Aluminium and its alloys

Overview
General information about Aluminium Alloying and strengthening of Al alloys Classification of Al alloys Wrought alloys (HT and non-HT) Cast alloys (HT and non-HT) Surface degradation of Al alloys

Aluminium
Soft, durable, lightweight, malleable metal Appearance range from silvery to dull gray, depending on the surface roughness. Most abundant metal in the Earth's crust, and the third most abundant element therein, after oxygen and silicon. The main source of aluminum is bauxite ore.

Bauxite ore
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Face-centered cubic (FCC) structure (a=0.40494 nm). nontoxic, nonmagnetic non-sparking Low melting temperature (660 C) Yield strength of pure aluminum is 711 MPa Yield strengths of Aluminium alloys can be up to 600 MPa. Aluminum has about one-third the density (2.70 g/cm3) and stiffness of steel (70GPa).
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Aluminium Alloys
Among the most striking characteristics of aluminum is its versatility. The range of physical and mechanical properties that can be developed from refined high-purity aluminum to the most complex alloys is remarkable. Principal interests in the physical metallurgy of aluminum alloys include the effects of composition, mechanical working, and/or heat treatment on mechanical and physical properties. Strength improvement is a major objective in the design of aluminum alloys because the low strength of pure aluminum (~10 MPa YS in the annealed condition) limits its commercial usefulness.

Physical Metallurgy
The elements that are most commonly present in commercial aluminum alloys to provide increased strength, particularly when coupled with strain hardening by cold working or with heat treatment, or both are copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon, and zinc. These elements all have significant solid solubility in aluminum, and in all cases the solubility increases with increasing temperature

Equilibrium binary solid solubility as a function of temperature for alloying elements most 6 frequently added to aluminum

Element Cu Cr Fe Li Mg Mn Ni Si

Temperature , C Maximum solid solubility, at% 548 661 655 600 450 658 640 577 2.4 0.4 0.025 16.3 18.5 0.9 0.02 1.59

Ag
Sn Ti Zn Zr

566
228 665 443 661

13.8
0.01 0.74 28.8 0.08
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Solid solubility of elements in aluminum

Section of Al-Cu eutectic phase diagram

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Strengthening mechanisms
The predominant objective in the design of aluminum alloys is to increase strength, hardness, and resistance to wear, creep or fatigue. Different strengthening mechanisms are involved with different types of aluminum alloys. At elevated temperatures strength is improved mainly by solid-solution and second-phase hardening because for temperatures exceeding those of the precipitationhardening range, 230 C and over, the precipitation reactions continue into the softening regime. Strengthening in non-heat-treatable alloys occurs by solidsolution, second-phase constituents, and/or strain hardening. Heat treatable alloys are also strengthened by age/precipitation hardening.
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Main strengthening mechanisms

Solute Hardening Adding solute cause crystal to distort which impedes the movement of dislocations and hence increase strength Strain hardening Used for wrought alloys (1xxx, 3xxx, 5xxx) that do not respond to age hardening . Aluminium alloys such as Al-Mg alloys have a much higher amount of strain hardening than pure Al Precipitation hardening The strongest aluminium alloys are produced by precipitation hardening (ex 2xxx, 6xxx,7xxx) Grain size hardening - Reducing the grain size of a polycrystalline material is an effective way of increasing its strength. Hall-Petch relationship y = 0 + kd1/2 where 0 is the intrinsic yield stress, k is a constant for a given material and d is the grain size.

