc on thc
History ol thc Graphical Prcscntation ol ata, Biometrika , no. /
(.6): a.,, H. Gray Funkhouscr and Hclcn M. Valkcr, Playlair and
His Charts, Economic History , no. .c (.): .c.c.
Villiam Playlair, Te Commercial and Political tlas, rd cd. (London: J.
Vallis, .c.), viiiix. Citcd also in Patricia Costiganavcs and Michacl
MacdonaldRoss, Villiam Playlair (.,.a), Statistical Science , no.
(.c): a.
6 Villiam Playlair, Te Statistical Bre.iary (London: T. 8cnslcy, .c.), ..
, n thc history ol statistical graphics, in addition to thc works ol
dward Tultc (scc chap. ., n. .) and Howard Vaincr, scc anicl R.
Hcadrick, !hen Information Came of ge: Technologies of Kno.ledge
in the ge of Feason and Fe.olution, z,ccz8c (Ncw York: xlord
Univcrsity Prcss, accc), Tomas L. Hankins, 8lood, irt, and
Nomograms: A Particular History ol Graphs, Isis c (.): cc,
Jamcs R. 8cnigcr and orothy L. Robyn, Quantitativc Graphics
in Statistics: A 8ricl History, merican Statistician a, no. . (.,):
..., Laura Tilling, arly xpcrimcntal Graphs, British Journal for
the History of Science , no. c (.,): .a., H. Gray Funkhouscr,
Historical cvclopmcnt ol thc Graphical Rcprcscntation ol Statistical
ata, Osiris (.,): a6c, Michacl Fricndly and anicl J. cnis,
Milcstoncs in thc History ol Tcmatic Cartography, Statistical
Graphics, and ata \isualization, cpartmcnt ol Mathcmatics and
Statistics, York Univcrsity, http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gallcry/
milcstonc/.
n Nightingalc, scc csp. dwin V. Kopl, Florcncc Nightingalc as
Statistician, Quarterly Publications of the merican Statistical ssociation
. (cccmbcr ..6): c, Howard Vaincr, !isual Fe.elations:
Graphical Tales of Fate and Deception from Napoleon Bonaparte to Foss
Perot (Hillsdalc, NJ: Lawrcncc rlbaum, accc), scc. . n Minard, scc
csp. Arthur H. Robinson, Tc Tcmatic Maps ol Charlcs Minard,
Imago Mundi a. (.6,): .c, dward R. Tultc, Te !isual Display of
Quantitati.e Information, and cd. (Chcshirc, CT: Graphics Prcss, acc.).
n Valkcr, scc Funkhouscr, Graphical Rcprcscntation, c.
Alcxandcr Ross, Te history of the .orld: the second part, in six books, being
a continuation of the famous history of Sir !alter Faleigh (London: John
Saywcll, .6a), prclacc.
c Valtcr 8cnjamin, Tcscs on thc Philosophy ol History, in
Illuminations, cd. Hannah Arcndt, trans. Harry Zohn (Ncw York:
Schockcn, .6), a6a.
. Scc Rcinhart Koscllcck, Te Practice of Conceptual History: Timing
History, Spacing Concepts, trans. Todd Samucl Prcsncr (Stanlord:
Stanlord Univcrsity Prcss, acca), .66.
a Nicolas Ricucau and Picrrc Crpcl, Condorccts Social Mathcmatic,
A Fcw Tablcs, Social Choice and !elfare, a (acc): a, Nicolas
Ricucau, Condorcct ct lart dc lormcr dcs tablcaux historiqucs,
Mathematics and Social Sciences, .,6, no. (acc6): ..,.
Chantrcau, Science de l histoire.
Charlcs Fouricr, Te Teory of the Four Mo.ements, cd. Garcth Stcdman
Joncs and !an Pattcrson (Ncw York: Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss, .6),
.. riginally publishcd as Charlcs Fouricr, Teorie des quatre mou.emens
et des destinees generales (Lcipzig: n.p., .c), though thc original statcs
it was publishcd in Lcipzig with no publishcr givcn, it was actually
publishcd in Lyon by Pclzin.
Villiam 8cll, Descripti.e Guide to Te Stream of Time, or, General
Outline of Uni.ersal History, Chronology, and Biography, at One !ie.
(Hull: Joscph Simmons, ..a), ,.
6 8cll, Descripti.e Guide, .c.
Chapter
Fronticr Lincs
+ avid Ramsay, Historical and Biographical Chart of the United States
(Charlcston, SC: John Hobb, +8++), . n Ramsay, scc Robcrt
L. 8runhousck, avid Ramsay, ++8+: Sclcctions lrom His
Vritings, Transactions of the merican Philosophical Society, Ncw Scrics
, no. (+6): +:o.
: Philip M. Hanlcy, History of the Catholic Ladder (Faircld, VA:
Yc Gallcon Prcss, +), Kris A. Vhitc and Janicc St. Laurcnt,
Mystcrious Journcy: Tc Catholic Laddcr ol +8o, Oregon Historical
Quarterly , no. + (Spring +6): o88, Franois Norbcrt 8lanchct,
Te Key to the Catholic Ladder (Ncw York, T. V. Strong, +8). Tc
rcgon Historical Socicty in Portland and Mount Angcl Abbcy
in Mount Angcl, rcgon, both hold cxccllcnt collcctions ol thc
ninctccnthccntury laddcrs.
Tc rst lull account ol thc rcligious conict is givcn in Hubcrt
Howc 8ancrolt, History of Oregon, : vols. (San Francisco: History
Co., +88688), vol. +. Cliord Mcrrill rury, Henry Harmon Spalding
(Caldwcll, !: Caxton Printcrs, +6), rury, cd. Te Diaries and
Letters of Henry H. Spalding and sa Bo.en Smith relating to the Ne.
Perce Mission ::,: (Glcndalc, CA: Arthur H. Clark, +8),
rury, First !hite !omen O.er the Fockies; Diaries, Letters, and
Biographical Sketches of the Six !omen of the Oregon Mission !ho Made
the O.erland Journey in :& and : (Glcndalc, CA: A. H. Clark
Co., +6+66). Spalding pursucd his war ol words until his dcath in
+8 and his accusations livcd on much longcr than that. !n +o, thc
Unitcd Statcs Congrcss publishcd a collcction ol tcstimonics support
ing Spaldings accusations against 8lanchct in Letter from the Secretary
of the Interior, communicating. . . the Early Labors of the Missionaries . . .
in Oregon. . . commencing in :& (Vashington, C: Govcrnmcnt
Printing cc, +o).
8ancrolt, History of Oregon, vol. +, +::6. n thc pcdagogical
dimcnsion ol thc laddcrs, scc Charlcs . Schrcibcis, Pioneer Education
in the Pacic North.est (:,:,) (Portland, R: Mctropolitan
Prcss, +), Albcrt Furtwanglcr, Bringing Indians to the Book (Scattlc:
Univcrsity ol Vashington Prcss, :oo).
Hcnry Spalding, quotcd in 8ancrolt, History of Oregon, vol. +, 66.
6 Russcll Tornton, A Roscbud Rcscrvation Vintcr Count, circa
+++: to +886+88, Ethnohistory , no. (Fall :oo:): ::,
Tornton, A Rcport ol a Ncw Mandan Calcndric Chart, Ethnohistory
o, no. (Fall :oo): 6o.
Garrick Mallcry, Tc akota Vintcr Counts, in Pictographs of the
North merican Indians, Fourth Annual Rcport ol thc 8urcau ol
Amcrican thnology, +88:+88 (Vashington, C: Smithsonian
!nstitution, +88), 8+, Mallcry, Picture-!riting of the merican
Indians, Tcnth Annual Rcport ol thc 8urcau ol thnology, +8888
(Vashington, C: Smithsonian !nstitution, +8), :66:8.
8 Tomas Lorainc McKcnncy, History of the Indian Tribes of North
merica, : vols. (Philadclphia: . C. 8iddlc, +868), Alcxandcr
Marshack, A LunarSolar Calcndar Stick lrom North Amcrica,
merican ntiquity o, no. + (+8): :+, Marshack, North
Amcrican !ndian Calcndar Sticks: Tc vidcncc lor a Vidcly
istributcd Tradition, in !orld rchaeoastronomy, cd. A. F. Avcni (Ncw
York: Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss, +88), o8:, Robcrt H. Mcrrill,
Tc Calcndar Stick ol TshiZunHauKau, Bulletin of the Cranbrook
Institute of Science, no. : (+): +6, Paul Radin, Te !innebago Tribe
(Lincoln: Univcrsity ol Ncbraska Prcss, +o).
Marjoric Rccvcs, Joachim of Fiore and the Prophetic Future (London:
SPCK, +6). Scc also Marjoric Rccvcs and 8catricc HirschRcich, Te
Figurae of Joachim of Fiore (xlord: Clarcndon Prcss, +:).
+o n thc rclation bctwccn cschatology and progrcss in Amcrican thought
and its background, scc thc classic works ol rncst Lcc Tuvcson,
Millennium and Utopia: Study in the Background of the Idea of Progress
(8crkclcy: Univcrsity ol Calilornia Prcss, +), and Paul 8oycr, !hen
Time Shall Be No More: Prophecy Belief in Modern merican Culture
(Cambridgc, MA: Harvard Univcrsity Prcss, +:). n thc political
and cultural problcms associatcd with dating thc millcnnium, though
only with rclcrcncc to thc Middlc Agcs, scc thc cxccllcnt articlc (and
timclinc) by Richard Landcs, Lcst thc Millcnnium 8c Fulllcd,
Apocalyptic xpcctations and thc Pattcrn ol Vcstcrn Chronography,
+oo8oo C.., in Te Use and buse of Eschatology in the Middle ges,
cd. V. . F. \crbckc, . \crhclst, and A. Vclkcnhyscn (Lcuvcn,
8clgium: Lcuvcn Univcrsity Prcss, +88), +:++.
++ Villiam Millcr, !ie.s of the Prophecies and Prophetic Chronology, Selected
from manuscripts of !illiam Miller, .ith a Memoir of his Life by Joshua !.
Himes (8oston: Joshua \. Himcs, +8:).
+: avid Morgan, Protestants and Pictures: Feligion, !isual Culture, and the
ge of merican Mass Production (Ncw York: xlord Univcrsity Prcss,
+), Morgan, !isual Piety: History and Teory of Popular Feligious
Images (8crkclcy: Univcrsity ol Calilornia Prcss, +8), Ronald L.
Numbcrs and Jonathan M. 8utlcr, Te Disappointed: Millerism and
Millenarianism in the Nineteenth Century (8loomington: !ndiana
Univcrsity Prcss, +8).
+ John Grccnlcal Vhitticr, Tc Vorlds nd, in Te Prose !orks, vol. +
(Ncw York: Houghton Miin, +88o), ::6.
+ Richard Cunningham Shimcall, Te Political Economy of Prophecy (Ncw
York: John F. Trow & Co., +866).
+ dith V. sgood, Tc cvclopmcnt ol Historical Study in thc Unitcd
Statcs (Concludcd), School Fe.ie. ::, no. 8 (ctobcr ++): ++:6.
+6 Rcvicw ol thc Historical Chart, Philanthropist, August o, +8, scc also,
Christian d.ocate and Journal, Novcmbcr :, +8, 6:.
+ Marcius Villson, Te History of the United States for the Use of Schools
(Cincinnati: Villiam Moorc, +8), +.
+8 Robcrt Hcnlopcn Labbcrton, n Historical tlas Containing a
Chronological Series of One Hundred Maps, at Sucessi.e Periods, from the
Da.n of History to the Present Day (Philadclphia: Claxton, Rcmson &
Haclngcr, +8), Labbcrton, Historical Chart, or, History Taught by the
Eye (Philadclphia: Claxton, Rcmson, & Haclngcr, +8).
+ Robcrt Hcnlopcn Labbcrton, Outlines of History; .ith Original Tables,
Chronological, Genealogical and Literary (Philadclphia: Claxton, Rcmscn
: Notes
& Haclngcr, +8:), .
:o !bid., .
:+ Alcxandcr Campbcll quotcd in, Robcrt Frcdcrick Vcst, lexander
Campbell and Natural Feligion (Ncw Havcn: Yalc Univcrsity Prcss,
+8), +6+.
:: Scicncc thc Handmaid ol Rcligion, Churchmans Maga.ine , no.
(ctobcr +8:): +.
