Learning Theories

The Technological Revolution The Spectrum of Learning Theories Behaviorism Constructivism Fitting the Other Theories into the Spectrum Theory of Multiple Intelligence Learning Theories and the Brain Brain Structures Implications for Learning Theory Implications for Multimedia References

By Darren Forrester

!oel "ant#ie

Kilde: http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/%7Egnjantzi/learning_theories.htm

This chapter takes a brief look at the two major categories of learning theories (behaviorism and constructivism), the major theorists within those categories, and the implications of those theories for the use of multimedia and communications and information technology for learning purposes. A separate section within the chapter provides a brief overview of learning based upon neuroscience and recent discoveries about the functioning of the brain. A series of links are provided to further resources on learning theory, neuroscience, and the brain.

Our Technological Revolution and the Implications for the $ay $e Learn
We have all e perienced a learning moment when we were so focussed or engulfed in the learning, that everything else did not matter. !andidly, the raison d"#tre or motivation for our focus may have been that we had a boss or teacher breathing down our neck or an impending e am was to $uantify our level of knowledge or intelligence or a particular moment necessitated that a skill be learned very $uickly. %egardless of the motivating factors for this moment of focussed learning, the e perience is what psychologists &ihaly !'iks'entmihalyi and (llen )anger label in their respective theories, as moments of *optimum flow* or *mindfulness*. According to psychologist &ihaly !'iks'entmihalyi, optimum flow occurs when+ Alientation gives way to involvement, enjoyment replaces boredom, helplessness turns into a feeling of control, and psychic energy works to reinforce the sense of

self, instead of being lost in the service of e ternal goals. (!'iks'entmihalyi, ,--., p./-) %eplicating such moments of optimum flow is the job of educators regardless of the domain, whether it be school, the workplace in job training, or the military, etc. &oreover, certain learning theorists are advocating the greater use of technology, namely computers, in learning situations because they see enormous potential of computer technology to replicate these optimum moments of flow. )earning is a personal act. We each place our own personal stamp on how we learn, what we learn and when we learn. We in effect have our own learning style. 0oward 1ardner"s theory of multiple intelligences which acknowledges learning as an holistic e perience is, at present, one of the most well known descriptors of human cognitive profiles. The act of learning is parado ical in nature. 2t can at times appear to be a very simple act. 3o simple, that we do not $uestion its presence in how we go about our daily activities, for it is natural to our e istence as learning organisms. 4et, when we encounter difficulties in learning something, we no longer take the learning process for granted. 2t is only then that our metacognition or awareness of how we learn is heightened. )earning is taken for granted as a natural process. As simple a process it may seem, the root of understanding how we learn is not as straight forward. The e istence of numerous definitions and theories of learning attest to the comple ity of this process. A random sampling of any educational psychology te t will illustrate the variance in views to what e actly is learning and how we do learn. 2n (ducational 5sychology+ An 2ntroduction, for e ample, the authors write, *)earning implies a change in the individual as a result of some intervention. 2t may be viewed as an outcome or as a process.* (6elkin and 1ray, ,-77, p.8,,) While this definition reflects a behaviorist view of learning, for it e$uates learning as an outcome, it is a starting point for the authors to e pand their description of learning into many other realms, namely the different theories of learning. They in effect, devote a whole chapter of their te t just to describe the many ways of defining learning. While it may seem somewhat premature to evaluate the aforementioned definition of learning and to e$uate it with a specific theory, it is important to recogni'e that *intervention* in the learning process can imply many different things. The degree of intervention, by who or what and how, are the defining factors of a learning theory. These factors help distinguish the many different theories. As you will see these theories are not stagnant. They are evolving and changing as we discover new ways of viewing human cognition. *The mechanistic model of the mind of the behavior era has given way to the logical9computational model favored by artificial intelligence and cognitive science theorists* (&c)ellan, ,--/, p./). :on Tapscott, in his book 1rowing ;p :igital+ The %ise of the <et 1eneration, argues that we are now in a digital era of learning. According to Tapscott, a transformation in learning is taking place from what he labels *broadcast* learning to *interactive* learning. <o longer are today"s generation of learners satisfied in being the passive recipients of the traditional teaching process, rather, they want to discover it for themselves by becoming interactive with the learning. The net generation children using 1loba)earn =a web site>, are beginning to process information and learn differently than the boomers before them. <ew media tools offer great promise for a new model of learning 9 one based on discovery and participation. (Tapscott, ,--?, p.,87)