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Solid-Solution Strengthening
The strength of high-purity annealed aluminum may be increased by solid solution hardening. For this to be achieved, the solute must: (1) have appreciable solid solubility at the annealing temperature; (2) remain in solution after a slow cool; and (3) not be removed by reacting with other elements to form insoluble phases. For those elements that form solid solution, the strengthening effect when the element is in solution tends to increase with increasing difference in the atomic radii of the solvent (Al) and solute (alloying element) atoms. Of the commonly used elements, only zinc, magnesium, copper and silicon have significant solubilities
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Solid solution strengthening of high purity binary aluminium alloys

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Precipitation hardening
Heat treatment for precipitation strengthening involves: 1) Solution heat treatment at a high temperature to maximize solubility 2) Rapid cooling or quenching to a low temperature to obtain a solid solution supersaturated with both solute elements and vacancies
(Solution heat treatments are designed to maximize the solubility of elements that participate in subsequent aging treatments. They are most effective near the solidus or eutectic temperature, where maximum solubility exists and diffusion rates are rapid. However, care must be taken to avoid incipient melting of low-temperature, eutectics and grainboundary phases. Such melting results in quench cracks and loss in ductility. The maximum temperature may also be set with regard to grain growth, surface effects, and economy of operation. The minimum temperature should be above the solvus, or the desired properties derived from aging will not be realized.)

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3) Aging treatments
The high strength is produced by the finely dispersed precipitates that form during aging heat treatments. This final step must be accomplished not only below the equilibrium solvus temperature, but below a metastable miscibility gap called the Guinier-Preston (GP) zone solvus line. The supersaturation of vacancies allows diffusion, and thus zone formation, to occur much faster than expected from equilibrium diffusion coefficients. In the precipitation process, the saturated solid solution first develops solute clusters, which then become involved in the formation of transitional (non-equilibrium) precipitates. The final structure consists of equilibrium precipitates, which do not contribute to age hardening (precipitation strengthening).

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Supersaturated solid solution

GP zones

Intermediate stage 2

Intermediate stage 3

Equilibrium phase
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 Precipitation heat treatment or artificial aging curves for the Al-Mg-Si wrought alloy 6061 (which is widely used for structural shapes) are shown below. This is a typical family of curves showing the changes in tensile yield strength that accrue with increasing time at each of a series of temperatures.

Precipitation heat treatment or artificial aging curves for solution heat-treated aluminum alloy 6061
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Al-Mg-Si alloys (6xxx series)

Al-Cu alloys (2xxx series)

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Al-Zn-Mg alloys (7xxx series)

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Classification of Al alloys
Aluminum alloys generally can be divided into two major categories: Casting alloys and Wrought alloys. A further differentiation for each category is based on the primary mechanism of property development. Many alloys respond to thermal treatment based on phase solubilities. These treatments include solution heat treatment, quenching, and precipitation, or age hardening. For either casting or wrought alloys, such alloys are described as heat treatable alloys. A large number of other wrought compositions rely instead on work hardening through mechanical reduction, usually in combination with various annealing procedures for property development. These alloys are referred to as non-heat treatable alloys. Some casting alloys are essentially not heat treatable and are used only in as-cast or in thermally modified conditions unrelated to solution or precipitation effects.
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The principal alloying elements of aluminum alloys

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Wrought Aluminium alloys

Around about 85% of total aluminum is used for wrought products. Those aluminum products have been subjected to plastic deformation by hotand cold-working mill processes (such as rolling, extruding, and drawing, either singly or in combination), so as to transform cast aluminum ingot into the desired product form. Thus the commercial wrought aluminum products are available in the following shapes:

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Flat rolled products (sheet, plate and foil) Rod, bar and wire Tubular products Shapes Forgings
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Designation of wrought aluminium alloys

The selection of aluminum alloys for use in engineering has often been difficult because specification and alloy designations have differed from country to country. For these reasons, the introduction of the International Alloy designation System (IADS) for wrought alloys in 1970 and its gradual acceptance by most countries is to be welcomed. The system is based on the classification used for many years by the Aluminum Association of the United States. Their alloy identification system employs different nomenclatures for wrought and cast alloys, but divides alloys into families for simplification. Wrought aluminum alloys and temper designation systems are basically given a four-digit system. (1) The first digit is assigned on the basis of the major alloying element(s) (2) The second indicates modification to alloy or impurity limits (3) The last two identify the Al alloy or indicates the Al purity

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Wrought super purity and commerical purity aluminium

Super-purity and commercial-purity (CP) aluminum (1xxx series)
This group includes super-purity (SP) and various grades of commercial-purity (CP) aluminum containing up to 1% of impurities or minor additions. The materials have been utilized as wrought products since the industry was first developed and the CP grades are available in most forms. These grades of aluminum are characterized by excellent corrosion resistance, high thermal and electrical conductivities, low mechanical properties, and excellent workability. Moderate increases in strength may be obtained by strain hardening. Typical uses include chemical equipment, reflectors, heat exchangers, electrical conductors and capacitors, packaging foil, architectural applications, and decorative trim.