: Skctchcs ol thc Spccchcs at thc Last Vorking Mcns Mccting,
!orkingmans d.ocate +, no. (May :, +8): +.
: !bid.
: Tc Uscs ol History to thc Prcachcr, Ne. Englander ::, no. 8 (Ncw
Havcn, July +86): .
:6 Jamcs Schouldcr, Tc Spirit ol Historical Rcscarch, National
Maga.ine: Monthly Journal of merican History +, no. (Ncw York,
January +8:): .
Chapter &
A Tinkcrcrs Art
+ Stuart Shcrman, Telling Time: Clocks, Diaries, and English Diurnal Form,
:&&c: (Chicago: Univcrsity ol Chicago Prcss, +6), 8.
: Tomas Pic, n Houreglasse Contayning a Computation from the
Beginning of Time to Christ by X rticles (London: John Vollc, +),
+, Robcrt Cary, Palaeologia Chronica: Chronological ccount of ncient
Time (London: J. arby, +6), +.
Anthony Gralton, Joseph Scaliger: Study in the History of Classical
Scholarship, : vols. (xlord: Clarcndon Prcss, +8), ::+6.
dward P. Tompson, Timc, Vorkisciplinc, and !ndustrial
Capitalism, Past and Present, no. 8 (+6): 6.
n Galtons maps, scc Funkhouscr, Graphical Rcprcscntation ol
Statistical ata, . n dmund Hallcys +686 map ol thc tradc
winds, scc Arthur H. Robinson, Early Tematic Mapping in the History of
Cartography (Chicago: Univcrsity ol Chicago Prcss, +8:), 6, o+.
6 n thc systcm uscd by thc Marconi Tclcgraph Company, scc
Funkhouscr, Statistical Graphics, o8. Scc also, ticnncJulcs Marcy,
Du mou.ement dans les fonctions de la .ie (Paris: Gcrmcr 8aillirc, +868),
Marcy, Mo.ement, trans. ric Pritchard (London: V. Hcincmann,
+8), .
Stcphcn Kcrn, Te Culture of Space and Time: :c:,: (Cambridgc,
MA: Harvard Univcrsity Prcss), 666.
8 Scientic merican Feference Book, : vols. (Ncw York: Munn, ++), +:+o.
ticnncJulcs Marcy, La Methode graphique dans les sciences experi-
mentales (Paris: G. Masson, +88), Marcy, Du mou.ement, Franois
agognct, tienne-Jules Marey: Passion for the Trace, trans. Robcrt
Galcta (Ncw York: Zonc 8ooks, +:), Mary Ann oanc, Te
Emergence of Cinematic Time: Modernity, Contingency, the rchi.e
(Cambridgc, MA: Harvard Univcrsity Prcss, :oo:).
+o AntoincFranois \inccnt and Gcorgcs Claudc Goion, Memoire
articielle des principes relatifs la delle representation des animaux, tant
en peinture quen sculpture. Premire partie concernant le che.al...Ou.rage
egalement interessant pour les personnes qui se destinent l art de monter
che.al (Paris: \vc. \alatLaChapcllc, +).
++ Marcy, Mo.ement, :.
+: Laura Tilling, arly xpcrimcntal Graphs, British Journal for the History
of Science 8, no. o (+): +6, J. A. 8cnnctt, Te Mathematical Science
of Christopher !ren (Ncw York: Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss, +8), scc
also, H. . Go, L. A. Gcddcs, and Rogcr Guillcmin, Tc Ancmograph
ol nscn8ray: An arly ScllRcgistcring Prcdcccssor to thc
Kymograph, Journal of the History of Medicine +:, no. (ctobcr +):
:8.
+ Vaincr, Graphic Disco.ery, 8, 8idcrman, Tc Playlair nigma,
:6.
+ Jody Roscn, Rcscarchcrs Play Tunc Rccordcd 8clorc dison, Ne.
York Times, March :, :oo8.
+ Today, with thc assistancc ol computcrs, phonautographs, too, can bc
playcd. Scc Tomas L. Hankins and Robcrt J. Silvcrman, Instruments
and the Imagination (Princcton: Princcton Univcrsity Prcss, +),
+, Jonathan Stcrnc, Te udible Past: Cultural Origins of Sound
Feproduction (urham, NC: ukc Univcrsity Prcss, :oo:), +.
+6 Larry A. \iskochil, Chicagos 8iccntcnnial Photographcr: Charlcs
. Moshcr, Chicago History , no. : (Summcr +6): +o, Hcinz
K. Hcnisch and 8ridgct A. Hcnisch, Te Photographic Experience,
:,:,:,: Images and ttitudes (Univcrsity Park, PA: Pcnnsylvania
Statc Univcrsity Prcss, +), +8+.
+ Kcrn, Culture of Time and Space, :+.
+8 Ann Tomas, Capturing Light: Photographing thc Univcrsc, in
Beauty of nother Order: Photography in Science, cd. Ann Tomas (Ncw
Havcn, CT: Yalc Univcrsity Prcss, +8), +:.
+ Rcvclation 6:+ (King Jamcs \crsion).
:o n cightccnth and ninctccnthccntury visual cducation and
cducational dcviccs, scc cspccially, 8arbara Staord, rtful Science:
Enlightenment Entertainment and the Eclipse of !isual Education
(Cambridgc, MA: M!T Prcss, +6), 8arbara Staord and Franccs
Tcrpak, De.ices of !onder: From the !orld in a Box to Images on a Screen
(Los Angclcs: Gctty Publications, :oo+), Jonathan Crary, Techniques
of the Obser.er: On !ision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century
(Cambridgc, MA: M!T Prcss, +o). n thc usc ol such apparatus
in Amcrican schools, scc cborah Jcan Varncr, Commoditics in
thc Classroom: Apparatus lor Scicncc and ducation in Antcbcllum
Amcrica, nnals of Science (+88): 8.
:+ anicl Roscnbcrg, An ightccnth Ccntury Timc Machinc: Tc
Encyclopedia ol idcrot, in Postmodernism and the Enlightenment: Ne.
Perspecti.es in Eighteenth-Century French Intellectual History, cd. anicl
Gordon (Ncw York: Routlcdgc, :oo+), 66.
:: Samucl L. Clcmcns to Unitcd Statcs Patcnt cc, ctobcr +88,
Unitcd Statcs National Archivcs.
: !bid.
: Mark Twain, Mark Twains Mcmory8uildcr, rcvcrsc.
: !bid.
:6 !bid.
: mma Villard, Guide to the Temple of Time; and Uni.ersal History for
Schools (Ncw York: A. S. 8arncs, +8o), and Villard, Uni.ersal History
in Perspecti.e (Ncw York: A. S. 8arncs, +8). n Villard, scc also
Susan Schultcn, mma Villard and thc Graphic Foundations ol
Amcrican History,Journal of Historical Geography , no. ( July :oo):
:6.
:8 Antoni Jawiski, Methode polonaise appliquee la chronologie, l histoire,
la geographie.... (Lyon: J.M. 8oursy, +8:), Jzcl 8cm, Methode mne-
monique polonaise perfectionnee Paris (Paris: Librairic Polonaisc, +88),
lizabcth Palmcr Pcabody, Te Polish-merican System of Chronology,
Feproduced, .ith Some Modications, from General Bems Franco-Polish
Method (8oston: G. P. Putnam, +8o), Pcabody, Chronological History
of the United States, rranged .ith Plates on Bems Principle (Ncw York:
Shcldon, 8lakcman, +86), Napolon Fcliks Zaba, La methode de N.
F. de Zaba pour faciliter l etude de l histoire uni.erselle.... (Montrcal: M.
Magnus, +8), Nclson Lovcrin, Lo.erins Historical Centograph and
Slate: also, a Description of the Chart of Time .ith Key (Montrcal: .
8cntlcy, +86).
: lizabcth Palmcr Pcabody, A Mcthod ol Laying thc Foundation
ol History, District School Journal of the State of Ne. York +:, no.
++ (March +8:): ++:. Scc also, Pcabody, Letters of Eli.abeth
Palmer Peabody, merican Fenaissance !oman, cd. 8rucc A. Ronda
(Middlctown, CT: Vcslcyan Univcrsity Prcss, +8), :o. Scc
also, 8rucc A. Ronda, Eli.abeth Palmer Peabody: Feformer on Her
O.n Terms (Cambridgc, MA: Harvard Univcrsity Prcss, +),
::6+, Nina 8aym, Tc Ann Sistcrs: lizabcth Pcabodys Millcnnial
Historicism, merican Literary History , no. + (Spring ++): :.
o John Milton Grcgory, Te Hand-Book of History and Chronology...dapted to
ccompany the Map of Time (Chicago: Adams, 8lackmcr & Lyon, +86), vii.
+ !da P. Vhitcomb, Students Topical History Chart from the Creation to the
Present Time (Ncw York: A. S. 8arncs, +88), prclacc, n.p.
: Mark Twain, How to Makc History atcs Stick, Harpers Monthly
Maga.ine +o: (cccmbcr ++): +.
Twain, How to Makc History atcs Stick, .
!bid,++.
!bid, .
: Notes
Chapter
utsidc and !nsidc
Epigraph Jamcs lkins, Art History and !magcs that Arc Not Art, rt
Bulletin , no. (cccmbcr +), .
+ Jamcs lkins, Te Domain of Images (!thaca: Corncll Univcrsity Prcss,
+).
: John Sparks, Te Histomap: Four Tousand Years of !orld History, Felati.e
Po.er of Contemporary States, Nations, and Empires (Chicago: Histomap,
!nc. and Rand McNally, ++).
Annc Sparks Glanz and Jacqui Glanz (daughtcr and granddaughtcr ol
John Sparks), intcrvicw with author, March :o, :oo8.
Allrcd North Vhitchcad, Tc Aims ol ducation, in Te ims of
Education . Other Essays (Ncw York: Macmillan, +:), +:.
Hcrbcrt Spcnccr, Te Study of Sociology (Ncw York: . Applcton & Co.,
+o), ::.
6 John Sparks, Histomap of Feligion: Te Story of Mans Search for Spiritual
Unity (Chicago: Rand McNally, +), Sparks, Histomap of E.olution:
Earth, Life and Mankind for Ten Tousand Million Years (Chicago:
Histomap, !nc., +:).
Allrcd H. 8arr Jr., Cubism and bstract rt (Ncw York: Muscum ol
Modcrn Art, +6).
8 Paul Ligcti, Der !eg aus dem Chaos: Eine Deutung des !eltgeschehens aus
dem Fhythmus der Kunstent.icklung, (Munich: Gcorg . V. Callwcy,
++).
ric Ncwton, European Painting and Sculpture (Ncw York: Pcnguin,
+:).
+o A. Frdo Sids, untitlcd diagram ol thc dcvclopmcnt ol nongurativc
art in Fealites Nou.elles (Paris: n.p., +8).
++ !sidorc !sou, Introduction une nou.elle poesie et une nou.elle musique
(Paris: Gallimard, +), . Scc also avid V. Scaman, Frcnch
Lettrismeiscontinuity and thc Naturc ol thc AvantGardc, in
Discontinuity and Fragmentation, cd. Frccman G. Hcnry (Amstcrdam:
Rodopi, +), +o.
+: Gordon Moorc, Cramming Morc Componcnts onto !ntcgratcd
Circuits, Electronics 8, no. 8 (April +, +6): +++.
+ Ray Kurzwcil, Tc Law ol Accclcrating Rcturns, KurzwcilA!.nct,
http://www.kurzwcilai.nct/articlcs/arto+.html.
+ Astrit Schmidt8urkhardt, Maciunas Learning Machines: From rt
History to a Chronology of Fluxus (ctroit: Gilbcrt and Lila Silvcrman
Fluxus Collcction and \icc \crsa, :oo).
+ Schmidt8urkhardt, Maciunas Learning Machines, +8.
+6 Sincc thcn, thc chronographic gcsturc has bccn dcvclopcd by artists
including avid iao, Pctcr avics, and Manucl campo. Astrit
Schmidt8urkhardt, Stammbaume der Kunst: .ur Genealogie der
.antgard (8crlin: Akadcmic, :oo).
+ John Cagc, Imaginary Landscape No. , for ny ,: Phonograph Fecords
(Ncw York: Hcnmar Prcss, +6+).
Chapter
8ig Timc
+ Sarah Fanclli, Tate rtist Timeline (London: Tatc Modcrn, :oo6).
: Manly M. Gillam, Lcttcr to Unitcd Statcs Patcnt cc, 8 Junc +8:,
Unitcd Statcs National Archivcs.
Scc thc rich account in cnis Fccncy, Caesars Calendar: ncient Time
and the Beginnings of History (8crkclcy and Los Angclcs: Univcrsity ol
Calilornia Prcss, :oo).
Larry Silvcr, Marketing Maximilian: Te !isual Ideology of a Holy Foman