Tapscott"s thesis that the *technological revolution* is permeating every aspect of our lives forces us to e amine the use of computer technology as learning devices. 3uch rapid social, economic and general lifestyle change, due in essence to the technological revolution, begs the $uestion 9 based on learning theory, why does the use of computers as a *learning* tool make sense@ This chapter will answer this $uestion by profiling the many learning theories.

The Spectrum of Learning Theories

As a review of the literature of learning theories will illustrate there are many labels being used to describe the many theories. &oreover, there are many theorists associated with each approach. A categori'ation of these labels and theorists will help in understanding these fundamental theories. The spectrum of learning theories consists of many approaches or ways of e plaining how humans learn. A description of each of these theories will suffice in providing you with enough knowledge to critically e amine the use of computer technology as a learning device. The resume of each theory will consist of+

the associated names of the theory a description of the theory theorists associated with the theory hyperlinks on the World Wide Web

Diagram %&' The t(o e)tremes

Behaviorism

Constructivism

The e tremes of this learning theory spectrum are represented by respectively, the 6ehaviorist and !onstructivist theories of learning. As theories trying to e plain the same thing, they are bipolar based on their respective views of how knowledge is ac$uired and the intervention of tools of learning (teachers or instructors). As a conte t to better understand all of the theories of learning presented in this chapter, e amine these two e tremes first and then place the remaining theories onto the spectrum.

Behaviorism
The *ssociated !ames of this Theory'

6ehaviorism labelled as a teaching approach is often referred to as directed instruction. As you compare this theory with the !onstructivist view of learning, this label will become self9evident. Also in contrast to !onstructivism, it has been labelled an objectivist theory of learning.

Theorists associated (ith Behaviorism'

A.6 Watson (. ) Thorndike 6.B 3kinner

* Description of Behaviorism'
The concern or emphasis of 6ehaviorism is observable indicators that learning is taking place. !ontrasting this view of learning is the emphasis of cognitive psychologists who e$uate learning with the mental processes of the mind. 6ehaviorists do not deny the e istence of these mental processes. 2n fact, they acknowledge their e istence as an unobservable indication of learning. The focus of 6ehaviorism is on the conditioning of observable human behavior. A. 6 Watson, the father of 6ehaviorism, defined learning as a se$uence of stimulus and response actions in observable cause and effect relationships. The behaviorists" e ample of classical conditioning demonstrates the process whereby a human learns to respond to a neutral stimulus in such a manner that would normally be associated with an unconditioned stimulus. The supporting e ample often cited with classical conditioning is the case of 5avlov"s dog. The focus of 5avlov"s e periment was the digestive process in animals. 2n conducting the e periment, 5avlov noticed that the dog would salivate (response), upon hearing the ringing of a bell. This occurred because the dog had learned to associate its unconditional stimuli (normally feeding), with the neutral stimuli of the bell ringing simultaneously with the feeding process. Watson, believed that the stimuli that humans receive may be generated internally (for e ample hunger), or e ternally (for e ample, a loud noise). 6.B. 3kinner e panded on the foundation of 6ehaviorism, established by Watson, and on the work of (dward Thorndike, by focussing on operant conditioning. According to 3kinner, voluntary or automatic behavior is either strengthened or weakened by the immediate presence of a reward or a punishment. *The learning principle behind operant conditioning is that new learning occurs as a result of positive reinforcement, and old patterns are abandoned as a result of negative reinforcement.* (6elkin and 1ray, ,-77, p.C-) 2n his book entitled, The Technology of Teaching, 3kinner wrote+ The application of operant conditioning to education is simple and direct. Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement under which students learn. They learn without teaching in their natural environments, but teachers arrange special contingencies which e pedite learning, hastening the appearance of behavior which would otherwise be ac$uired slowly or making sure of the appearance of behavior which otherwise never occur. (3kinner, ,-/?, p./D)