Monophase structure of etched commercially pure aluminum

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Non-heat treatable wrought Al alloys

Al-Mn alloys (3xxx series) Manganese is the major alloying element of 3xxx series alloys. These alloys generally are non-heat treatable but have about 20% more strength than 1xxx series alloys. Because only a limited percentage of manganese (up to about 1.5%) can be effectively added to aluminum, manganese is used as major element in only a few alloys. In general, the 3xxx series of alloys is used when moderate strength combined with high ductility and excellent corrosion resistance are required.

Typical applications include beverage cans, cooking utensils, heat exchangers, storage tanks, furniture, highway signs, roofing and other architectural applications.

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 Al-Mg alloys (5xxx series)

series alloys is magnesium which solid solutes in the aluminum matrix. The alloyed magnesium in the widely used wrought alloys are normally from 0.8% to a bit more than 5% magnesium. The strength is strongly affected by the magnesium content. Strength values in the annealed condition range from 40 MPa yield and 125 MPa tensile form Al-0.8Mg (5005) to 160 MPa yield and 310 MPa tensile for the strongest alloy 5456. Elongations are relatively high and usually exceed 25%. The alloys work harden rapidly with increasing magnesium content. Fully work-hardened 5456 shows yield strength and tensile strength of 300 MPa, 385 MPa, respectively. The elongation is reduced to 5%.

The major alloying element in 5xxx

Solid solution strengthening of Mg in Al alloys

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Certain limitations are placed on the amount of cold work and the safe operating temperatures permissible for the higher-magnesium alloys (over about 3.5% for operating temperatures above about 65C) to avoid susceptibility to intergranular attach stress-corrosion cracking. It is because there is a tendency for the -phase, Mg5Al8, to precipitate in slip bands and grain boundaries. The other problem is that work-hardened alloys may undergo what is known as age softening at ambient temperatures. Over a period of time, the tensile properties fall due to localized recovery within the deformed grains.

Al-Mg alloys are widely used for welded applications. In transportation, structural plate is used for dump truck bodies, large tanks for carrying petrol, milk and grain, and pressure vessels, particularly where cryogenic storage is involved. Their high corrosion resistance makes them suitable for the hulls of small boats and for the super structures of ocean-going vessels. In addition, they polish to a bright surface finish, particularly if made from high quality aluminum, and are used for automotive trim and architectural components.

5052 Aluminium alloy fuel tank

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 Al-Si alloys (4xxx series)

The major alloying element in 4xxx series alloys is silicon, which can be added in sufficient quantities (up to 12%) to cause substantial lowering of the melting range without producing brittleness. For this reason, aluminum silicon alloys are used in welding wire and as brazing alloys for joining aluminum, where a lower melting range than that of the base metal is required. Most alloys in this series are nonheat treatable, but when used in welding heat-treatable alloys, they will pick up some of the alloying constituents of the latter and so respond to heat treatment to a limited extent. The alloys containing appreciable amounts of silicon become dark gray to charcoal when anodic oxide finishes are applied and hence are in demand for architectural applications. Alloy 4032 has a low coefficient of thermal expansion and high wear resistance, and thus is well suited to production of forged engine pistons.