Emperor (Princcton: Princcton Univcrsity Prcss, :oo8).
Alcx SoojungKim Pang, ld Vinc lor Ncw 8ottlcs: Making thc
Britannica CD Multimcdia Timcs, Human IT: Tidskrify for studier a.
IT ur ett human.etenskapligt perspekti. (+), http://www.hb.sc/bhs/
ith/+/askp.htm. Scc also anicl Roscnbcrg, lcctronic Mcmory,
in Histories of the Future, cd. anicl Roscnbcrg and Susan Harding
(urham: ukc Univcrsity Prcss, :oo), +::.
8cncdict, Philip. Graphic History: Te !ars, Massacres and Troubles of Tortorel
and Perrissin. Gcncva: roz, :oo.
8izzocchi, Robcrto. Genealogie incredibili: Scritti di storia nell Europa moderna.
8ologna: !l Mulino, +.
8lack, Jcrcmy. Maps and History: Constructing Images of the Past. Ncw Havcn:
Yalc Univcrsity Prcss, +.
aston, Lorrainc, and Pctcr Galison. Objecti.ity. Ncw York: Zonc 8ooks, :oo.
lkins, Jamcs. Te Domain of Images. !thaca: Corncll Univcrsity Prcss, +.
Funkhouscr, H. Gray. Historical cvclopmcnt ol thc Graphical
Rcprcscntation ol Statistical ata, Osiris (+): :6o.
Goart, Valtcr A. Historical tlases: Te First Tree Hundred Years, :c:c.
Chicago: Univcrsity ol Chicago Prcss, :oo.
Gralton, Anthony, and Mcgan Villiams. Christianity and the Transformation
of the Book: Origen, Eusebius and the Library of Caesarea. Cambridgc,
MA: Harvard Univcrsity Prcss, :oo6.
Hcadrick, anicl. !hen Information Came of ge: Technologies of Kno.ledge
in the ge of Feason and Fe.olution, :cc:c. Ncw York: xlord
Univcrsity Prcss, :ooo.
KlapischZubcr, Christianc. Larbre des familles. Paris: ditions dc la
Martinirc, :oo.
Koscllcck, Rcinhart. Te Practice of Conceptual History: Timing History, Spacing
Concepts. Translatcd by Todd Samucl Prcsncr. Stanlord: Stanlord
Univcrsity Prcss, :oo:.
Lako, Gcorgc, and Mark Johnson. Philosophy in the Flesh: Te Embodied
Mind and its Challenge to !estern Tought. Ncw York: 8asic 8ooks, +.
Lynch, Michacl, and Stcvc Voolgar, cds. Fepresentation in Scientic Practice.
Cambridgc, MA: M!T Prcss, +o.
Marcy, ticnncJulcs. La Methode graphique dans les sciences experimentales.
Paris: G. Masson, +88.
McKittcrick, Rosamond. Perceptions of the Past in the Early Middle ges. Notrc
amc: Univcrsity ol Notrc amc Prcss, :oo6.
Mitchcll, V. J. T., cd. Te Language of Images. Chicago: Univcrsity ol Chicago
Prcss, +8o.
Morgan, avid. Protestants and Pictures: Feligion, !isual Culture, and the ge of
merican Mass Production. Ncw York: xlord Univcrsity Prcss, +.
Rccvcs, Marjoric. Joachim of Fiore and the Prophetic Future. London: SPCK,
+6.
Robinson, Arthur Howard. Early Tematic Mapping in the History of
Cartography. Chicago: Univcrsity ol Chicago Prcss, +8:.
Roscnbcrg, anicl, and Susan Harding, cd. Histories of the Future. urham:
ukc Univcrsity Prcss, :oo.
Sca, Alcssandro. Mapping Paradise: History of Hea.en on Earth. Chicago:
Univcrsity ol Chicago Prcss, :oo6.
Schmidt8urkhardt, Astrit. Stammbaume der Kunst: .ur Genealogie der
.antgard. 8crlin: Akadcmic, :oo.
Stcincr, 8cnjamin. Die Ordnung der Geschichte: Historische Tabellen.erke in der
Fruhen Neu.eit. Colognc: 8ohlau, :oo8.
Tapar, Romila. History and Beyond. Ncw York: xlord Univcrsity Prcss,
:ooo.
Tultc, dward. Beautiful E.idence. Chcshirc, CT: Graphics Prcss, :oo6.
. Te !isual Display of Quantitati.e Information. Chcshirc, CT:
Graphics Prcss, :oo+.
Vaincr, Howard. Graphic Disco.ery: Trout in the Milk and Other !isual
d.entures. Princcton: Princcton Univcrsity Prcss, :oo.
Vhitc, Haydcn. Te Content of the Form: Narrati.e Discourse and Historical
Fepresentation. 8altimorc: John Hopkins Univcrsity Prcss, +8.
Zcrubavcl, viatar. Time Maps: Collecti.e Memory and the Social Shape of the
Past. Chicago: Univcrsity ol Chicago Prcss, :oo.
Sclcctcd 8ibliography
: Selected Bibliography
All imagcs arc thc authors unlcss othcrwisc notcd.
Frontispiccc, courtcsy ol 8urkc Library, Union Tcological Scminary
Chapter :
Timc in Print
|23| Annals ol St. Gall. Ms. +, S. +6, S. +. Stiltsbibliotck St.
Gallcn. Courtcsy ol Stiltsbibliotck St. Gallcn.
|4| Marmor Parium (:6/ ncv). Courtcsy ol thc Ashmolcan Muscum,
xlord.
|56| uscbius, Chronicle. Codcx xon. Mcrton +6, l6+v, l6:r.
Courtcsy ol thc Vardcn and Fcllows ol Mcrton Collcgc xlord.
|79| Courtcsy ol thc cpartmcnt ol Rarc 8ooks and Spccial
Collcctions, Princcton Univcrsity Library
|10| Courtcsy ol thc Amcrican Muscum ol Natural History
|11| Courtcsy ol thc 8ibliothquc nationalc dc Francc
|12| Charlcs Rcnouvicr, Uchronie (Paris: 8urcau dc la Critiquc
Philosophiquc, +86).
|14| Courtcsy ol thc Long Now Foundation
Chapter :
Timc Tablcs
|1418| Courtcsy ol thc Houghton Library, Harvard
|31| Courtcsy ol 8urkc Library, Union Tcological Scminary
|4344| Courtcsy ol Marquand Library, Princcton Univcrsity
|54| xlord MS. :a, Corpus Christi Collcgc, l. v. 8y pcrmission ol
thc Prcsidcnt and Fcllows ol Corpus Christi Collcgc, xlord.
|55| xlord MS. :a, Corpus Christi Collcgc, l. ++r. 8y pcrmission ol
thc Prcsidcnt and Fcllows ol Corpus Christi Collcgc, xlord.
|72| Courtcsy ol thc Abtcilung lur Altc ruckc, Zcntralbibliothck,
Zurich
|75| Courtcsy ol Pcnrosc Library, Vhitman Collcgc
Crcdits
Cartographies of Time :6o
Chapter
Graphic Transitions
|1| 8y pcrmission ol Tc Huntington Library, San Marino, Calilornia
|2224| Courtcsy ol thc Cotscn Childrcns Library, Princcton
Univcrsity Library
Chapter ,
|1| Courtcsy, Tc Vintcrthur Library: Printcd 8ook and Pcriodical
Collcction
|2| Courtcsy ol 8cincckc Rarc 8ook and Manuscript Library, Yalc
Univcrsity
|89| 8y pcrmission ol Tc Huntington Library, San Marino,
Calilornia
|1017| Courtcsy ol cpartmcnt ol Rarc 8ooks and Spccial
|18| Courtcsy ol thc 8ritish Library
|21| Courtcsy ol Cotscn Childrcns Collcction, cpartmcnt ol Rarc
8ooks and Spccial Collcctions, Princcton Univcrsity Library
|29| Courtcsy ol thc Univcrsity ol rcgon Library
|45| Courtcsy ol Cotscn Childrcns Collcction, cpartmcnt ol Rarc
|46| Courtcsy ol thc Amcrican Philosophical Socicty
|47| Courtcsy ol thc Amcrican Antiquarian Socicty
Chapter
Fronticr Lincs
|1| Tomas Jccrson Papcrs. Scrics !. Gcncral Corrcspondcncc +6+
+8:. Courtcsy ol thc Library ol Congrcss.
|2| Courtcsy ol thc Amcrican Philosophical Socicty
|3| rHi 8+. Courtcsy ol thc rcgon Historical Socicty.
|4| c Smctiana Collcction, Jcsuit Missouri Provincc Archivcs, St.
Louis !XC6. Courtcsy ol thc Midwcst Jcsuit Archivcs.
|5| rHi 88. Courtcsy ol thc rcgon Historical Socicty.
|810| Courtcsy ol cpartmcnt ol Rarc 8ooks and Spccial Collcctions,
Princcton Univcrsity Library
|18| Uscd with pcrmission ol thc Rcv. Clarcncc Larkin statc, P..
8ox , Glcnsidc, PA +o8, U.S.A., :+6o
|25| \an Pcltictrich Library, Univcrsity ol Pcnnsylvania Librarics
Chapter &
A Tinkcrcrs Art
|2| Francis Galton, Meteorographica, or Methods of Mapping the !eather
(London: Macmillan, +86).
|3| Rcproduccd lrom John 8ooth and Scan Coughlan, TitanicSignals
of Disaster (Vcstbury, UK: Vhitc Star Publications, +).
:6+ Credits
|1819| Courtcsy ol Cotscn Childrcns Library, cpartmcnt ol Rarc
|2022| Courtcsy ol thc National Archivcs
|23| Courtcsy ol Cotscn Childrcns Library, cpartmcnt ol Rarc 8ooks
and Spccial Collcctions, Princcton Univcrsity Library
|33| Gcncral Rcscarch ivision, Tc Ncw York Public Library, Astor,
Lcnox and Tildcn Foundations
|39| \an Pcltictrich Library, Univcrsity ol Pcnnsylvania Librarics
Chapter
utsidc and !nsidc
|12| Photo: Norman McGrath. Courtcsy Maya Lin Studio.
|3| Gatcs ol Timc at thc klahoma City National Mcmorial. +.
Photo: Ann Clark. klahoma City National Mcmorial Muscum,
klahoma City, K.
|45| Photo Jim Simmons, Anncttc dcl Zoppo Studio. Courtcsy ol
Shcila Lcvrant dc 8rcttcvillc and Jim Simmons.
|6| Courtcsy ol Christoph Fink
|78| Courtcsy ol Katic Lcwis and Mina rcsdcn Gallcry, San
Francisco
|9| Courtcsy ol Marjolijn ijkman
|10| Huang Yong Ping. Carte du monde. :ooo:oo. Map mountcd on
wood, globc. 6oo x +oo x oo cm. xhibition \icw: Huang Yong Ping,
Ping Pong, Astrup Fcarnlcy Muscum, slo, :oo8. Copyright Huang
Yong Ping. Courtcsy ol thc artist and Gladstonc Gallcry.
|1112| 8cincckc Rarc 8ook and Manuscript Library, Yalc Univcrsity.
Courtcsy ol thc Glanz Family Trust.
|13| Courtcsy ol 8cincckc Rarc 8ook and Manuscript Library, Yalc
Univcrsity
|16| Courtcsy ol thc Marquand Library, Princcton Univcrsity
|17| Courtcsy ol Callwcy \crlag
|18| Art History Chart takcn lrom European Painting and Sculpture by
ric Ncwton (Pcnguin 8ooks ++). Copyright by thc statc ol ric
Ncwton, ++. Rcproduccd by pcrmission ol Pcnguin 8ooks Ltd.
|19| Archivcs du salon dcs Ralits Nouvcllcs
|20| Courtcsy ol ditions Gallimard
|22| Courtcsy ol Raymond Locwy csign LLC. Raymond Locwy is
a tradcmark ol Locwy csign LLC. www.RaymondLocwy.com
|23| Courtcsy ol 8auhausArchiv, 8crlin
|24| Pockct watch owncd by Kcngo Nikawa. onatcd by Kazuo
Nikawa. Courtcsy ol thc Hiroshima Pcacc Mcmorial.
|25| Courtcsy ol thc Bulletin of the tomic Scientists ....thebulletin.org
|2627| Courtcsy ol thc statc ol R. 8uckminstcr Fullcr
|28| Courtcsy ol !ntcl Corporation
|29| Courtcsy ol Ray Kurzwcil
|34| Rcproduccd with pcrmission ol thc Tcmcrson Archivc
Chapter
8ig Timc
|13| Courtcsy ol thc Amcrican Muscum ol Natural History
|45| Courtcsy ol thc Mctropolitan Muscum ol Art
|6| Tatc, London, :oo
|8| cpartmcnt ol Rarc 8ooks and Spccial Collcctions, Princcton
Univcrsity Library
|9| Maximilians Triumphal rch: !oodcuts by lbrecht Durer and Others
(Ncw York: ovcr Publications, +:). Courtcsy ovcr Publications.
Cartographies of Time :6:
!ndcx
A
Abraham, ., .,
Acadians, .c.
accordion books, ..a, zz:z
ccount of the most important and interesting religious
e.ents .hich ha.e transpired from the commencement
of the Christian era to the present (8arbcr), z,,
accuracy, .a, .6
ancicnt, .6
Annius ol \itcrbo and, , ,
astronomy and, ,., ,, .a
8uno and, c
dating systcms and, ., .c
uscbius and,