3kinner believed that more comple learning could be achieved by this process of contingencies and reinforcement *... through successive stages in the shaping process, the contingencies of reinforcement being changed progressively in the direction of the re$uired behavior.* (3kinner, ,-/?, p.,.) Applying the theoretical principles of 6ehaviorism to learning environments, it is easy to recogni'e that we have many *behaviorist artifacts* in our learning world. A dissection of the traditional teaching approaches used for years would reveal the powerful influence that 6ehaviorists have had on learning. The concept of directed instruction, whereby a teacher is providing the knowledge to the students either directly or through the set up of *contingencies*, is an e cellent e ample of the 6ehaviorist model of learning. The use of e ams to measure observable behavior of learning, the use of rewards and punishments in our school systems, and the breaking down of the instruction process into *conditions of learning* (as developed by %obert 1agne), are all further e amples of the 6ehaviorist influence. With the advent of the computer in school, !.A.2., or computer9assisted instruction has become a prominent tool for teaching, because from a 6ehaviorist perspective, it is an effective way of learning. !A2 uses the drill and practice approach to learning new concepts or skills. The $uestion acting as the stimulus, elicits a response from the user. 6ased on the response a reward may be provided. The *contingencies* of learning are translated into different levels of the program. %ewarding the user to a different level for correct responses follows e actly the approach of operant conditioning. (ducators have espoused !A2 as an effective teaching approach because it allows for self9paced instruction and it liberates them from the direct instruction of all their students so as to focus on those students with particular needs.

+yperlin,s to Behaviorist $e- .ages'

http://www.coe.uh.edu/~srmehall/theory/theory.html http://tecfa.unige.ch/edu-comp/edu-s94/contrib/schneider/learn.fm.html#RE !"#$% http://www.sil.org/lingualin&s/library/literacy/fre"'!/(ao44"/)*+,%-9/t&s"4'/t&s '"4/ http://mse.byu.edu/ipt"#!/.ordan/learnterm/b.html

Constructivism'
The *ssociated !ames of this Theory'
!onstructivsm is recogni'ed as a uni$ue learning theory in itself. 2t however, may be associated with cognitive psychology because as a theory of learning it focuses on a learner"s ability to

mentally construct meaning of their own environment and to create their own learning. As a teaching practice it is associated with different degrees of non9directed learning. The term constructivsm is linked to !ognitive and 3ocial !onstructivsm.

Theorists associated (ith Constuctivism'

Aohn :ewey )ev Eygotsky Aean 5iaget Aerome 6runer 3eymour 5apert &itchell %esnick

* Description of Constructivism+
The merits of 6ehaviorist learning theory and of their teaching practices are well documented. They have served well in teaching a growing <orth American population over the past si decades. 6ehavioral learning theory manifested itself in creating a systematic approach to teaching. %obert 1agne and )eslie 6riggs, in their book, 5rinciples of 2nstructional :esign, combined 6ehaviorist principles of learning with a cognitive theory of learning named 2nformation9 5rocessing. The focus of the latter theory in this combination was of the internal processing that occurred during a learning moment. The design of instruction must be undertaken with suitable attention to the conditions under which learning occurs. With reference to the learner, learning conditions are both e ternal and internal. These conditions are in turn dependent upon what is being learned. 0ow can these basic ideas be used to design instruction @ 0ow can they be applied to the design of single lessons, of courses, and of entire systems of instructions @ (1agne and 6riggs, ,-7D, p. ,D) 1agne and 6riggs" principles of instructional design broke down the teaching process into a systematic process of nine steps. 2t is in effect, this type of systematic approach to teaching that acted as the catalyst for the creation of another view of the way humans learn. 6ehaviorist learning theory had served its purpose and its approach and goals were becoming outdated according to !onstructivists like 3eymour 5apert. !onstructivist learning theory sought to improve on what 6ehaviorist learning theory had already established by focussing on the motivation and ability for humans to construct learning for themselves. 2t viewed 6ehaviorism as