Miscellaneous alloys (8xxx series)

This series contains several dilute alloys, e.g.8001 (Al-1.1Ni-0.6Fe) which is used in nuclear energy installations where resistance to corrosive attach by water at high temperatures and pressures is the desired characteristic. Its mechanical properties resemble 3003. Alloy 8011 (Al-0.75Fe-0.7Si) is used for bottle caps because of its good deep drawing qualities and several other dilute compositions are included in the range of electrical conductor materials. Alloys such as 8280 and 8081 serve an important role as bearing alloys based on the Al-Sn system that are now widely used in motor cars and trucks, particularly where diesel engines are involved. Al-Li alloys such as the 8090 have been developed primarily to reduce the weight of aircraft and aerospace structures.
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Number EC 1xxx

Principal alloy 99.45+%Al Commercially pure

Examples 1100 (0.12%Cu) 1060 (99.6% Al)

Uses Electrical grade Architectural, cookware

3xxx
5xxx

Manganese
Magnesium

3003 (1.2%Mn)
5052 (2.5%Mg, 0.25%Cr)

Food and chemical processing

Boats, trucks, buses

Wrought non-heat treatable Aluminium alloys

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Heat treatable wrought Al alloys

Wrought alloys that respond to strengthening by heat treatment comprise the two series 2xxx (Al-Cu, Al-CuMg), 6xxx (Al-Mg-Si) and 7xxx (Al-Zn-Mg, Al-Zn-Mg-Cu). All these alloys depend on age-hardening to develop enhanced strength properties and they can be classified into two groups: those that have medium strength and are readily weldable (Al-Mg-Si and Al-Zn-Mg), and the high-strength alloys that have been developed primarily for aircraft construction (Al-Cu, Al-Cu-Mg, and Al-Zn-MgCu), most of which have very limited weldability.

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Al-Cu alloys (2xxx series)

Copper is the principal alloying element in 2xxx series alloys, often with magnesium as a secondary addition. These alloys require solution heat treatment to obtain optimum properties; in the solution heat-treated condition, mechanical properties are similar to, and sometimes exceed, those of low-carbon steel. In some instances, precipitation heat treatment (aging) is employed to further increase mechanical properties. This treatment increases yield strength, with attendant loss in elongation; its effect on tensile strength is not as great. The alloys in the 2xxx series do not have as good corrosion resistance as most other aluminum alloys, and under certain conditions they may be subject to intergranular corrosion. Therefore, these alloys in the form of sheet usually are clad with a highpurity aluminum or with a magnesium-silicon alloy of the 6xxx series, which provides galvanic protection of the core material and thus greatly increases resistance to corrosion. Alloys in the 2xxx series are particularly well suited for parts and structures requiring high strengthto-weight ratios and are commonly used to make truck and aircraft wheels, truck suspension parts, aircraft fuselage and wing skins, and structural parts and those parts requiring good strength at temperatures up to 150 C. These alloys usually have limited weldability, but some alloys in this series have superior machinability.

Alloy 2024 Fuselage and lower wing due to its good fatigue resistance and fracture toughness
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 Al-Mg-Si alloys ( 6xxx Series)

Alloys in the 6xxx series contain silicon and magnesium approximately in the proportions required for formation of magnesium silicide (Mg2Si), thus making them heat treatable. These alloys are widely used as medium-strength structural alloys which have the additional advantages of good weldability, corrosion resistance, and immunity to stress-corrosion cracking. Although not as strong as most 2xxx and 7xxx alloys, 6xxx series alloys have good formability, weldability, machinability, and corrosion resistance, with medium strength. Alloys in this heat-treatable group may be formed in the T4 temper (solution heat treated but not precipitation heat treated) and strengthened after forming to full T6 properties by precipitation heat treatment. Uses include architectural applications, bicycle frames, transportation equipment, bridge railings, and welded structures.

Outer body panels

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 Al-Zn-Mg alloys (7xxx Series)

Zinc, in amounts of 1 to 8% is the major alloying element in 7xxx series alloys, and when coupled with a smaller percentage of magnesium results in heat-treatable alloys of moderate to very high strength. Usually other elements, such as copper and chromium, are also added in small quantities. 7xxx series alloys are used in airframe structures and other highly stressed parts. Higher strength 7xxx alloys exhibit reduced resistance to stress corrosion cracking and are often utilized in a slightly over-aged temper to provide better combinations of strength, corrosion resistance, and fracture toughness.