gcncalogical trccs and, 6, , ,o,,, , a
Hclwig and, ,8,,
imaging tcchnology and, a.
incrcascd tablc complcxity and, a, ,
Jcsus Christ and,
ncw passion lor, .,, .
Phrygio and, ,
Pricstlcy and, ., .c
puzzlcs and, .
Scaligcr and, 6
scribal instructions and, c, a
tcchnology and, a
thoroughncss and, ,.
Tolosani and, o:, 6
typographic grids and, c, a
Acts, 8iblc 8ook ol,
Adam, :, , 88, .,
Adams, Scbastian C., .,a, z,,,, .,,, .
Advcntists, zo, .6,
Ahab, a.
Alcxandcr thc Grcat, oc, 6a, ..
Alcxandcr \!, Popc, , ,,
Alcxandria, a6
Allrcd thc Grcat,
Algonquins, .c.
lmagestum no.um (Ncw almagcst) (Riccioli), 6,
Alstcd, Johann Hcinrich, oc, 6., ,, 8,,
Altdorl Acadcmy,
mbrose Instructs a Blackfeet Chief .ith the Ladder
(Nicolas Point), z
Amcrican 8oard ol Commissioncrs lor Forcign
Missions, ..
Amcrican Ccntcnnial, .
Amcrican conomic Association, .
Amcrican Historical Association, .,,
Amcrican Muscum ol Natural History, :z, a, :,
Amcrican Statistical Association, .
Amcricas, .,, a, .c
analog clocks, .
natomia statuae Daanielis (An anatomy ol anicls
statuc) (Faust), z, , ,, 6, a.,
nnals of St. Gall, ...a, z:
nnals of the Old Testament (Usshcr), o,
Annius ol \itcrbo, , ,,,, , 6
Ant Farm, a
Apianus, Pctrus, ocoz, ,c, , 6
Apocalypsc, .., ,, .c, .,
8oulcasc and, a
oomsday Clock and, , aa,, ::8:,
Mcdc and, ., z8,
Millcrism and, zoc, .6., zozo:
Schcdcl and, c, ,:,
archacology, ,6, , 8o
architccturc, 8c8z, a
Ariadnc, ,6
Arp, aa
art
art history courscs and, aaa
8auhaus, aa,, ::,
cartoons and, aa, ::o, aa,
cubism and, a., aaa
ada, aaa, ::, aa, a
Fluxus, a., ::, a, :
gcncalogical trccs and, aa
gcomctric, aa
Mctropolitan Muscum ol Art and, aaa,
a, :,,c
modcrnism and, a., aaa, aa, ::o, aa,
Muscum ol Modcrn Art (MoMA) and,
a., aaa
music and, a, :,, a
public chronology displays and, a.c,
scalc and, a., a
timclincs lor, aaaa,, a
:6 Index
8aylc, Picrrc, ,,
8cll, Villiam, ., z,,, .,, .
8cm, Jzcl, ac, ac6, ac
8cnjamin, Valtcr, .c
8crgson, Hcnri, a
8crlincr, milc, .
8ianchini, Franccsco, 8:8, , 8o, ,,
8iblc, .6, a.
Acts,
Apocalypsc and, c, , (see also Apocalypsc)
codcx and, .
contcmporarics ol, a6
Crcation and, (see also Crcation)
anicl and, a, , ,, 6
doubting ol, , 6, 6, a,
uscbius and, a6
Gardcn ol dcn and, .c
gcncalogical trccs and, ., :, ,, 6, ,,, ,
cz, ,z, .c
Gcncsis, 6, 8, , 6,.
Grcck tcxt ol, 6, ,
Hcbrcw tcxt ol, a6, 6,
Hexapla and, a6
!saiah, .
Jcrcmiah, a6
Jcwish xodus and, c
Livys history and, a
marginal dating and, ooo,
Moscs and, ,,
Ncw Tcstamcnt and, , ,, ,
Noah and, ., :, , (see also Noah)
ld Tcstamcnt and, ., , ,, ,
Pctcr ol Poiticrs and, .
postood population growth and, ,c,.
Rcvclation trccs c, ,:, (see also Rcvclation,
8iblc 8ook ol )
Salmanassar and, 6
Sodom and Gomorrah and, 8
translitcration and, a6
\crmont, z,o
8ichat, Mari Franois Xavicr, .
8irchcrod, Jcns, .cc, .c, zczc,
Birds of merica (Audubon), a.
8isticci, \cspasiano da, .6, a,
8izzochi, Robcrto, .
8lanchct, Franois Norbcrt, .c., z, .,, .
8loch, Jacob, ., :cc, aca
8odin, Jcan, 6, ,
8orgcs, Jorgc Luis, ...a
8ostwick, Hcnry, zo8o,
8oulacsc, Jcan, a, , , ,, ..
utilitarianism and, a.c
Asscnsio, Francisco, a, :,o
Assyria, ., a6, a
astrology, , 6a
stronomicum Caesareum (Apianus), 6a
astronomy, ., , o, z,
accuracy and, ,., ,, .a
Apianus and, ocoz, ,c, , 6
architcctural timclinc lor, 8c8z, a
8abylon and, 6a, 8c8z
Csar and, .
Copcrnicus and, 6, 8c8z, a, , .
cclipscs, .,, 6a, o:, .
Kcplcr and, 8c8z, .a, 8,
Ptolcmy and, a
rcvcalcd knowlcdgc and, .a
tlas classica (Finlcy), z:
tlas historicus (Historical atlas) (Hagclgans), .c,
zcozc,
tlas historicus (Historical atlas) (Hasc), .a
tlas historique (Historical atlas) (Chtclain), .a
tlas Lesage (Las Cascs), .a
tlas of Mo.ements (Fink), :z:
tlas .ur Ubersicht der Geschichte aller europaischen
Staaten (Survcy atlas ol thc history ol all thc
uropcan statcs) (Krusc), .a
Attila thc Hun, ,,
Audubon, John Jamcs, a.
August !, King ol Saxony, 6
Augustus, ., a, a., a
8
8abylon
astronomy and, 6a, 8c8z
gcncalogical trccs and, 6
human invcntions and, .
prophccy ol anicl and,
8acon, Francis, .
8arbcr, John Varncr, z,,, ., a.
8arbcuubourg, Jacqucs, a., 6, ..a, zz, .6, .,
bar charts, ,c, ,:, a6
8ardus, ,,
8arkcr, V. H., z:,
8arr, Allrcd H., Jr., a., aaa, ::, aa, a
8attlc ol Gaugamcla, oc, 6a
8attlc ol Vhitc Mountain,
batwing charts, ., z8
8auhaus, aa,, ::,
8ayard, Picrrc, ,
8rahc, Tycho, 8c8z, a
8raquc, aa
8rcucr, Marccl, aa,, ::,
8ritish Library, ..6
8rown, Carlcton, a., ::c:z
8runo, Giordano,
8ry, Tcodorc dc, .,
8udovcc z 8udova, \clav, 8, , ,
Bulletin of the tomic Scientists, , aa,, ::8:,
8uno, Johanncs, c, 8,,c, ,:,
8urcau ol thnology, .
C
caduccus, ,
Cagc, John, a, :,, a
Calendarium historicum (Historical calcndar) (bcr),
,, ,,,
calcndars, .,
Catholic, ., z,
Crcation and, .,, ,, ,,
Funck and, ,
Protcstant, .,, ., z,
Roman, ac.
thirtccnth month and, .
calcndar sticks, ., z8
Calendrier positi.iste (Comtc), ., z,
Californian (ship), .
Calvinism, 6., 6, z
Cambridgc Univcrsity, ,
Cambridge Maga.ine, .a
Canada, .c.
Carcy, Villiam, .,,
Carpathia (ship), .., .
Carroll, Lcwis, ac6, :co
Carte du Monde (Huang), :zo
Carte gurati.e des pertes succesi.es en hommes de
l armee franaise dans la campagne de Fussie
z8z:z8z (Minard), ::, a
cartoons, aa, ::o, aa,
Caspari, Arthus C., ::
Cassiodorus, a6
Catholic Ladder, .., z,o, .,, .
Cccrops, ., z,
ccnsus, .
Centenary Game (Klobassa), ., z,8
Ccntcnnial xhibition in Chicago, .
Ccntral Park, a
Czannc, aaa, aa
Chaldca,
Chantrcau, PicrrcNicolas, z,z, ..a
tcchnology and, .
Tolosani and, 6a6
typographic grid ol, c, a
updating on, a,
various cditions ol, a,a, :8:,
Chronicum (Chroniclc) (Phrygio),
Chronographia (Codomann), ,z
chronographic machinc, ..a, zz:z
Chronographie uni.erselle (Univcrsal chronography)
(8arbcuubourg), ..a, a.
Chronologia (Funck), 6
Chronologia (Riccioli), 6,, o8
Chronological, Historical, and Biographical Chart,
(od and od), z,
Chronological Chart of ncient, Modern, and Biblical
History, (Adams), z,o,,, .
Chronological Chart of the !isions of Daniel and John,
(Millcr), zocoz, .6a
Chronological Skeleton Chart, ., :cc, aca
Chronological tables of Europe: from the Nati.ity of
Our Sa.iour to the Year z,c (Parsons), zc:
Chronological Treasury (Alstcd), oc
Chronologie des rois de France (Asscnsio), :,o
Chronologie uni.ersell (8arbcuubourg), a., ..a,
zz:z
chronology
ancicnt distancc and, .6
annals and, ..
astrological prcdictions and, , 6a
astronomy and, .,, ., 6, ,c
8iblical, ., :, ,, 6 (see also 8iblc)
chcckcrboard lormat and, ,,
chroniclcs and, ..
Clio and, 6
clocks and, ., .c, .,, aa, aa,, ::8:,
common visual vocabulary lor, .ac
contcmporarics and, a6
coordinatc systcm lor, :
ol culturc, ,, 8,88, c,
dcclinc ol acadcmic, ., .c.
cightccnthccntury mcthods ol,
as cyc ol history, 6
gamcs and, .
gcography and, 6
historiography on, ...
hourglass and, .c
intcrnct and, a6
Jcsus Christ and,
lack ol Vcstcrn scholarship on, ..
lincarity and, ac
Charlcs !, 6a
Charlcs \, ,8,,
Charlcs Villiam cacon and Company, .,
Chart Dra.ing Instrument (Moycr), :cc
Chart Illustrating the Course of Empire from the
Earliest Fecords, Sacred and Profane, Do.n to
the Present Time, (Shimcall), zo
Chart of Biography, (Pricslcy), z8, aca., ..6.,,
zz8z,, .aaa, .aa6, .c, .6,, a, :,
Chart of the seasonal a.ailability of produce in
the .egetable markets of !ashington, D.C.
(Anonymous), zz
Chart of Uni.ersal History, ( Jccrys), ..a.,
zz,z, ..6
charts
art and, a.c,
batwing, ., z8
cartoons and, aa, ::o, aa,
nc cngraving and, ,, ,8,,
lack ol scholarship on, .c
Marconi, .., z8:8
Millcritc, 6a, zocoz, .6., zo:
ncw ninctccnthccntury lormats lor, .6,
.,a,
North Amcrican lormats and, .c., z:o,
.,
Pricstlcy and, z8, ac, ..6.,, zz8:z, .aaa,
.aa6, .c, .6, .c, .c, .6,, .6, a, :,
rcgularization and, ..a., .,
rcligious, .c,, .,,, z,,
rcvcaling dynamic and, .c
rosc, ., z8
scroll, ., z,c,:
statistics and, .6, zo,, ., .,
strcam, .,, z,8,,, .
Chtclain, Zacharias, .a
chcckcrboard lormat, ,,
China, .., , 6, a, , .c
Chinook, ..
Christianity. See rcligion
Chronicarum et historiarun epitome (pitomc ol
chroniclcs and historics) (Anonymous), ,
Chronicle (Comcs), z
Chronicle (uscbius), z, .6, zo, :o:,
Jcromc translation and, a,
mcchanical look to, a
Mouvcaux and, a,a, :8:,
printcr additions ol, a,a
as providcntial history, a6a,
as scribal databasc, a,a
scribal instructions and, c
marginal dating and, ooo,
mcmorials and, a.c
music and, a, :,, a
North Amcrican lormats and, .c., z:o,
.,
palimpscsts and, ,.
positivism and, a.
prcdicting luturc and, , 6
prchistoric timcs and, .a
public displays ol, a.c,
puzzlcs and, ., z,o
rcgularization/mcasurcmcnt issucs and, ..a.
rcligious rcsurgcncc and, a. (see also rcligion)
scholarly status ol, .c..
scvcntccnthccntury mcthods ol, ,c
simplication and, .a., a, a6, c, ..,, .aa,
.,, aa,
tcchnological advanccs and, .a. (see also
tcchnology)
thoroughncss and, ,.
trcc rings and, a., :z
visual issucs and, .
watchcs and, .c
Chronology Delineated to Illustrate the History of
Monarchical Fe.olutions (Vilson), z,o
Chronology (Putnam), .6
chronomctcrs, .c
Churchmans Maga.ine, .,,
Ciccro, .6
Circle of the Lunar and Solar Clock (8udovcc z
8udova), 8,
circlc systcm, .6, a., 6, ,, .c, zc
Civil Rights Mcmorial, a.c
Clarkson, Tomas, z,8, .
Clcmcns, Samucl L. See Twain, Mark
Clio, 6,6, o8
clocks, ., .c, .,, aa, aa,, ::8:,
Clovis, King ol Franks,
Clo.is apocalyptica (Kcy ol Rcvclation) (Mcdc), .,
z8,
codcs, .6
codcx lorm, .6, ., ,, .., .
Codomann, Lorcnz, ,c,., ,z
Colc, John A., z,
Columbus, Christophcr, .6, .,,
Comcs, Marccllinus, ., z
Commercial and Political tlas (Playlair), .6, zo
Compend of General History (Vhclplcy), .6,
Compend of history, from earliest times, (Vhclplcy),
z,
Complete Ecclesiastical Chart from the Earliest
:6 Index
ada, aaa, ::, aa, a