being too teacher centered and directed. !onstructivists regarded the educational system as a process of matching skill objectives with test items. 2t was void of meaningful learning. They also saw the teaching process focus too much on individual work rather than on group work. The final criti$ue of 6ehaviorist learning theory from the !onstructivist perspective helped define the core of !onstructivism. To imply that knowledge is separate to the human mind and that it must be transferred to the learner in a teacher centered approach fundamentally was counter to the !onstructivist theory of learning. !onstructivists believe that all humans have the ability to construct knowledge in their own minds through a process of discovery and problem9solving. The e tent to which this process can take place naturally, without structure and teaching is the defining factor amongst those who advocate this learning theory. Aean 5iaget, a 3wiss psychologist, observed human development as progressive stages of cognitive development. 0is four stages, which commence at infancy and progress into adulthood, characteri'e the cognitive abilities necessary at each stage to construct meaning of ones environment. 3eymour 5apert, psychologist and contemporary criti$ue of 6ehaviorist teaching methods, writes in his book, The !hildren"s &achine+ Thus, constructionism, my personal reconstruction of constructivism has as its main feature the fact that it looks more closely than other educational 9isms at the idea of mental construction. 2t attaches special importance to the role of constructions in the world as a support for those in the head, thereby becoming less of a purely mentalist doctrine. (5apert, ,--F, p.,D8) As the inventor of )G1G, the programming tool for children, 5apert too believed that children as learners have a natural curiosity to construct meaning of their world. The educational system as 5apert saw it was too structured and it stifled this natural curiosity. The means by which children were being taught relegated them to a role of passive recipients of the teaching hence, they were not motivated to construct any learning for themselves. )earning according to !onstructivists is a $uestion of motivating an individual to attach new meaning to past cognitive e periences. According to 5apert+ 2t =constuctivsm> does not call in $uestion the value of instruction as such. That would be silly+ (ven the statement (endorsed if not originated by 5iaget) that every act of teaching deprives the child of an opportunity for discovery is not a categorical imperative against teaching, but a parado ically e pressed reminder to keep it in check. The constructionist attitude to teaching is not at all dismissive because it is minimalist 9 the goal is to teach in such a way as to produce the most learning for the least teaching. Gf course, this cannot be achieved simply by reducing the $uantity of teaching while leaving everything unchanged. The principle other necessary change parallels an African proverb+ 2f a man is hungry you can give him a fish, but it is better to give him a line and teach him to catch fish himself. (5apert, ,--F, p.,F-) 5apert"s desire to have children become motivated learners, critical thinkers, problem9solvers and metacognitionists is to be achieved through educational reform that provides the learner with the

necessary tools to participate and to take ownership of the learning process. According to 5apert, the computer is the appropriate tool to achieve such desired educational reform. These desired objectives of 5apert and others who share the !onstructivist view of learning are coming closer to reality as more people discover the power of computer technology. Brom :onald Tapscott"s perspective, 5apert"s desired reality is happening now, as a paradigm shift to more interactive learning due to the e ploitation of the digital media is taking place in our learning institutions. Tapscott cites eight shifts in learning today+

Brom linear to hypermedia. Brom instruction to construction and discovery. Brom teacher9centered to learner9centered education. Brom absorbing material to learning how to navigate and how to learn. Brom school to lifelong learning. Brom one9si'e9fits9all to customi'ed learning. Brom learning as torture as learning as fun. Brom the teacher as transmitter to the teacher as facilitator.

+yperlin,s to Constructivist $e- .ages'

http://www.tcimet.net/mmclass/summer/012)ales.htm http://www.coe.uh.edu/~srmehall/theory/construct.html http://www.gwu.edu/~tip/bruner.html http://www.mamamedia.com/areas/grownups/people/seymour.html http://www.mamamedia.com/areas/grownups/home/alt.html http://lyn3.dac.neu.edu/home/httpd/t/t.ohnson/papert4,#history.htm

Fitting the other Theories onto the Spectrum

The two e tremes of the spectrum have been outlined (refer to diagram H8). 2nherent within each of these two e tremes are related theories. :iagram H8+ (3pectrum 3ummary) Behaviorism :irected 2nstruction Constructivism <on9directed 2nstruction

Gbjectivist Teacher9centered 6ehavioral observations Bocus on the individual &ore focussed on one approach

