1

DC
MACHINES


Ivan B.N.C. Cruz
Edited by M. Pedrasa, Nov 2012
2
Outline
Generator & Motor Principles
Rotating Machines
DC Machines
Equivalent Circuits

3
Force on a Current-Carrying
Conductor
B L Id F

=
}
The force on a current-carrying conductor in a
magnetic field is
F
| = sin A BI T
(motor principle)
N S
I
a
b
d
c
B
N S
a,b
|
F
d,c
Torque equation:
4
Consider a conductor loop that is rotating about an
axis in a magnetic field.
Generator Principle
N S
a
b
d
c
B
e
N S
a,b
d,c
The induced
current will
produce a
force that will
oppose the
motion of the
conductor
loop.
5
Features of Rotating Machines
typical DC
machine
cylindrical rotor
AC machine
salient pole
AC machine
6
Axial View of the Machine
rotor core
rotor winding
shaft
bearing
stator core
stator winding
air gap
Two concentric right-circular cylinders made of
non-saturating, infinitely-permeable iron. The
stator and rotor are separated by a small air gap.
Idealized Machine Structure
7
Features of a DC Machine
a
S F
I
C
q-axis
d-axis
armature
shunt field
series field
interpole
compensating
m
e
A 2-pole DC
Machine
8

1. DC Machines
The stator is made up of separate magnetic
poles or salient poles.
The field coils in the stator are excited with
direct current (DC).
The magnetic field is stationary in both
space and time.
9
Elementary Commutator Action
N S
t e
+ v -
x
.
Consider a rotating conductor
loop that is connected to a
split ring commutator.
axis of
rotation
N S
B
stationary
carbon
brush
10
Assumptions:
1. The rotor coil is connected to a split-ring
commutator.
2. The rotor is rotating with an angular velocity e
m
.
3. The speed voltage induced in the rotor is also
sinusoidal.
4. The commutator provides a rectifying action.
11
t e t t 2
g
E
t e t t 2
e
T
In a DC generator,
the split ring acts
as a rectifier.
In a DC motor, the
split ring ensures
that the electro-
magnetic torque is
unidirectional.
12
In the rotor of the
actual machine,
several conductor
loops are distri-
buted around the
rotor. The number
of rotor slots
equals the number
of commutator
bars.
Distributed Rotor Winding
N S
.
.
.
.
m
e
t e t t 2
g
E
e
T or
13
DC Machine
14
Types of DC Machines
Separately-excited Shunt
Self-excited Shunt
Series field
Compound
Long-shunt
Short-shunt

NOTE: We will deal only with the shunt DC machines.
15
where
Equivalent Circuit
S aS m F aF m s
i L i L E e + e =
The equations for the DC machine describe the
equivalent circuit shown below.
SHUNT SERIES EQUIV. ARMATURE
s
E
e
R
F
R
S
R
ee
L
FF
L
SS
L
e
v
F
v
S
v
a
i
F
i
S
i
FS
L
16
Separately-Excited Generator
a F aF e
I I L T =
F F F
I R V =
F aF m g
I L E e =
The shunt field is not connected to the armature.
At steady-state condition, all currents are constant.
R
F
R
a
I
F
V
F
V
t
E
g
I
a
m
T
e
T
m
e
g a a t
E =R I +V
m e m
D T T e + =
17
Separately-Excited Motor
F F F
I R V =
R
F
I
F
V
F
R
a
V
t
E
c
I
a
m
T
e
T
m
e
a F aF e
I I L T =
F aF m c
I L E e =
t a a c
V =R I +E
m m e
D T T e + =
The shunt field is not connected to the armature.
At steady-state condition, all currents are constant.
18
Self-Excited Generator
Shunt field is in parallel with the armature. At
steady-state condition, all currents are constant.
F F t
I R V =
a F aF e
I I L T =
F aF m g
I L E e =
g a a t
E =R I +V
m e m
D T T e + =
L F a
I I I + =
R
F
I
F
R
a
V
t
E
g
I
a
I
L
m
T
e
T
m
e
19
Self-Excited Motor
F F t
I R V =
a F aF e
I I L T =
F aF m c
I L E e =
t a a c
V =R I +E
m m e
D T T e + =
a F L
I I I + =
R
F
I
F
R
a
V
t
E
c
I
a
I
L
m
T
e
T
m
e
Shunt field is in parallel with the armature. At
steady-state condition, all currents are constant.
20
Separately-Excited Generator
Assumptions:

1. The machine is driven at a constant speed, e
m
.
2. There is no load; i.e. I
a
=0 and V
t
= E
g
.
3. Residual magnetism is present.
Consider the build-up of a separately-excited DC
generator.
R
F
I
F
V
F
V
t
E
g
I
a
=0

e
m
R
e
21
Note: The expression does not
consider the effect of saturation.
F aF m g
I L E e =
From E
g
=E
r
when I
F
=0, the voltage increases with
the field current, linearly at first, until saturation.
No-load
magnetization
curve
Linear
Approximation
E
g
E
r
I
F
E
r
is the generated
voltage due to the
residual flux.
22
External Characteristics Curve
What happens to the terminal voltage V
t
of the
separately-excited DC generator as the load is
increased?
With the generated voltage E
g
held constant, V
t

decreases as the load current I
L
is increased.
R
e
R
F
I
F
V
F
V
t
E
g
I
a
=I
L
m
e
F aF m g
I L E e =
a e g t
I R E V =
23
Define: Voltage Regulation
100
V
V V
VR
FL
FL NL

=
The plot of the terminal voltage versus the load
current is called the external characteristic curve.
V
t
V
NL
V
FL
I
FL
I
L
R
e
I
L
drop

(in percent)

24
Self-Excited Generator
Assumptions:

1. The machine is driven at a constant speed, e
m
.
2. There is no load; i.e. I
L
=0 and I
a
= I
F
.
3. Residual magnetism is present.
Consider the build-up of a self-excited DC
generator.
R
F
I
F
R
e
V
t
E
g
I
a
I
L
=0
m
e
25
Neglecting the small armature resistance drop,
then during the build up process,
F F F t g
dt
d
i R V E + = ~
Magnetization
Curve
E
g
E
r
I
F
Shunt Field
Resistance Line
No-Load
Voltage
x
I
x
V
d
E
d
o
26
At point x,
d g
E E =
Thus
d d F
V E
dt
d
=
Comments:
1. As long as the magnetization curve lies
above the field resistance line, the field flux
linkage will increase, and so will E
g
.

2. At point o, the build up process stops. E
g

produces just enough I
F
to sustain the
generated voltage.
F F d
I R V = and
27
External Characteristics Curve
Note: The generated voltage is affected by the
terminal voltage.
What happens to the terminal voltage of the self-
excited DC generator as the load is increased?
R
F
I
F
R
e
V
t
E
g
I
a
I
L

m
e
F aF m g
I L E e =
a e g t
I R E V =
L F a
I I I + =
F
t
F
R
V
I =
28
Note: The separately-excited generator has a
smaller voltage regulation.
separately-excited
self-excited
For comparison, the external characteristic
curves of the self-excited and separately-excited
generators are shown below.
V
t
I
FL
I
L
29
1. The shunt field requires a separate source.

2. The machine will build up even if residual
magnetism is absent.

3. The magnitude of the field current is not
affected by changes in the load.

4. Voltage regulation is better compared to the
self excited machine.
Separately-Excited Generator
30
1. The shunt field does not need a separate source.
2. The machine will not build up if there is no
residual flux.
3. The residual flux must be in the same direction
as the flux produced by the shunt field.

4. The field current (and E
g
) decreases with load.
The generator must be operated in the satu-
ration region to minimize the reduction in E
g.
5. The voltage regulation is poorer compared to
the separately-excited generator.
Self-Excited Generator
31
Generator Nameplate Data
Rated KW Rated V Rated RPM
The machine is assumed to supply its rated KW at
the rated voltage when driven at rated RPM. This
is called full load condition.
Example: Consider a 5 KW, 125 volt, 1200 RPM
DC generator. At full load,



000 , 5 P
Load
= watts
125 V
t
=
200 , 1 S =
volts
RPM
40
125
000 , 5
I
L
= = The full-load current is Amps
32
Example: A separately-excited DC generator has
a no-load terminal voltage of 125 V when driven at
1800 RPM with the field current set to 10 Amps.
Neglecting saturation, find

a) E
g
at 1600 RPM with I
F
constant at 10 A.

b. the speed in RPM so that E
g
= 100 V, with I
F

constant at 10 A.

c. E
g
if S and I
F
are increased to 1850 RPM and
12 A, respectively.