7150 or 7449 or 7075 for upper wing skin due to good fatigue resistance, fracture toughness and compressive strength
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Number 2xxx

Principal alloy Copper

Examples 2014 (4.5%Cu, 0.5%Mg; 0.8%Mn; 0.8%Si) 2024 (4.5%Cu, 1.5%Mg, 0.6%Mn) 6061 ((1%Mg, 0.6S%Si, 0.3%Cu) 6063 (0.7%Mg, 0.4%Si

Uses Structural forgings Aircraft, hardware Trucks, furniture, boats

6xxx

Mg + Si

Extrusion, architectural, irrigation

7xxx

Zn

7075 (5.6%Zn, 1.6%Cu, Aircraft 2.5%Mg) Wrought heat treatable Aluminium alloys

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Cast Aluminium alloys

Aluminum is one of the most versatile of the common foundry metals. Generally aluminum casting alloys have the highest castability ratings. As casting materials, aluminum alloys have the following favorable characteristics: Good fluidity for filling thin sections Low melting point relative to those required for many other metals Rapid heat transfer from the molten aluminum to the mold, providing shorter casting cycles Hydrogen is the only gas with appreciable solubility in aluminum and its alloys, and hydrogen solubility in aluminum can be readily controlled by processing methods Many aluminum alloys are relatively free from hot-short cracking and tearing tendencies Chemical stability Good as-cast surface finish with lustrous surfaces and little or no blemishes
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Designation of cast Al alloys

No internationally accepted system of nomenclature has so far been adopted for identifying aluminum casting alloys. However, the Aluminum Association of the United States has introduced a revised system which has some similarity to that adopted for wrought alloys and this is described below. The Association now uses a three-digit system followed by a decimal value to identify aluminum and aluminum alloys in the form of castings and foundry ingot. The first digit indicates the alloy group. 1xx.x - unalloyed Al (with 99% aluminum minimum) 2xx.x - Al-Cu Alloys in which copper is the principal alloying element, but other alloying elements may be specified 3xx.x - Al-Si-Cu/Mg Alloys in which silicon is the principal alloying element, but other alloying elements such as copper and magnesium are specified 4xx.x - Al-Si Alloys in which silicon is the principal alloying element 5xx.x - Al-Mg Alloys in which magnesium is the principal alloying element 6xx.x - Unused 7xx.x- Al-Zn Alloys in which zinc is the principal alloying element, but other alloying elements such as copper and magnesium may be specified 8xx.x - Al-Sn Alloys in which tin is the principal alloying element 9xx.x Unused
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Cast Alloy Systems

Aluminum casting alloys based on the same alloy systems as those of wrought aluminum alloys, are strengthened by the same mechanisms with the exception of strain hardening, and are similarly classified into non-heat-treatable and heat-treatable types. The major difference is that the casting alloys used in the greatest volumes contains alloying additions of silicon far in excess of that used in most wrought alloys. Aluminum casting alloys must contain, in addition to strengthening elements, sufficient amounts of eutectic-forming elements (usually silicon) in order to have adequate fluidity to feed the shrinkage that occurs in all but the simplest castings.

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Aluminum - Copper alloys (2xx.0)

Aluminum-copper alloys that contain 4 to 5% Cu are heat treatable and can reach high strengths and ductility, especially if prepared from ingot containing less than 0.15% Fe (impurity). The aluminum-copper alloys are single-phase alloys. Unlike the silicon alloys, there is no highly fluid second phase available at the late stages of solidification. Manganese may be added in small amounts, mainly to combine with iron and silicon and reduce the embrittlement effect. These alloys demonstrate poor castability and require more carefully designed gating to obtained sound castings. Such alloys are used mainly in sand casting. When these alloys are cast in metal molds, silicon must be added to increase fluidity and curtail hot shortness. The addition of silicon further reduces ductility. Al-Cu alloys with somewhat higher copper contents (7 to 8%), formerly the most commonly used aluminum casting alloys, have steadily been replaced by Al-Cu-Si alloys and today are used to a very limited extent. The best attribute of highercopper Al-Cu alloys is their insensitivity to impurities. However, these alloys display low strength and only fair castability. Also in limited use are Al-Cu alloys that contain 9 to 11% Cu, whose hightemperature strength and wear resistance are attractive for use in aircraft cylinder heads and in automotive (diesel) pistons and cylinder blocks.
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Aluminum-Silicon-Copper/Magnesium Alloys (3xx.0)