!onstructivist )earner9centered !ognitive operations 1roup work is emphasi'ed &ore holistic in approach

Bundamentally, !onstructivism is a cognitive learning theory because of its focus on the mental processes that construct meaning. Gther learning theories e$uated with cognitive psychology are+ 2nformation95rocessing theory, 3caffolding theory (associated with the %ussian philosopher )ev Eygotsky) and 6rain9based learning theory (associated with neuroscientists such as &arian :iamond and %obert 3ylwester and educator 3usan Iovalik). 2nformation95rocessing theory regards human learning as being analogous to a computer and its ability to store memory. As humans we process information initially with our senses. This information is either processed into our short term memory or it is lost. 2f this information is used and practised it is only then put into long term memory. )ev Eygotsky thought that our cognitive development was directly related to our social development. The culture we live in influences our social and cognitive development according to Eygotsky. 0e further recogni'ed the differences of how the world is seen by children and by adults. Eygotsky labelled this difference in cognitive ability as the *'one of pro imal development*. The job of educators was to identify this 'one and to find out where the child was situated in this 'one and build upon their specific level through a *scaffolding* process. 6uilding from what the learner knows is in essence, anchoring the learning on past e perience. 3uch anchoring is fundamental to !onstructivist theory of learning. !omputer technology is viewed by 3eymour 5apert as an e cellent means to anchoring learning to meaningful e periences. The comple ity of understanding how humans learn is reflective of our comple ity as biological, social and cognitive animals. &any theories e ist, all focussing on different aspects of our make9up as humans. (ach theory is an attempt to e plain how we learn, act and behave+ 3igmund Breud focussed on our sub9conscious, 3kinner on our observable behavior, cognitive psychologists on our mental processes, humanistic psychology on our social and interpersonal development. 0oward 1ardner took a more holistic approach in describing our cognitive profiles. 0is classification of human intellectual ability into seven intelligences incorporates many aspects of psychology to define the cognitive behavior of humans. 6efore moving on to &ultiple 2ntelligences , refer to the following hyperlinks for information on other learning theories.

http://mse.byu.edu/ipt"#!/.ordan/learning.html

Theory of Multiple Intelligences'

0uman intelligence should not be e$uated solely with linguistic or logical9mathematical intelligence alone, according to 0oward 1ardner. As the author of a new way of looking at human intelligences, 1ardner, a 0arvard professor, identified a total of seven different intelligences that humans may possess. 0is list includes+

)inguistic intelligence )ogical9mathematical intelligence 3patial intelligence &usical intelligence 6odily9kinesthetic 2nterpersonal intelligence 2ntrapersonal intelligence

1ardner is working on more intelligences that $ualify as cognitive processes+ *&ultiple intelligences theory, on the other hand, plurali'es the traditional concept*(1ardner, ,--F, p.,C) 1ardner"s fascination with human intelligence and how the brain works was started with an investigation of people who had e perienced brain damage of some sort. 0e recogni'ed that not all abilities, whether cognitive or motor9sensory, were eliminated from the individual"s repertoire despite having endured some form of brain damage. 1ardner hypothesi'ed that we possess more than one form of intelligence. The theory of multiple intelligences provides a more holistic view of the intelligence of humans. 1ardner advocates that we may all attempt to develop each of these intelligences to our optimum level. 0owever, we may be more adept in only certain of these intelligences. We may however, aspire through practice and development to improve in the remaining intelligences. The use of technology appeals to this view of intelligence in that 1ardner"s theory acknowledges that cognition is not a linear process. The computer as a learning tool has enormous potential in developing the different forms of intelligences of 1ardner"s theory.