dAlcmbcrt, ..a
anicl, a., a, , ,, 6, zoo
arius, King ol Pcrsia, 6, oc, 6a
arton, Villiam, ., z,:
arwin, Charlcs, .a
arwin, rasmus, .a
Date Paintings (Kawara), a.c, a, :o,
avidians, .6,
Deacons Synchronological Chart (Hull), .,
dc la Ru, Philippc, .a
cmcrs, Modcstc, z
cmctcr, z,, .
Description of a Chart of Biography, (Pricstlcy), z:,
cucalion Flood, ., z,
cvyr, Tomas Aingc, .,,
Diagram Exhibiting the dierence of time bet.een the
places sho.n . !ashington, ( Johnson), z8z
Diagram of Prophetic Times, ccording to the
Chronology of !m. Miller (Millcr), zo:
ickinson, John, z:,
idcrot, ..a
digital clocks, .
ijkman, Marjolijn, a.c, :z,z
ipity, a6
Discus chronologicus (Chronological disc) (Vcigcl),
.c, zc, ., a.,
ispcnsationalists, .6,
Dispensational Truth (Larkin), zoo
od, anicl, z,, .,
od, Stcphcn, z,, .,
oomsday Clock, aa,, ::8:,
ouglass, Andrcw llicott, a.
rummcr ol Niklashauscn, ,c,z
uchamp, aa
ukc ol Guisc, a
urcr, Albrccht, ,o,,, , a., :,,,
astcr, .., ,.
bcr, Paul, ,, ,,,
cclipscs, .,, 6a, o:, .
ddy, !saac, z,o, .,
dgcworth, Maria, .a
dison, Tomas, .
gypt, , ,,, .c
doubting ol 8iblc and, 6, a,
carly history ol, c,
uscbius and, a6
Fecords, Sacred and Profane, Do.n to the
Present Day (Shimeall), zo,
Complete Historical and Chronological Geographical .
Genealogical Chart of the Sacred Scriptures from
dam to Christ (Shimcall), zo
Comprehensi.e Chart of merican History (Vilson),
.6, z,z, .,a
computus, ,.
Comtc, August, ., z,
Concentric Chart of History (Ludlow), ., z,,
Condorcct, JcanAntoincNicolas Carritat, marquis
dc, z,c, .c.
Conlucius, ,6, .
Connecticut Yankee in King rthurs Court,
(Twain), .
Constantinoplc, c
consul lists, .
contcnt providcrs, a,a
Contincntal Congrcss, .c
continuators, a,
continuity, .
Copcrnicus, 6, 8c8z, a, , .
copyists, a,
Corot, aa
Countdown to Singularity (Kurzwcil), :z
Craig, John, ..,, .aa
Cramming Morc Componcnts onto !ntcgratcd
Circuits (Moorc), :z
Crcation, 8, o,
ancicnt culturcs and, ,
8irchcrod and, .c
8oulacsc and, a
8uno and, c
calcndars and, .,, ,, ,,
Catholic Ladder and, z
doubting ol 8iblc and, , 6, a,
Hclwig and, ,6
Lambcck and,
Phrygio and,
Pricstlcy and, .c, zz, .
Riccioli and, 6
Rolcvinck and, a, ., a
Schcdcl and, 6, o
Usshcr and, 6, ooo,, , .,
Crimcan Var, ., z8
Crucixion, ,,,
Crusius, Paulus, 6, o
cubism, a., aaa, :::
Cubism and bstract rt (8arr), a., aaa, :::
Cummings, Jonathan, .6a, zo
cybcrnctics, ac
Flood and, 6
Moscs and, ,,
siris and, , ,,,
pyramids and, ,
rulcr lists and, a
Ehrenpforte (honorary gatc) (urcr), a., :,,,
Electronics Maga.ine, a.
Elements of History, ncient and Modern
(Vorccstcr), .6,
Elements of Uni.ersal History (Luman), .6
lkins, Jamcs, a.c
lliott, dward 8ishop, ., z,c,z
mmius, Ubbo, ,6, ,o, ..a
Encyclopedie (idcrot and dAlcmbcrt), ..a, .
Encylopedia Brittanica, .c, zz
cngraving, ,, ,8,,, .cc, .c, z,,
nlightcnmcnt, .c
Epitome of Ecclesiastical History (Rowland), z,8, .
sticnnc, Robcrt, a,a, :8
European Painting and Sculpture (Ncwton), aa, ::
uscbius, z,, zo, :o:,, , a
accuracy and,
art and, a.c
8iblc and, a6
Chronicles ol, z, a6a (see also Chronicles
|uscbius|)
codcx and, .
containing vs. cxprcssing inlormation and, ,.
Lambcck and,
mcdicval dcsigns and, .
parallcl column lormat and, ,6, ,,
prcdicting luturc and,
providcntial history and, a6a,
scribal instructions ol, c
as standard, .6, a6
tablc lormat ol, ..6, ,, ,6, .c, zc, .c,
..a., .., .
cvolutionary trccs, .
volution Charts, ::o, aa,
ytzingcr, Michacl, , 8,
F
Fanclli, Sarah, ac
Fasciculus temporum (8undlc ol atcs) (Rolcvinck),
a, c, c, ., ,, 8, .
a, , 6, a., :,,,
siris and, , ,,,
printcr dcviccs and,
Trcc ol Jcssc and, .,
triumphal arch ol Maximilian and, ,
cz
two lunctions ol, , a
vcrtical lormat and, ,c,.
General Topography of North merica ( Jccrys), zz
Gcncsis, 8iblc 8ook ol, 6, 8, , 6,.
Gcncva, .,
gcography
8arbcuubourg and, 6
Jccrys and, ..a., zz,z, ..6
spatiality and, .c
synchronous maps and, .., z8z
Gcorgc !!!, zz, zz8z,
Gicsscns, ,6
Gillam, Manly M., ac
Glarcanus, Hcinrich, a, :, ,, ,
globcmakcrs, z,o
gnomic rclcrcnccs, .a
God
Pricstlcy and, .c
rcvcalcd knowlcdgc and, .a, ,
Goion, Gcorgcs Claudc, .,
Gomorrah, 8
Goodrich, Samucl, .6,
Googlc Ncws and Financc, a6
Grandvillc, J. J., a, a, :,,
graphic rcprcscntation, .c
art and, a.c,
8uno and, c
circlc systcm and, .6, a., 6, ,, .c, zc
carly lorms in U.S., .c., z:o, .,
cightccnthccntury mcthods and,
uscbius and, .6 (see also uscbius)
cxpcrimcntation in, .,
nc cngraving and, ,, ,8,,, .cc, .c
horizontal lormat and,
innovation in, a
intcrprcting past and, .
invcntion ol printing and, a
Mcdc lormat and, ., z8,
mctaphor and, ..
mncmonic dcviccs and, , acaac,, :c,:c8,
ac, a6
Mouvcax and, a,a, :8:,
Fasti Consulares (Pirancsi), a., :,:,
Faust, Lorcnz, , z, , ,, 6, , a.,
Fcrguson, Adam, .c
lm, a.
Fink, Christoph, a.c, :z:
Finlcy, Anthony, z:
Fiscal Chart of the United States (Valkcr), z,
ip books, .c
Flood ol Noah, 6, a, 8o,
Apianus and, oc
8oulacsc and, a
ytzingcr and,
Mcrcator and, o,
Phrygio and,
postood population growth and, ,c,.
rcvcalcd knowlcdgc and, .
Rolcvinck and, ,, 6
\ico and,
Fluxus art, a., ::, a, :
Fluxus (Its Historical De.elopment and Felationship to
.ant Garde Mo.ements) (Maciunas), ::, a
Forlong, Jamcs Gcorgc Rochc, z,8,,, .
Forum, .
, (Cagc), a
Fouricr, Charlcs, z,:, .a
Franklin, 8cnjamin, .c, .c
Franks, ..
Frcdcrick ol Saxony, ,,
Frcnch Canadians, .., z
Frisians, ,o
Fullcr, R. 8uckminstcr, aa,, :c, a.
Funck, Johann, 6, ,
lur tradc, .c.
G
Galilco, :z, .c
Galton, Francis, .., z8:
gamcs, ., z,,,, ., z,,8, .
Gardcn ol dcn, .c
Gaspc Pcninsula, .c
Gatcs ol Timc, a.c, :zz
Gauguin, aaa
gcncalogical trccs, ..6, z,
accuracy and, 6, , ,o,,, , a
art and, aa
8iblical, ., :, ,, 6, ,,, , cz, ,z, .c
horizontal lormat and, , ,c,.
Jcsus Christ and, ., ,, 6, cz, .c
king lists and, ac.
nobility and, ., , 6, ,,, ,o,,, , cz,
Pricstlcy and, ac, ..6.,, zz8:z, .aaa, .aa6
Rolcvinck and, a, c, c, .
satirc ol, a
scqucntiality and, ..
scvcntccnthccntury mcthods and, ,c
simplication and, .a., a, a6, c, ..,, .aa,
.,, aa,
sinking ol Titanic and, .
sophistication ol, .
spatiality and, .
statistics and, .6, zo,, .
strcam charts, .,, z,8,,, . (see also charts,
maps)
tcchnological advanccs and, .ac
utilitarianism and, a.c
Grcat isappointmcnt, Tc, .6a
Grccks, z,, .., :
astronomy and, a
8iblc and, a6, 6, ,
human invcntion and, .
\ico and,
Grcgory, John Milton, ac6
Grynacus, Simon, ,
H
Haackc, Hans, a, :
Habsburgs, , , 6, a., :,,,
Hagclgans, Johann Gcorg, .c, zcozc,, .c
Hammctt, Valtcr A., z,
Hannibal, ::
Harriet and Fobert Heilbrunn Cosmic Path.ay,
a, :,
Harrison, John, .c
Harrys Holiday (Taylor), .a, z:
Harvcy, Gabricl, ,, ,
Hasc, Johann Matthias, .a
Hawcs, Stcphcn, z,
Hawthornc, Nathanicl, ac
Haydcn Planctarium, a
Hcbrcw, a6, ., 6, a
Hcctor ol Troy,
Hcilbrunn lamily, a
Hclmstcdt,
Hclvicus, ..
Hclwig, Christophcr, ,6, ,,,,
Hcnry !!!, , a
:6 Index
Holy Roman mpirc, ,
8odin and, 6
book collcctions ol, ,,
Hclwig and, ,8,,
Maximilian !! and,
Phrygio and,
Holy Spirit,
Homcr,
Horae pocalypticae (lliott), ., z,c,z
hourglass, .c
Houtc, \ictor, zoo, .6,
How to Look at Modcrn Art (Rcinhardt), aa,
::o, aa,
How to Makc History atcs Stick (Twain), ac,,
:c,, ac, :c,
Ho. to Talk bout Books You Ha.ent Fead (8ayard), ,
Huang Yong Ping, a.c, a.6, :zo
Hudsons 8ay Company, ..
Hull, dward, .,
humanism, .6, a
Hummclbcrg, Gabricl, ,
Hunting of the Snark, Te (Carroll), ac6, :co
Huygcns, .c
!
Imaginary Landscape (Cagc), :,, a
!ncarnation,
!ndia, .c
!ndian ccan, .,
indiccs, .,, a,
industrialization, .c
!ngrcs, aa
!ntcl Corporation, a.
Introduction une nou.ell poesie et une nou.ell
musique (!sou), aa,
invcntors, a, .6, .., ., .,. See also tcchnology
!rcland, Villiam Hcnry, .6
!saiah, 8iblc 8ook ol, .
!sis,
!slam, z,,
!sou, !sidorc, ::o, aa,
J
Jansscn, Picrrc Julcs Csar, ., z8,
Japhct, :, ,,,
Jazwiski, Antoni, ac, ac6, ac, :c,
Jccrson, Tomas, .c, zz
Jccrys, Tomas, ..a., zz,z, ..6, z:c, .,
Jcna Univcrsity, a
Hcnry ol Navarrc, a
Hcnry \!!!, z
Hcrodotus, ac6
Hexapla 8iblc, a6
Himcs, Joshua, zocoz
Hipparchus, a
Histomap (Sparks), a.,, :z,z8, a.
Historical, Chronological, and Genealogical Chart,
(8ostwick), zo8o,
Historical musement: Ne. and Entertaining
Game on the History of England, z,o
Historical and stronomical Diagram (Pcarson), z,
Historical and Biographical Chart of the United States
(Ramsay), .c, z:
Historical and Classical tlas, (8ostwick), .6,, zo,
Historical tlas, n (Quin), z:8:,, .c
Historical Chart (Anonymous), z:,
Historical Expositor, or Chronological and Historical
Charts, .6,
historiography
chronological dimcnsion ol, .,, ., 6
Clio and, 6,, o8
disappcaring kingdoms and, a6a,
gamcs and, .
gcography and, 6
incrcasing publication ol, ,, .cc
intcrprcting past and, .
lincarity and, ac
Mouvcaux and, a,a, :8:,
palimpscsts and, ,
progrcss and, .,,,
public art and, a.c,
Rolcvinck and, a, c, .
Romanticism and, .
tcchnology and, .., .a. (see also tcchnology)
Tapar and, .a.
Vhitc and, ...a
History and Present State of Disco.eries Felating to
!ision, Light, and Colours, Te (Pricstlcy), z8
History by the Meter, ac, :,z
History !nstitutc ol Amcrica, a.
History of the Indian Tribes of North merica
(McKcnncy), z8