Assuming no saturation, reduces to
F aF m g
i L E e =
=
F
g
SI
E
constant
33

a.
) 10 ( 1600
E
) 10 ( 1800
125
g
=
b.
) 10 ( S
100
) 10 ( 1800
125
=
c.
) 12 ( 1850
E
) 10 ( 1800
125
g
=
or
or
or
R
e
R
F
I
F
V
F
V
t
E
g
I
a
S
V 111 E
g
=
RPM 1440 S =
V 154 E
g
=
34
Example: A separately-excited DC generator is
rated 5 KW and 125 V. The equivalent armature
resistance is 0.2O. Assuming the field current I
F

and the speed S are held constant,
a. At full load,
a. Find the terminal voltage V
t
at no load.
b. Find V
t
when the load power is 2.5 KW.
0.2O
R
F
I
F
V
F
V
t
E
g
I
a
S
000 , 5 P
L
= watts
125 V
t
= volts
A 40
125
5000
I
a
= =
35
V 133 V I R E
t a e g
= + =
The generated voltage is
At no-load, V
t
=E
g
. Thus . V 133 V
t
=
b. Since P
L
=2,500 watts, we get
t
L
V
2500
I =
Substitute in . We get V 133 V I R E
t a e g
= + =
t
t
V
V
2500
2 . 0 133 + =
Solving for V
t
, we get V
t
=129 V or (V
t
=4 V).
0 500 V 133 V
t
2
t
= +
or
36
Separately-Excited Motor
The shunt field is excited by a separate source.
R
F
I
F
V
F
R
e
V
t
E
c
I
L
=I
a
e
T
m
e
F F F
I R V =
a F aF e
I I L T =
F aF m c
I L E e =
c a e t
E I R V + =
m m e
D T T e + =
37
Self-Excited Motor

The shunt field is connected in parallel with the
armature.
F F t
I R V =
a F aF e
I I L T =
F aF m c
I L E e =
c a e t
E I R V + =
m m e
D T T e + =
a F L
I I I + =
R
e
V
t
E
c
I
a
I
L
e
T
m
e
R
F
I
F
38
Electromagnetic Torque
Whether self-excited or separately-excited,
a F a F aF e
I k I I L T = =
Note: The electromagnetic torque increases
linearly with the armature current I
a
.
separately-excited or
self-excited motor
T
e
I
a
39
Motor Speed
a
F
e
F
t
m
I
K
R
K
V
= e
Note: The motor speed decreases linearly with the
armature current I
a
.
separately-excited or
self-excited motor
e
m
I
a
we get
From and
c a e t
E I R V + =
m F F aF m c
k I L E e = e =
40
Motor Nameplate Data
Rated HP Rated V Rated RPM
The machine is assumed to supply its rated HP
when the input voltage is rated and the machine is
running at rated RPM. The efficiency must be given
so that the line current can be calculated.
Example: Consider a 5 HP, 125 V, 1200 RPM DC
motor. The efficiency is 85% at full load.
388 , 4
85 . 0
746 5
P
in
=

= watts
A 1 . 35
125
388 , 4
I
L
= =
41
Example: When I
L
= 200A, the speed e
m
is 100
rad/sec. Find e
m
when I
L
= 100A. Neglect
saturation.
R
F
I
F
R
e
V
t
E
c
I
a
I
L
e
T
m
e
V 250 V
t
=
O = 5 . 62 R
F
O = 1 . 0 R
e
The current in the shunt field
A 4
5 . 62
250
R
V
I
F
t
F
= = =
42
V 4 . 240 ) 1 . 0 ( 96 250 E
2 c
= =
When I
L
= 100 A
When I
L
= 200 A,
A 196 4 200 I
1 a
= =
V 4 . 230 ) 1 . 0 ( 196 250 E
1 c
= =
A 96 4 100 I
2 a
= =
100
1 m
= e rad/sec
We want to find .
2 m
e
43
We get rad/sec.
4 . 240 4 . 230
100
2 m
e
=
Substitution gives
Neglecting saturation,
reduces to
2 c
2 m
1 c
1 m
E E
e
=
e
m F F aF m c
k I L E e = e =
34 . 104
2 m
= e
44
Starting a DC Shunt Motor
At starting condition, e
m
=0 which makes E
c
=0.
e
t
as
R
V
I =
R
F
I
F
R
e
V
t
E
c
I
a
I
L
e
T
m
e
F aF m c
I L E e =
Since R
e
is very small, I
a
can be quite large, which
will damage the armature winding.
c a e t
E I R V + =
The starting
current is
45
In order to limit the starting current, resistors are
connected in series with the armature at starting
condition.
Note: The field rheostat R
h
is set to zero during
the starting period to maximize the field current
(and the electromagnetic torque).
R
F
I
F
R
e
V
t
E
c
I
a
e
T
m
e
R
4
R
3
R
2
R
1
S
4
S
3
S
2
S
1
R
h
S
F
S
a
46
1. Switch S
F
is closed with R
h
set to zero.
2. Switch S
a
is closed. The electromagnetic torque
and the starting armature current are
as F as F aF e
I k I I L T = =
4 3 2 1 e
t
as
R R R R R
V
I
+ + + +
=
3. T
e
causes the armature to rotate and E
c
begins
to build up.
4. Switches S
1
to S
4
are closed in sequence.
5. The rheostat R
h
is increased until the motor
rotates at the desired speed.
Starting Sequence
47
Starting Current and Speed
Note: Switching S
1
to S
4
causes the discontinuities.
I
a
t