+yperlin,s to Multiple Intelligences $e- .ages'

http://www.athena.i((.nasa.go(/curric/weather/adptcty/multint.html

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Learning Theories and the Brain

$hat is Learning/
)earning is the process by which we receive and process sensory data, encode such data as memories within the neural structures of our brain, and retrieve those memories for subse$uent use. The variety of information stored within such memories is enormous, including such items as+ how to control your sphincter muscle until a socially appropriate occasion, how to identify mommy in a crowd, how to ride a bicycle, what is the shortest path to grandmotherJs house without going near the lair of the wolf, what is the tune for 6eethovenJs Ode to Joy, and what a philosopher means when she says *The cat is on the mat.* All learning takes place within the brain, and as our understanding of the underlying structures and processes of the brain increases we can begin to apply that knowledge to improve our construction of learning environments. Gur ability to describe and understand the basic processes by which our brain learns has been enhanced by recent technological developments and by the accumulation of long9term studies in human and animal populations. Gf particular benefit has been the development of brain9imaging techni$ues that allow us to observe the operation of normal human brains during the performance of a variety of tasks. &agnetic %esonance 2maging (&%2) and similar technologies have allowed researchers to map neural activity during sensory data processing and monitor the transfer of information into long9term memory. %esearchers have also made great strides in determining the basic mechanisms that underlie the transmission of information within the brain. 3uch research on brain structure, neural transmitters, and the process by which memories are stored and retrieved have allowed the development of neuro9physiological models of learning. Although neuroscience has provided us with an increasingly rich and accurate descriptive theory of learning within the brain, we still need prescriptive theories of how to ma imi'e the efficiency and capacity of human learning. To some e tent all learning theories are prescriptive and seek to minimi'e the time re$uired to transfer information into memory and ma imi'e the efficiency of retrieving that information. Gur current knowledge of the brain, and our speculations regarding the evolutionary function of learning, should assist such prescriptive theories in designing learning environments that provide for ma imum learning efficiency. 2n particular, prescriptive theories informed by our current knowledge of neuroscience should allow us to evaluate the role of multimedia in learning environments. We should also be able to ma imi'e the impact of multimedia in such environments through application of learning theories and our knowledge of the human brain. )earning environments should not be construed simply as the traditional formal classroom within the conte t of institutionali'ed public education. 3uch environments occur within the workplace, the home, and other social institutions as communication and information technology continues to penetrate Western society. We should also be aware that the use of multimedia will have an impact upon the development of the human brain, particularly when such techni$ues are used with children and adolescents whose brains are still developing and maturing.

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The Brain
The three9pound universe that is our brain consists of more than ,.. billion neurons and the associated structures that organi'e, nourish, and protect their functioning. (ach neuron may have between C,... and C.,... connections to other neurons, forming a dense connective mat that allows the storage of enormous amounts of information. 2t is important to remember that structures within the brain continue to develop until late adolescence and that neurons will continue to grow connections to other neurons throughout adult life.

Brain Structures

The diagram above shows four basic structures in the brain that are important for bodily functions and for learning and memory. The -rain stem is primarily concerned with basic survival functions and the regulation of body systems. The cere-ellum is involved in the performance of automatic movement patterns (walking, running, touch9typing, and other physical skills that can become part of automatic procedural memory). The lim-ic system is responsible for the processing of short9 term memory into long9term memory as well as the generation and regulation of emotions. The