History of the Fise, Progress, and ccomplishment of
the bolition of the frican Sla.e-Trade by the
British Parliament, Te (Clarkson), z,8, .
History of the !orld (Ralcigh), .
History on Parade (8rown), a., ::c:z
History Taught by the Eye (Labbcrton), .,a, z,
Holy Land (dc la Ru), .a
Jcrcmiah, a6
Jcromc, ., z, a,
Jcrusalcm, ,, o:
Jcsuits, 6, , 8o, ,
Jcsus Christ, ., a,,
astrology and, 6.
8uno and, c, ,:,
coming ol, a
Crucixion and, ,,, ,
doubting ol 8iblc and, a,
gcncalogy ol, ., ,, 6, cz, .c
prophccy ol anicl and, 6
rcturn ol, .6a
Jcws, ., a6, :, o:
Crcation and, 6
xodus ol, c
Moscs and, ,,
murdcr ol Christian child by, c, ,c,z
Passovcr and, ,.
population growth and, ,.
Pricstlcy and, .a, z:,
prophccics ol anicl and,
jigsaw puzzlcs, z,o
Joachim ol Fiorc, o, ,, , .
Johnson, Alvin Jcwctt, z8z
Johnson, Mark, ., .
Johnsons Ne. Illustrated Family tlas of the !orld, z8z
John thc 8aptist, z
Joscphus,
Julius Cacsar, a.
Jupitcr, , 6.
K
Kawara, n, a, a.c, a, :o,
Kcplcr, Johanncs, 8c8z, .a, 8,
kingdoms
gcncalogy ol nobility and, ., , 6, ,,, ,o,,,
, cz, a, , 6, a., :,,,
Jccrys and, .., ..6
king lists and, ., ac.
Martignoni lormat and, .c
prophccics ol anicl and, a, ,, 6
Kirchcr, Athanasius, 6
KlapichZubcr, Christianc, .
Klobassa, \ictor, ., z,8
Krusc, Christian, .a
Kunst und VundcrKammcrn (Cabincts ol Art
and Vondcr), ,6, a, 8o, ,
Kurzwcil, Ray, a., :z
Lovcrin, Nclson, ac, :c,, ac
Ludlow, Jamcs M., .c, ., aca
Luman, John, .6
Lumen historiae sacre (!lluminations ol sacrcd
history) (8irchcrod), .cc, .c, zc
Luthcr, Martin, ,8,,, z
Lycurgus, .
Lyman, Azcl S., .6, z,c,z, .,a,, .,,
LymanHaskcll multichargc gun, .6
M
Macbcth, .
Maccdonia, z
Machiavclli, a
Maciunas, Gcorgc, a., ::, a, :
McKcnncy, Tomas Lorainc, z8
McKittcrick, Rosamond, .
Mallcry, Garrick, .,, z,
Manctho, 6
Mann, Horacc, ac
Map of Time (Grcgory), ac6
maps
advanccs in, .,
astronomy and, 6
common visual vocabulary lor, .
Jccrys and, ..a., zz,z, ..6
London Undcrground and, 6
Martignoni lormat and, .c, zc,zz
Mcrcator and, o:, 6, o,, 6
mctcorological data and, ..
as powcr symbol, .,
Ptolcmaic, .
rcgularization/mcasurcmcnt issucs and, ..a.
Sparks and, a.,, :z,z8, a.
statistics and, .6, z,8, .
synchronous, z,, .,a, z,,,, .., z8z
updating ancicnt, .,
Marccl, Guillaumc, .cc
Marconis North Atlantic Communication
Charts, .
Marconi Tclcgraph Company, .., z8:8
Marcy, ticnncJulcs, a., ., z88,, .
Margarct ol Austria, a.
marginal dating, ooo,
marinc chronomctcrs, .c
markct scasons, .c, zz
Mark T.ains Memory-Builder, .,, ac,
Marlowc, Christophcr,
Marmor Purim, z,, .
L
Labbcrton, Robcrt Hcnlopcn, .,a, z,
Lako, Gcorgc, ., .
Lakota Vintcr Count, .,, z,
Lambcck, Pctcr, ,, 88,
Lapwai mission, .., zo
Larimorc, Jamcs V., ., z,
Larkin, Clarcncc, zoo, .6,
Las Cascs, mmanuclAugustinicudonn
Joscph, comtc dc, z:,, .a
Last and First Men (Staplcdon), a, :,:
Lavoisnc, C. \., z:,
Lectures on History and General Policy (Pricstlcy), ..6
Lcibniz, Villiam Gottlricd, c
Lcnglct du Frcsnoy, Nicolas, ,, .cc, zcz, .c, ..6
Lcopold, a.
Lcroy, Louis, .
Lcvolution (!sou), ::o, aa,
Lcvrant dc 8rcttcvillc, Shcila, a.c, :zz
Lcwis, Jamcs tto, ., z8
Lcwis, Katic, a.c, :z:z
librarians, ,,
Library Company ol Philadclphia, .a
Life and Opinions of Trsitram Shandy, Gentlemen, Te
(Stcrnc), ac, :c
Ligcti, Paul, aa, ::
Lin, Maya, a.c, :zz
lincs, .c
Chantrcau and, ..a
Haackc and, a, :
as mctaphor, ., .
Minard and, a.aa
Mouvcaux and, a
Pricstlcy and, .a6, ..a, .6a
spatial lorm and, .
statistics and, .6, z,8, .
subtlcty ol, .
visual issucs and, .
Littlc Tokyo, a.c, :zz
Livy, a, :, ,, ,, ac6
Locwy, Raymond, ::o, aa,
Lombards, ,,
London Undcrground, ,6
Lonc og, z,
Longitudc Prizc, .c
Long Now Foundation, a, :, a6
Longobards, ,,
Longvicwcr, a6
Louis X\!, a
Martcl, Charlcs, .a
Martignoni, Girolamo Andrca, .c, zc,zz
Martini, Martino, 6
Massachusctts !nstitutc ol Tcchnology, .
Massacrus, Christian, ,
matriccs, .6
Maximilian !, ,o,,, , a., a
Maximilian !!,
Mayo, Robcrt, .6,
Mcdc, Joscph, ., z8,, .6.
mcmorials, a.c
mcmorial vaults, .
Mcrcator, Gcrardus, .,, o:, 6, o,, 6, ,., , ..a, .,
Mcrcicr, LouisSbasticn, .
Mcrcury, ,
Mcrton Collcgc, ., z
Mcsopotamia, 6a
mctaphor, 6,, 6
intcrmcdiatc, .
linc and, ., .
maps and, .,
rcligious charts and, .,,
Schcdcl and, :
spatiality and, .
tcchnological advanccs and, .
tcmporal conccpts and, ..
Meteorgraphica (Galton), z8:
mctcorology, .., z8:, .,
Methode pour etudier l histoire (Mcthod lor studying
history) (Lcnglct du Frcsnoy), ,
Mctropolitan Muscum ol Art, aaa, a, :,,c
Mikmaq, .c.
Millcr, J. Hills, .
Millcr, Villiam, zocoz, .6.6a
Milton, John, .
Minard, Charlcs Joscph, a., ::, a, ., aa
miniaturization, .cc
Miomi, a6
missionarics, .c., .,
Mitchcll, V. J. T., .
Mncmograph, a6
mncmonic dcviccs, , acaac, ac, ac,ac,
:c,:c8, a6
modcrnism, a., aaa, aa, ::o, aa,
Mombritius, 8oninus, a,
Moorc, Gordon, a., :z
Moorc, Hcnry, .
Moorcs Law, a.
Mortality of the British rmy (Nightingalc), z8
mortality ratcs, ., z8
Moscs, ,,
:6 Index
Nincvch, .
Noah, :, ,,,
Ark ol, ., ,, c
Flood and, ,, 6, , a, , oc, o,, 6,.,
.a, 8o, ,
Nova Scotia, .c
Nuremberg Chronicle (Schcdcl), a, :, 6, o,,
c, ,c,,
Ola. (ship), ..
ld Tcstamcnt. See 8iblc
lympiad tablcs, ., a6, , , o:
Omiode no Shotokyo (Rcmcmbcring ld Littlc
Tokyo) (Lcvrant dc 8rcttcvillc), :zz
zcc Years Calendar (:,,o,8 Days) (Kawara), :o,
nc Tousand ays nc Million Ycars
(Kawara), :o
Opus Chronologicum no.um (A ncw trcatisc on
chronology) (mmius), ,6
Oregon merican journal, .,
rcgon Tcrritory, .c., .,
rigcn, a6
rtclius, Abraham, .a6, .a
siris, , ,,,
ttoman mpirc, ..
Outlines of Chronology (Goodrich), .6,
P
Paigc Compositor, .
Paik, Nam Junc, ::, a
Palcstinc, a6
palimpscsts, ,., ,, a.c
Palmicri, Mattco, a,, :,
parchmcnt, .
Parian Marblc, Tc, ., z,
Parsons, Villiam, .cc, zc:
Passovcr, ,.
Payrrc, !saac la, 6
Pcabody, lizabcth Palmcr, :c, ac, :c, ac6, ac, a.,
Pcarson, J., z,
Pentaplus regnorum mundi (ytzingcr), 8,
Pcpys, Samucl, .c
Pcrcnna, Anna, ,,
Pcrozzo, Luigi, .6, zo,
Pcrsia, ., a6, .c
Annius and,
Moshcr, Charlcs ., .
Mount Temple (ship), ..
Mouvcaux, Jchan dc, a,a, :8:,
movablc typc, .
Mo.ement (Marcy), z88,, z8,
Moycr, li Nash, :cc
Munich Kunstkammcr, ,6
Murrah Fcdcral 8uilding, a.c, :zz
Muscum lormat, ,6, .a, 8o, ,
Muscum ol Modcrn Art (MoMA), a., aaa, ::::
music, a, :,, a
Muslims, , 6a
Muybridgc, adwcard, a., .
N
Nabonassar, 6a6, a
Napolcon, :z::, .a, .
narrativc
8uno and, c
chroniclcs and, ..
lincarity and, ac
Livy and, a
progrcss and, .,,,
Nash, gdcn, a.
National Palacc Muscum, ac
Nativc Amcricans, .a
calcndar sticks and, ., z8
Catholic Ladder and, .., z,o, .,, .
missionarics and, .c., .,
picturc writing and, .,
Protestant Ladder and, .., z,o, .,, :z,
Sahalc Stick, .., .
Ncbuchadnczzar, King ol 8abylon, a., , .6a
Ncthcrlands, ,
Ne. Chart of History, (Pricstlcy), ac, ..6.,,
z:c:z, .aaa, .c, .6,
Ne. Englander magazinc, .,,
Ne. geneaological, historical, and chronological atlas,
(Lavoisnc), z:,
ncwslcttcrs, ,c
Ncwton, ric, aa, ::
Ncwton, !saac, 6,, ..,, .a, .c, ., .c, .6.
Ncw Vorld, a, a, a
Ncw York City, a
Ne. York Obser.er and Chronicle, .6,
Niagara (ship), ..
Nicolas Point, S. J., z
Nightingalc, Florcncc, ., z8
Nikawa, Kcngo, ::8
carly history ol, c,
prophccy ol anicl and, , 6
rulcr lists and, a
Pctcr ol Poiticrs, ., ,, , ,
Pctrarch, .6, a
Pcutingcr, Conrad,
phonautograph, .,
phonographs, .
photography, a., .
Phrygios, Paulus Constantinus, , ,,, ,,
Picabia, Francis, a, aaa, ::, aa, aa,
picturc writing, .,
Picture-!riting of the merican Indians (Mallcry), z,
Pictists, c
Pirancsi, Giovanni 8attista, a., :,:,
Plato, o,
Playlair, Jamcs, z
Playlair, Villiam, .6, zo, z, ., .,, a.
Pocket Tablet of Chronology (arton), ., z,:
Polish-merican System of Chronology (Pcabody),
:c, :c
Polish Systcm, ac, acac6
Political Economy of Prophecy (Shimcall), .6a, zo
population growth, ,c,., ,:
positivism, a., .
Pricstlcy, Joscph, :c, a., a, , z,, .,, ., a.
accuracy and, ., .c
art and, a.c
8cll and, .
broad vicw and, .a, .a
catcgorizations ol, ..,, zz8z,
Chantrcau and, ..a
charts ol, z8, ac, ..6.,, zz8:z, .aaa, .aa6,
.c, .6, .c, .c, .6,, .6, a, :,
Colc and, z,
Comtc and, .
Condorcct and, ..
Crcation and, .c, zz, .
Finlcy and, z:
Franklin and, .c
God and, .c
Hcbrcw chronology and, .a, z:,
horizontal lormat and, ..,, zz8z,
Jccrys and, zz, ..6, z:c
Kawara and, a
lincs and, .a6, ..a, .6a
Marcy and, .,
Ncwton and, ..,, .a, .c
philosophical cxpcrimcntalism ol, .c
Playlair and, .6
popularity ol, .c, .6
Ramist brackcts, .a
Ramsay, avid, .c, z:
Rand McNally, a.,
Rapturc !ndcx,
Ratdolt, rhard, a,
Fealites Nou.elles catalog, aa, ::
Rcdon, aaa
rcgularization, ..a., .,
Rcincck, Rcincr, , z, a
Rcinhardt, Ad, aa, ::o, aa,
rcligion, .., ., .,, a6, ,c, a
Advcntists, zo, .6,
8iblc translitcration and, a6 (see also 8iblc)
8lanchct and, .c.
Catholic Ladder and, .., z,o, .,
charts lor, .c,, .,,, z,, (see also charts)
codcx and, .
avidians, .6,
ispcnsationalists, .6,
uscbius and, a6 (see also uscbius)
Jcws and, c, ,c,z (see also Jcws)
mcditation and, a
Millcrism and, zoco:, .6.6a
missionarics and, .c., .,
palimpscsts and, ,., ,, a.c
Pictists, c
prophccics ol anicl and, a, , ,, 6
Protcstant/Catholic tcnsions and, ..
Protestant Ladder and, .., z,o, .,, :z,