The most widely used aluminum casting alloys are those that contain silicon and copper. The amounts of both additions vary widely, so that the copper predominates in some alloys and the silicon in others. In these alloys, the copper contributes to strength, and the silicon improves castability and reduces hot shortness; thus, the higher-silicon alloys normally are used for more complex castings and for permanent mold and die casting processes, which often require the use of more exacting casting techniques to avoid problems with hot-short alloys. Al-Cu-Si alloys with more than 3 to 4% Cu are heat treatable. Heat treatment is used only with those alloys that also contain magnesium, which enhances their response to heat treatment. High-silicon alloys (>10% Si) have low thermal expansion, an advantage in some high-temperature operations. When silicon content exceeds 12 to 13% (silicon contents as high as 22% are typical), primary silicon crystals are present, and if properly distributed, impart excellent wear resistance. Automotive engine blocks and pistons are major uses of these hypereutectic alloys.
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Number 296 356

Composition 4.5Cu 7Si, 3.5Cu

Uses Aircraft fitting, pumps Engine blocks, transmissions, wheels

380 390

8Si, 3.5Cu 17Si, 4.5Cu, 1Fe, 0.5Mg

Die casting Die casting

Designation of some Al-Cu and Al-Si-Cu casting alloys

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Aluminum Silicon (4xx.0)

Alloys with silicon as the major alloying addition are the most important of the aluminum casting alloys mainly because of the high fluidity imparted by the presence of relatively large volumes of the Al-Si eutectic. The simple eutectic-forming system makes possible the commercial viability of most high-volume aluminum casting. Aluminum-silicon alloys that do not contain copper additions are used when good castability and good corrosion resistance are needed. The microstructure comprise aluminum containing about 1% Si in solid solution as the continuous phase, with particles of essentially pure silicon. Alloys with less than 12% Si are referred to as hypoeutectic, those with close to 12% Si as eutectic, and those with over 12% Si as hypereutectic. If high strength and hardness are needed, magnesium additions make these alloys heat treatable. Alloys with silicon contents as low as 2% have been used for casting, but silicon content usually is between 5 and 13%. Strength and ductility of these alloys, especially those with higher silicon, can be substantially improved by modification of the Al-Si eutectic. Modification of hypoeutectic alloys (<12% Si) is particularly advantageous in sand castings and can be effectively achieved through the addition of a controlled amount of sodium or strontium, which refines the eutectic phase. Calcium and antimony additions are also used. Pseudo modification, in which the fineness of the eutectic but not the structure is affected, may be achieved by control of solidification rates.

In hypereutectic Al-Si alloys, refinement of the proeutectic silicon phase by phosphorus additions is essential for casting and product performance.
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Aluminum-silicon phase diagram and cast microstructures of hypoeutectic compositions (<12%Si), hypereutectic compositions (>12% Si), and one close to the eutectic composition of 12% Si
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Aluminum - Magnesium Casting Alloys (5xx.0) Aluminum-magnesium casting alloys are essentially single-phase binary alloys with moderate-to-high strength and toughness properties. High corrosion resistance, especially to seawater and marine atmospheres, is the primary advantage of castings made of Al-Mg alloys. Best corrosion resistance requires low impurity content (both solid and gaseous), and thus alloys must be prepared from high-quality metals and handled with great care in the foundry. These alloys are suitable for welded assemblies and are often used in architectural and other decorative or building needs. Aluminummagnesium alloys also have good machinability and an attractive appearance when anodized. In comparison to the aluminum-silicon alloys, all the aluminummagnesium alloys require more care in gating and greater temperature gradients to produce sound castings. This often means more chilling and larger risers. Also, careful melting and pouring practices are needed to compensate for the greater oxidizing tendency of these alloys when molten. Care is also needed because many of the applications of these alloys require polishing and/or fine surface finishing, where defects caused by oxide inclusions are particularly undesirable. The relatively poor castability of Al-Mg alloys and the tendency of the magnesium to oxidized increase handling difficulties, and therefore, cost.
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Aluminum-Zinc-Magnesium Alloys (7xx.0)