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cere-ral corte) is the area of the brain in which sensory data is received and analy'ed, decisions are made, and behavioral responses are activated. 2nformation is received from the major sensory organs of the body+ eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skinK and is held briefly in sensory memory. The further processing of that information appears to be dependent upon the state of emotional arousal of the brain and the utility of such information for potential survival. )ong9term memories are generated through the growth and spread of neural connections between those modular structures that contain the memory (3ylwester, ,--C, pp. ?-9 -.). The more often such structures are activated and the stronger the connections become to associated structures, the more easily such memories are retrieved and used by the brain in decision making and conscious thought. To some e tent the driving forces behind the way our brain processes sensory input and makes decisions are the survival imperatives that accompanied human physical and cultural evolution. Gur brains reflect the importance that survival places upon evaluating potential threat situations, making a $uick response, and focusing all body resources on support of those functions that may lead to continued survival. 2n high9threat situations the focus of the brain will be almost e clusively upon what is identified as the potential threat while the body shuts down relatively unimportant systems to concentrate on those involved in the fight9or9flight response. )ow9threat situations allow the brain to sample and evaluate a broader spectrum of sensory input and to analy'e such input for future use. Thus a large looming shadow in the cave mouth tends to generate fear, prompting the body to shut down digestion, pump more adrenaline, and prepare the cerebellum to handle the process of running while the cerebral corte looks for places to hide or make a stand. 3trong negative emotion tends to evoke the fight9or9flight physiological and mental responses that shut down high9level cognition. A premium should therefor be placed upon the reduction of those factors within a learning environment that give rise to negative emotions. At the same time, sensory input that does not receive attention is not available for processing through short9term into long9 term memory. !learly a balance must be struck between too much and too little stimulation in learning situations. 3ome stimulation and motivation is necessary for the learner to pay attention to the data that they are re$uired to learnK on the other hand too much stimulation (particularly in a negative conte t) is liable to create anger or fear as an emotional response, either of which can serve to reduce the amount of learning carried out within the environment. 2t appears that the limbic system plays an important part in the process of storing information as long9term memories. Those activities that provide an emotionally supportive environment may well have a positive effect upon the processing of information into long9term storage and subse$uent retrieval of those memories. 1roup activities, co9operative learning, role9playing, and simulations tend to provide emotional support and emotional conte t for learning. %etrieval of long9term memories is enhanced when a large number of connections have been established between the neural modules that store such memories. To some e tent our growing knowledge about the organi'ation of the brain tends to support those theories of learning that can generally be labeled as constructivist. That is, situated knowledge that is connected to a large number of other memories is more apt to be recalled than is unconnected knowledge that has been learned by rote. 6ecause the process of creating connections between ideas and memories is essentially carried out through a process of rehearsal and review, learners should be encouraged to review knowledge that is being learned and attempt to build connections to that knowledge that is

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already easily retrieved from long9term memory. 3uch cognitive tools as narration, story9telling, constructing metaphors, and making comparisons are strategies that help to build and maintain connections. The construction of knowledge is essentially the growing of connections between the neural modules that contain individual memories.

Implications for Learning Theory

2f the apparent symmetry between contemporary brain9based learning theories and constructivism is accurate, then basic guiding principles of constructivism should be used in designing learning environments. These principles include+ ,. )earning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning. 8. &eaning re$uires understanding wholes as well as parts. 5arts must be understood in the conte t of wholes. Therefore the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts. F. 2n order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to understand the world, and the assumptions that support those models. D. The purpose of learning is to construct one"s own meaning, not to have the *right* answers by repeating someone else"s meaning. )earning is inherently inter9disciplinary, and the only valuable assessment of learning is assessment that is part of the learning process and that provides students with information on the $uality of their learning. (Gn 5urpose Associates, ,--?b) 3uch learning environments should also be designed around the ideas that come forward from brain9based learning. That is, they should employ the three instructional techni$ues associated with brain9based learning+ *orchestrated immersion, where learning environments are created that fully immerse students in a learning e perienceK rela)ed alertness, where an effort is made to eliminate fear while maintaining a highly challenging environmentK and active processing, where the learner consolidates and internali'es information by actively processing it* (Gn 5urpose Associates, ,--?a). )earning environments constructed with these principles in mind will tend to be organi'ed around thematic units featuring knowledge in depth and the e ploration of projects that have real meaning for the participating learners.

Implications for Multimedia

0ow should we then use multimedia presentations of information to effectively learn in the conte t of current brain9based learning theory@ The communications and information technology that constitutes contemporary multimedia platforms has some significant advantages in creating a learning environment, but there are some pitfalls that must be accounted for as part of the learning process.