Protcstant Rclormation and, ,., ,, z, .,
rcsurgcncc in, a.
Rolcvinck and, a, c
Rowland chart and, z,8
Shimcall and, .6a, zo,o, .6,
Rcnaissancc, .c, .6.,, a, ,, ., .a
Rcnouvicr, Charlcs, a, :
Rcusncr, lias, a, :
Rcvclation, 8iblc 8ook ol, , .. See also
Apocalypsc
Mcdc and, ., z8,
Millcrism and, zoc, .6., zozo:
Schcdcl and, c, ,:,
Rcvolutionary Var, .,
re.olutionibus orbium coelestium, De (n thc
rcvolutions ol thc hcavcnly sphcrcs) (Copcrnicus), 6
rcvolvcr photographiquc, .
Riccioli, Giambattista, 6,, o8, 6
Richard thc LionHcartcd, a.
Fi.ers of Life (Forlong), z,8,,, .
Rodin, aa
quantitativc lormat ol, .aa6
Ramsay and, .c, z
rcligious pcrsccution ol, .c
Royal Socicty ol London and, .c
scholarly approach ol, ..,
scrolls and, ..,
Shimcall and, .6a
simplication and, ..,, .aa, ., .,
spatiality and, .aa, .a6
Strass and, .,
Unitcd Statcs and, .c
Vhclplcy and, z
pricst lists, a6
Princc ol rangc, .cc
Princcton MS ,,
Princcton Univcrsity, .c, zz
printing, a, c, 6, .,, aa
accuracy and, .
board gamcs and, ., z,,,, ., z,o,8, .
complcx tablcs and, a
ddy and, z,o
nc cngraving and, ,, ,8,,, .cc, .c
gcncalogical trcc dcviccs and,
invcntion ol, a
movablc typc and, .
pockctsizc books and, .cc
vast surgc in, ,
visions and,
Prole of the Industrial Fe.olution (Fullcr), :c, a.
Proofs of Chronology (Tcmporarius), ,:
Prophetic Chart (Cummings), .6a, zo
Prospcr, a,
Protestant Ladder (Spalding), .., z,o, .,, :z,
Protcstant Rclormation, ,., ,, z, .,
Ptolcmy, .,, ., a
Puritans, 6a
Putnam, Gcorgc Palmcr, .6
puzzlcs, ., z,o
pyramids, ,
Q
Qucbcc, .c.
Quicchcbcrg, Samucl, ,6, .
Quin, dward, .aa, z:8:,
R
railroads, .c
Ralcigh, Valtcr, .,, ., .a
Rolcvinck, Vcrncr, ,, , 8,
accuracy and, c, a
Crcation and, a, ., a
Fasciculus temporum (8undlc ol atcs) and,
a, c, c, ., ,, 8, .
Flood ol Noah and, ,, 6
Romans, a6, a,, :
Augustus and, ., a, a.
8irchcrod and, zc,
lounding ol, a
Holy Roman mpirc and, , 6, , ,, ,8,,,
,,
human invcntion and, .
Jccrys and, .., ..6
king lists and, a.
Livy and, a
patricians ol, .,,
prophccy ol anicl and, , 6
world conccpt and, :,
world rulcrship and, ,8
Romanticism, .
rosc charts, ., z8
Ross, Alcxandcr, .,, .
Rou, Jcan, ,, ,8,,
Rousscau, aaa
Rowland, avid, z,8, .
Royal Socicty ol London, .c
Rudoll !!, , ,
S
Sahalc Stick, .., .
Salmanassar, King ol Assyria, a, 6a6
Samothcus, Johanncs Lucidus, 6a6
Saturn, , 6.
Saul, zz8z,
Sa.annah (ship), .,
Savilc, Hcnry, a,
Savonarola, :,
Saxony, , z, 6
Scaligcr, Joscph, 6, oo, o,,c, ,,,
Schcdcl, Hartmann, 8, , a, 8,
blank pagcs ol, ,:
8ook ol Rcvclation and, c, ,:,
Crcation and, 6, o
gcncalogical trccs and, .
Nuremberg Chronicle and, a, :, 6, o,,
c, ,c,,
:+ Index
stcrcograms, .6, zo,
Stcrnc, Laurcncc, ac, :c
Strass, Fricdrich, ., z,,,, .,
Strauss, Johann Fricdrich, ac
strcam chart, .,, z,8,,, .
Stream of Time (scroll chart), z,:
Strobridgc & Co., .,
Strom der Zeiten (Strcam ol timc) (Strass), .,
z,,,, .,
Students Topical History Chart (Vhitcomb),
ac6ac,
Sturt, John, .cc
Suntagma (Rcincck), z
Sychronological Chart (Adams), .,a, z,,
Synchronology of the principal e.ents in sacred and
profane history (Hawcs), z,
System of Chronology, (Playlair), z
T
Table historiques, chronologiques, . genealogiques
(Historical, chronological, and gcncalogical
tablcs) (Rou), ,, ,8,,
tablcs, .
containing vs. cxprcssing inlormation and, ,.
cightccnthccntury mcthods ol,
uscbian lormat and, ..6, ,, ,6, .c, zc,
.c, ..a., .., .
horizontal lormat and, ,c,., ,6
parallcl column lormat and, ,6, ,,
scvcntccnthccntury mcthods lor, ,c
vcrtical lormat and, ,c,.
Tables chronologiques de l histoire uni.erselle
(Chronological tablcs ol world history)
(Lcnglct du Frcsnoy), ,, zcz
Tabulae Fudophinae (Rudolphinc tablcs) (Kcplcr), .
Tallcnts, Francis, ,, ,8,,, ..6
Tate rtist Timeline (Fanclli), ac, :,c
Tatc Modcrn, ac
Taylor, Jccrys, .a, z:
tcchnology, .
accuracy and, a
chronomctcrs, .c.
codcx, .6, .
common visual vocabulary ol, .
computcrs, a.
lm, a.
Googlc, a6
industrialization and, .c
Schouldcr, Jamcs, .,,,
Science de l historie (Chantrcau), z,z
Scientic merican Feference Book, z8, .
Scott dc Martinvillc, douardLon, .,
scribcs, c
scrolls, .., ac.
8arbcuubourg and, z:c:z
codcx and, .6
gcncalogical trccs and, 6
long, a., zz:z
modcrn, ., z,c,:
Pctcr ol Poiticrs and, ., ,
Pricstlcy and, ..,
scqucntiality, ..
Scth, 8,, c
Scurat, aaa
scxual harmony, .
Shakcspcarc, .
Shapolsky et al., Manhattan Feal Estate Holdings,
a Feal Time Social System, as of May z, z,,z
(Haackc), a, :
Shimcall, Richard Cunningham, .6a, zo,o, .6,
Shrinking of our Planet (Fullcr), :c
Similc, a6
simplication, a, c, aa,
complcx inlormation and, a6
Pricstlcy and, ..,, .aa, .,
tcchnical innovations lor, .a.
Sinton, Valtcr Lyon, :cc
Sketch for a historical picture of the progress of the
human mind (Caritat), .c, z,c
Sodom, 8
solar clocks, 8, , ,
Spain,
Spalding, liza Hart, .., z,o, .,, :z,
Spalding, Hcnry Harmon, .., z, .,
Sparks, John, a.,, :z,z8, a.
spatiality, ., a
gcographic, .c
Pricstlcy and, .aa, .a6
Spiega.ione della carta istorica dell Italia (Historical
map ol !taly) (Martignoni), zc,
spirit sticks, ..
Stabius, Johanncs,
Staplcdon, lal, a, :
Statistical Bre.iary (Playlair), .6
statistics, .6, zo,, ., .,
Stcinbcrg, Saul, zz, a, a, :,
intcrnct, a6
Kcplcr on, 8c8z, a
longdistancc communications, ..
maps, .,
miniaturization, .cc
Moorcs Law, a.
movablc typc, .
phonautograph, .,
phonograph, .
photography, a., .
prcssurc rccordcr, .,
printing, a, .
railroad, .c
spacc travcl, ..
tclcgraph, .c., z8:, .
timclincs and, ..
transportation, .c, :c
various advanccs in, .,, .ac, 6,, .c,
.cac
wcathcr clock, .,
tclcgraph, .c., z8:, .
Tcmcnids, z
Temple of Time (Villard), :cz, acaac
Tcmporarius, Joanncs, ,c,., ,:
Temporibus De (uscbius), a,
Talcs, a6
Tapar, Romila, .a.
Teatrum historicum (Historical thcatcr) (Hclwig),
,6, ,,
Teatrum orbis terrarum (Tcatcr ol thc world)
(rtclius), .a6, .a
Tcmcrson, Stclan, a, :,
Teorie des quatre mo.ement et des destinees generales
(Fouricr), z,:
Toth, ,
tickingclock diagrams,
timc. See also chronology
historical tcxts and, .ca
Jcsus Christ and,
mctaphor ol linc and, .
in print, .ca
providcntial, .,
Shakcspcarc on, .
spatial lorm and, .
timc capsulcs, .
Timeline of rt History, a, :,c
Timeline of Chinese rt, ac
timclincs
art and, a.c
chart lormats ol, .c., z:o, .,, .6,
.,a,
akotas and, .,
Grcat Lakcs and, .,
modcrnism and, a., aaa, aa, ::o, aa,
Nativc Amcricans and, ..
rcgon Tcrritory and, .c., .,
Unitcd Statcs Ccnsus, .
Uni.ersal Chronologist (!rcland), .6
Uni.ersal History mericanised (Ramsay), .c, z:
Univcrsity ol Groningcn, ,o
Univcrsity ol Hcrborn, 6.
Univcrsity ol Paris, a
Untitled (Stcinbcrg), zz, :,,
urbanization, .c
Usshcr, Jamcs, 6, ooo,, , .,
utilitarianism, a.c
\
van Gogh, aaa
\cnus, .
\crmont 8iblc, z,o
\ico, Giambattista, c, ,,,
\ictnam \ctcrans Mcmorial, a.c
!ie. of ncient Geography and ncient History
(Mayo), .6,
!ie. of Uni.ersal History, (Tallcnts), ,, ,8,,
vigncttcs, c
\inccnt, AntoincFranois, .,
\irgil, .6, :, .6.
\oltairc,
voyagcurs, .c.
V
Valkcr, Francis A., ., z,
!allis Ne. Game of Uni.ersal History and
Chronology, z,,
!allis Ne. Game of Uni.ersal History and
Chronology, z,,
!andering through the Future (ijkman), :z,z
watchcs, .c
Vatt, Jamcs, .,
!eg aus dem Chaos, Der (Ligcti), aa, ::
Vcigcl, Christoph, .c, zc, ., aca, a.,
!heel of Fortune (Grandvillc), :,,
Vhclplcy, Samucl, z,, .6,
Vhitcomb, !da P., ac6ac,
Vhitc, Haydcn, ...a
Vhitc Star Linc, ..
biblical gcncalogy and, ., 6
Chronicarum and, ,
circlc systcm and, a, c
contcmporarics and, a6
cybcrnctics and, ac
dcclinc ol acadcmic chronology and, .,
.c.
cducational, .6,,,
cightccnthccntury mcthods ol, .,
uscbius and, a6a
gcncalogical trccs and, .c (see also
gcncalogical trccs)
intcrnct and, a6
intuitivc naturc ol, .c, a, ac
mcdicval dcsigns and, ., ,
as mctaphor, ..
modcrn art and, a., aaa
rclativc ncwncss ol, ..
rcligious, .c6,, .,, (see also rcligion)
scvcntccnthccntury mcthods lor, ,c
tcchnological advanccs and, .., .a.,
aa,
trcc rings and, a.
timc maps, .c
timc zoncs, z8z
Titanic (ship), .., z8:
Tolosani, Giovanni Maria, o:, 6a6
Towcr ol 8abcl, ., a, z
translitcration, a6
Trcc ol Jcssc, .,
trcc rings, a., :z
Trcnt, ,c
Trinity,
triumphal arch, , cz
Troy, ., z,, zo
Tshizunhaukau, ., z8
Tubus Historicus (Anonymous), .a, z,:
Turkish mpirc, 6
Twain, Mark, z,,,8, ., aca, ac,ac, :c,:c,
Tzara, aa
U
Uchronie (l utopie dans l histoire): Esquisse historique
apocrypha de de.eloppement de la ci.ilisation
europeenne tel quil na pas ete, tel quil aurait pu
etre (Rcnouvicr), a, :
Uncle Sams Game of merican History, z,o
Unitcd Statcs
Vhitman Massacrc, ..
Vhitticr, John Grccnlcal, .6.6a
Villamcttc \allcy, ..
Villard, mma, :cz, acaac
Vilson, Jamcs, z,o, .,
Vilson, Marcius, .6, z,z, .,a
Vinncbago !ndians, ., z8
wintcr counts, .,
witchcs, c, ,c
!omens Table, Te (Lin), :zz
woodcuts, a,
Vorccstcr, Joscph mcrson, .6,
!orkingmans d.ocate journal, .,,
Vorlds nd, Tc (Vhitticr), .6.6a
Vorm, lc, ,6
Vrcn, Christophcr, .,
Y
Yalc Collcgc, :z
Year :,,c, Te: Dream if E.er Tere !as One
(Mcrcicr), .
Z
Zech. o:z8: Te Church to, and Back From the
!ilderness (Houtc), zoo
Zcrubavcl, vitar, .c
Zillingcr, Paul, ,
Zorastcr, .