Aluminum-Zinc-magnesium alloys naturally age, achieving full strength by 20 to 30 days at room temperature after casting. This strengthening process can be accelerated by artificial aging. The high-temperature solution heat treatment and drastic quenching required by other alloys (Al-Cu and Al-Si-Mg alloys, for example) are not necessary for optimum properties in most Al-Zn-Mg alloy castings. These alloys have moderate to good tensile properties in the as-cast condition and attain good dimensional stability by annealing treatment. The eutectic temperature of alloys of this group are high, an advantage in castings that are to be assembled by brazing. The alloys have good machinability and resistance to general corrosion, despite some susceptibility to stress corrosion. They are not generally recommended for service at elevated temperatures. Castability of Al-Zn-Mg alloys is poor, and careful control of solidification conditions is required to produce sound, defect-free castings. Moderate to steep temperature gradients are required to assure adequate feeding to prevent shrinkage defects. Hot tear cracking develop in situations where there is resistance to contraction during solidification and cooling. However, good foundry techniques and control have enabled well-qualified sand foundries to produce relatively intricate castings. Permanent mold castings, except for relatively simple designs, can be difficult.

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Aluminum-Tin Alloys (8xx.0)

Aluminum-tin alloys that contain about 6% Sn (and small amounts of copper and nickel for strengthening) are used for cast bearings because of the excellent lubricity imparted by tin. These tin-containing alloys were developed for bearing applications (in which load-carrying capacity, fatigue strength, and resistance, to corrosion by internal-combustion lubricating oil are important criteria). Bearings of aluminum-tin alloys are generally superior to bearings made using most other materials. Aluminum-tin casting alloys 850.0, 851.0, and 852.0 can be cast in sand or permanent molds. However, 850.0 (6.3Sn-1Cu-1 Ni) and 852.0 (6.3Sn-2 Cu-1.2 Ni0.8Mg) usually are cast in permanent molds. Major applications are for connecting rods and crankcase bearings for diesel engines. Sand cast bearings, such as large rolling mill bearings, usually are made of alloy 851.0 (6.3Sn-2.5 Si-1Cu-0.5Ni). Bearing performance of Al-Sn alloys is strongly affected by casting method. Fine interdendritic distribution of tin, which is necessary for optimum bearing properties, requires small interdendritic spacing, and small spacing is obtained only with casting methods in which cooling is rapid. From a foundry standpoint, the aluminum-tin alloy system is unique. In the mold, the solidification starts at about 650 C, and the tin constituents of the alloy are liquid until 229 C. This extremely large solidification range presents unique problems. Rapid solidification rates are recommended to avoid excessive macrosegregation.
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Aluminum-Lithium Casting Alloys

Aluminum-lithium casting alloys may offer the same benefits as their wrought counterparts but have not been developed or commercialized as have the wrought aluminum-lithium alloys. The wrought and cast aluminum-lithium alloys consist of aluminum-copper alloys with lithium additions to reduce weight and improve strength. The behavior of both cast and wrought Al-Li alloys differs from conventional aluminum alloys in terms of fracture mechanisms and temperature effects on mechanical properties. Unlike conventional aluminum alloys, the toughness of Al-Li alloys does not increase with increasing aging temperature beyond the point of overaging (that is, the point required for peak strength). The benefits of reduced density and improved modulus of elasticity are the main incentives in the development of Al-Li alloys.