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&ultimedia, at its best, allows us to bring the real world to the learner through the use of sound and video. 3uch connection to the real world should serve as a factor in motivating students, and as a factor in providing them with additional connections to other knowledge structures. At the same time, multimedia allows students to e perience information through multiple modes of presentation. 3uch multi9modal learning should help to build connections within the learnerJs brain if only because multiple modes of reception will engage different areas of the learnerJs brain. !ontemporary multimedia platforms allow a greater degree of learner control and more freedom for the learner to undertake self9directed e ploration of the material. 3uch self9directed learning is likely to be more meaningful and more connected to e isting knowledge structures within the learnerJs brain. Therefore, we should see advantages for learning programs that include multimedia presentations. )earners should also gain from the possibility of self9paced instruction based upon contemporary multimedia learning technology. Whenever possible, immediate feedback should be built into a multimedia program to assist students in forming correct connections prior to reinforcing connections between new and old information incorporated within e isting knowledge structures. :esigners of multimedia instructional packages should take comfort in the strengths of multimedia, but they should also be aware of potential problems in using multimedia with learners. Although current multimedia technology allows e cellent presentation in both video and audio modes, and provides some tactile feedback through the use of keyboards, there is little to offer students who need tactile e perience @multimedia is essentially a bimodal presentation strategy unless additional work is done to prepare material for students. (ven the best multimedia programs cannot provide the total stimulation that natural environments provide@we have yet to incorporate smell or taste into such presentations, and tactile sensations are still limited. &ore importantly, there is a clear danger that multimedia programs may be used to substitute for interaction with other learners. We should not be seduced by technical virtuosity or cutting9edge visual and aural effects, there is still a need for human interaction and emotional support. Above all else, we should beware of the tendency to substitute passive learning for active learning. &ultimedia provides significant advantages in presenting information to learners, particularly if sufficient resources have been invested to create presentations that make full use of current technology. 5resentation of information, no matter how technically sophisticated, is not enoughK learners must interact with content to construct their own meanings and integrate new knowledge into the dense web of neural connections that is mind and memory.

On0line Resources for Brain0-ased Learning

Brain$e-' Simulated Brain Data-ase
http+LLfabian.bic.mni.mcgill.caLbrainwebL

The 1ffects of 1lectronic Media On * Developing Brain

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http+LLinteract.uoregon.eduL&edia)itLBAL&)ArticleBolderLeffects.html

1)plorations in Learning Data-ase

http+LLwww.gwu.eduLMtipL

Instruction' The Theory Into .ractice

The Significance of 1nrichment

http+LLwww.newhori'ons.orgLblabNdiamond,.html

The +uman Brain' * Learning Tool

http+LLwww.marymt.eduLMpsycholLbrain.html

Cognitive0!euroscience Resources
http+LLwww.cs.cmu.eduL1roupsL!<6!L!og<euroL

Instructional Technology Connections

http+LLwww.cudenver.eduLMmryderLitcon.html

Integrated Thematic Instruction' Theoretical Bac,ground

http+LLwww.kovalik.comLMskovalikLiti.html

References
6elkin, 1ary, 3. and 1ray Aerry, ). (,-77). Educational Psychology: An Introduction. :ubu$ue 2owa+ Wm. !. 6rown !ompany 5ublishers !'iks'entmihalyi, &. (,--.). Blow+ The Psychology of Optimal Experience. <ew 4ork+ 0arper and %ow 1agne, %obert, &. and 6riggs, )eslie, A.. (,-7D). Principles of Instructional Design. <ew 4ork+ 0olt, %inehart and Winston 2nc. 1ardner, 0oward (,--F). Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. <ew 4ork+ 6asic6ooks, a division of 0arper!ollins 5ublishers. &c)ellan, 0ilary. (,--/). eing Digital: Implications for Education. (ducational Technology

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Gn 5urpose Associates (,--?a). rain!"ased learning =Gnline>. Available+ http+LLwww.funderstanding.comLlearningNtheoryNhowC.html =,--?, April ,F> Gn 5urpose Associates (,--?b). #onstructi$ism =Gnline>. Available+ http+LLwww.funderstanding.comLlearningNtheoryNhow,.html =,--?, April ,F> 5apert, 3eymour (,--F). The #hildren%s Machine: &ethin'ing school in the Age of the #omputer. <ew 4ork+ 6asic6ooks, a division of 0arper!ollins 5ublishers. 3kinner, 6. B. (,-/?). The Technology of Teaching. <ew 4ork+ &eredith !orporation 3ylwester, %. (,--C). A cele"ration of neurons: An educator(s guide to the human "rain. Ale andria, EA+ Association for 3upervision and !urriculum :evelopment Tapscott, :on. (,--?). )ro*ing +p Digital: The &ise of the ,et )eneration. <ew 4ork+ &c1raw 0ill

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