Cartographies of Time

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Cartographies of Time

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Cartographies of Time

and to Anthony Gralton, whosc collaboration, vision, and advicc

From a historiographical point ol vicw, thc tcxt sccms

And in rcccnt ycars, historians ol prcmodcrn uropc

ur idca ol timc is so wrappcd up with thc mctaphor ol

!n thc ltccnth and sixtccnth ccnturics, printcrs addcd

Tcy uscd a widc rangc ol graphic

Vith its illustrations ol Noahs Ark, thc Towcr ol

Still, somc ol thc

!n thc sixtccnth ccntury, thc combination ol thc astron

Standard uscbian chronologics also attractcd hand

Hc also callcd lor smallscalc

vcr thc coursc ol thc scvcntccnth ccntury, somc

Tough it would bc dccadcs bclorc Rous approach

vcntually, in +:, thc abb Nicolas Lcnglct du

uring thc latc scvcntccnth ccntury somc chronog

Pricstlcys admiration lor Ncwton was boundlcss, and in

Pricstlcys charts mark a crucial transition in thc his

Tc works ol both Hasc and Krusc, likc most ol thc

Tough hc promotcd his own original

As a scicncc ol datcs, chronology always had a quanti

Tis did not mcan that thc subject ol chronology

Tcrc wcrc prcccdcnts lor Chantrcaus graphic stratc

Tis happy statc, Fouricr said, would bring

Strass rcsistcd, in a lashion consistcnt with

Tcaching at thc mis

!n thc Spaldings vicw, thc Catholic Ladder, which

Joachims trccs, lor cxamplc,

vcntually, howcvcr, timc picccs achicvcd an imprcs

[ g. 4] Tc pathos was still powcrlul two

For Marcy, thcsc ncw dcviccs all rcprcscntcd a dcvclop

!n his articlc, Twain givcs numcrous cxamplcs ol his

Nonc ol this dccoration should bc takcn to suggcst that

!n good wcathcr, Twain suggcstcd, a similar

From thc rst, hc drcw thc notion that graphic

Tc notion that anyonc clsc

Giovanni 8attista Pirancsis

Tcsc oldcr displays ol chronology wcrc not always

Tc rcasons lor this arc

ada, aaa, ::, aa, a

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