t

m
e
48
Control of Steady-State Speed
From
we get
F aF
a e t
m
I L
I R V
= e
Note: e
m
increases when I
F
is decreased. This is
done by increasing R
h
, the field rheostat.
R
F
I
F
R
e
V
t
E
c
I
a
I
L
e
T
m
e
R
F
F aF m c
I L E e =
c a e t
E I R V + =
49
Speed Control
1. Control of the field current: A rheostat is
connected in series with the shunt field. When
R
h
=0, the speed can no longer be reduced.
2. Control of the terminal voltage: The speed
can be controlled all the way to zero. Generally,
a sinusoidal input is passed on to a thyristor-
controlled rectifier.
3. Some applications require that the direction of
rotation be reversed. This is done by
a. reversing the shunt field connection or
b. reversing the armature connection.
50
Example: Consider a shunt motor with V
t
=250V,
R
F
=62.5O and R
e
=0.1O. Assume that when R
h
=0
and I
L
=200A, e
m
=100 rad/sec. Suppose R
h
is
increased to 5O. Find the value of T
e
immediately
after the increase in R
h
.
Prior to the increase in R
h
A 4
5 . 62
250
I
1 F
= =
A 196 4 200 I
1 a
= =
V 4 . 230 ) 196 ( 1 . 0 250 E
1 c
= =
aF 1 a 1 F aF 1 e
L 784 I I L T = =
51
Immediately after R
h
is increased to 5 O
A 7 . 3
5 5 . 62
250
I
2 F
=
+
= (down by 7.4% )
The speed momentarily stays constant at 100
rad/sec. Since , we get
) 7 . 3 ( 100
E
) 4 ( 100
4 . 230 2 c
=
F aF m c
I L E e =
2 F 2 m
2 c
1 F 1 m
1 c
I
E
I
E
e
=
e
Substitution gives
V 3 . 213 E
2 c
=
52
The new armature current is
The new electromagnetic torque is
Note: The increase in I
a
more than compensates
for the decrease in I
F
. The electromagnetic torque
increases and the machine speeds up.
A 367
1 . 0
3 . 213 250
I
2 a
=

=
aF 2 a 2 F aF 2 e
L 1358 I I L T = =
(up by 87% )
(up by 73% )
53
Developed Power
E
c
I
a
= developed power in the armature
Note: The developed armature power produces the
internal mechanical torque.
R
e
V
t
E
c
I
a
From
c a e t
E I R V + =
we get
a c
2
a e a t
I E I R I V + =
V
t
I
a
= input to armature
R
e
I
a
2
= armature copper loss
54
DC Machine Losses
A. Electrical Losses
1. Copper Loss in Windings (I
2
R in shunt and
series fields, armature, compensating and
interpole windings)
2. Brush Contact Loss V
b
I
a

B. Magnetic Field Loss (Core Loss)
1. Hysteresis Loss
2. Eddy-Current Loss
C. Mechanical Losses
1. Bearing Friction and Windage
2. Brush Friction Loss
3. Friction Loss in Ventilating Fan
55
Define: Rotational Loss = Magnetic Field Loss
+ Mechanical Losses
losses output
output
Efficiency
+
=
(for a generator)
input
losses input
=
(for a motor)
Leakage and Armature Reaction Fluxes
(assumed as 1% of output for machines 200
HP or above, otherwise neglected)
D. Stray Load Loss