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Aluminum-Base Metal-Matrix Composite (MMC) for casting

Although aluminum-ceramic composites offer exceptional specific stiffness (elastic modulus-to-weight ratio), the initial development (prior to 1986) of aluminum-base MMC materials required energy- or laborintensive methods, such as powder metallurgy, thermal spray, diffusion bonding, and high-pressure squeeze casting. None of the composites produced from these methods could be remelted and shape cast, and each proved to be prohibitively expensive for most applications, even in the aerospace/defense sector. An ingot-metallurgical method for producing a castable aluminum-base MMC material with the trade name of Duralcan was introduced in 1986. The product consists, in foundry ingot form, of foundry alloys to which 10, 15, or 20 vol% of particulate silicon carbide (SiC) had been added. The most attractive feature of this ingot-metallurgical product is its low cost, especially at industrial production levels, and its ability to be remelted without an impairment of properties. The Al-SiC composite foundry ingot can be remelted and shape cast easily using standard aluminum foundry practices and equipment.

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Discontinuous silicon carbide/aluminum castings. Pictured are a sand cast automotive disk brake rotor and upper control arm, a permanent mold cast piston, a high-pressure die cast bicycle sprocket, an investment cast aircraft hydraulic manifold, and three investment cast engine cylinder inserts. Courtesy of Dural Aluminum Composites Corporation
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Corrosion
Aluminum is only less active than beryllium and magnesium among structural metals. Nevertheless, aluminum and its alloys are excellent corrosion resistant in most environments due to the rapid formation of a natural oxide film of alumina on the surface that inhibits the bulk reaction predicted from thermodynamic data. The oxide film developed in air is very thin (about several nm). It may continue to grow at a decreasing rate for several years to reach a thickness of some tens of nanometers. The rate of film growth becomes more rapid at higher temperature and higher relative humidity, so in water it is many times that occurring in dry air. In aqueous solutions, it has been suggested that the initial corrosion product is aluminium hydroxide, which changes with time to become a hydrated aluminum oxide. The main difference between this film and that formed in air is that it is less adherent and so is far less protective. As a general rule, the protective film is stable in aqueous solutions of the pH range 4.5-8.5, whereas it is soluble in strong acids or alkalis, leading to rapid attach of the aluminum.
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Pourbaix diagram for Aluminium

Weight loss of plates after 1 week exposure in solutions of different pHs

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Wear behaviour
Aluminum alloys have been used for tribological applications since about 1940, when cast aluminum-tin bearings were introduced for heavy machinery. The development of aluminum-silicon alloys spurred even greater interest in lightweight aluminum alloys for wear-resistant components. The two major types of wear relevant to industrial applications of aluminum-silicon alloys are abrasive and sliding wear. Although the different aluminum-silicon alloys show the same wear mechanisms, the wear behavior is different due to the various microstructures. In the aluminum-silicon alloys, the hard silicon particles are surrounded by a softer and relatively tough matrix. With increasing the amount of silicon particles, higher overall levels of hardness can be obtained. This results in better wear resistance. To be noted, under relatively light load conditions, which are normally associated with low (<10-11 m3/m) losses, wear resistance is not a strong function of silicon content.
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 The complex effects of composition on wear behavior suggest that wear resistance depends on other material properties (for example, fracture toughness). Thus lower fracture toughness at higher levels of silicon could lead to higher wear rates if larger pieces of debris are created during the wear process. Variations in toughness and strength with composition might also account for the apparent ability of the near-eutectic compositions to have a greater load-bearing capability at a given wear rate than either higher or lower silicon levels matrix hardness. Increased matrix hardness is typically achieved through the heat treatment response produced by copper and magnesium additions. Most commercial applications of aluminum-silicon alloys, in fact, depend on the increased strength achieved by heat treatment. The improved wear resistance of precipitation-strengthened material compared to solid solution strengthened material under low wear conditions was also noted using aluminum alloy 6061, which is strengthened primarily by Mg2Si precipitates. This is also the strengthening mechanism in the heattreatable magnesium-bearing aluminum-silicon alloys. Although heat treatment has a beneficial effect, variations in matrix hardness may be less important than the effects of silicon content.

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