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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
A. English Language Teaching
English language teaching has changed Ior many years. Several methods
have emerged to Iacilitate English teaching and learning process. Richards
(2006: 6-21) divides the trends in language teaching in the last 50 years into
three phases which are traditional approaches (up to the late 1960s), classic
communicative language teaching (1970s to 1990s), and current
communicative language teaching (late 1990s to the present).
Richards describes the characteristic oI traditional approaches which
existed up to the late 1960s. Traditional approaches to language teaching gave
priority to grammatical competence as the basis oI language proIiciency. They
were based on the belieI that grammar could be learned through direct
instruction and through a methodology that made much use oI repetitive
practice and drilling. The approaches to the teaching oI grammar were
deductive and inductive. It was assumed that language learning meant building
up a large repertoire oI sentences and grammatical patterns and learning to
produce these accurately and quickly in the appropriate situation. Once a basic
command oI the language was established through oral drilling and controlled
practice, the Iour skills were introduced, usually in the sequence oI speaking,
listening, reading and writing.
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This approach also oIten employed several techniques including
memorization oI dialogs, question-and-answer practice, substitution drills, and
various Iorms oI guided speaking and writing practice. Great attention to
accurate pronunciation and accurate mastery oI grammar were stressed Irom
the very beginning stages oI language learning, since it was assumed that iI
students made errors, these would quickly become a permanent part oI the
learner`s speech.
In the 1970s, a reaction to traditional language teaching approaches
began and soon spread around the world. The centrality oI grammar in
language teaching and learning was questioned, since it was argued that
language ability involved much more than grammatical competence. Attention
shiIted to the knowledge and skills which were needed to use grammar and
other aspects oI language appropriately Ior diIIerent communicative purposes
such as making requests, giving advice, making suggestions, describing wishes
and needs, and so on. What was needed in order to use language
communicatively was communicative competence. Building on Hymes`s
theory, Canale and Swain in Richardss and Renandya (2002: 206-207) propose
that communicative competence includes grammatical, discourse,
sociolinguistic, and strategic competence. These components underlie the
eIIectiveness oI speaking.
Since the 1990s, the communicative approach has been widely
implemented because it describes a set oI very general principles grounded in
the notion oI communicative competence as the goal oI second and Ioreign
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language teaching. Current communicative language teaching (CLT) places the
students as the center oI teaching and learning process, involves the real
communication, and meaningIul tasks, and uses mixed syllabus (Richards,
2006:22).
B. Four Language Skills
In general, there are Iour language skills which the language learner
should master either through the process oI learning or acquisition. They are
reading, speaking, listening and writing. Along with the development oI
theories oI language teaching and learning, there are several terms used Ior
these skills which are conventionally accepted by most oI language teachers as
what Donald and Kneale (2001:14) say that:
'Language teachers conventionally distinguish between Iour
aspects oI language which are mastered by means oI the 'Iour skills: listening,
speaking, reading, and writing. Listening and reading might be taught as
primarily passive` receptive` or input` skills, whilst speaking and writing are
their active` productive` or output` counterparts (Donald and Kneale, 2001:
14).
In real communication, these skills are oIten maniIested integratively.
For example, when learners listen to a lecture, they make notes. To clariIy the
message they got, they read the notes again and expressed their understanding
by asking questions. The previous theory that English should be taught
integratively is supprorted by Brown (2001:232). He states:
'Despite our history oI treating the Iour skills in separate segments oI a
curriculum, there is a trend toward skill integration. That is, rather than
designing a curriculum to teach the many aspects oI one skill, say, reading,
curriculum designers are taking more oI a whole language approach whereby
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reading skills, then, will also deal with related listening, speaking, and writing
skills.
Meanwhile in Harmer`s (2007:265) words, 'it would make no sense to
teach each skill in isolation since in meaningIul communication, people
employ incremental language skills not in isolation, but in tandem. In
summary, these Iour language skills should be carried out in a meaningIul way
and taught integratively.
C. The Nature of Speaking
1. The Definition of Speaking
Many deIinitions about speaking have been proposed by language
experts. According to Johnson and Morrow (1981: 70), speaking which is
popular with the term oral communication`, is an activity involving two or
more people in which hearers and speakers have to react to what they hear
and make their contributions at a speed oI a high level. In this deIinition, the
essential components mentioned to exist in speaking are the speakers, the
hearers, the message and the response. Both the speakers and the hearers
should agree on the message and/or meaning being talked through
acceptable language.
From a communicative, pragmatic view oI the language classroom,
speaking and listening skills are closely intertwined. The interaction
between these two modes oI perIormance applies especially strongly to
conversation. In a classroom, students will respond to the teacher aIter
listening to some inIormation (Brown, 2001: 267). In addition, Chaney
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(1998) in Kayi (2006) adds that speaking is the process oI building and
sharing meaning through the use oI verbal and non-verbal symbols in a
variety oI contexts. Speaking is much more complex. It involves both a
command oI certain skills and several diIIerent types oI knowledge.
Canale and Swain (1980) in Richards and Renandya (2002: 206-207)
suggest that in order to be able to communicate meaningIully, speakers need
to know the knowledge oI communicative competence consisting oI
grammatical, discourse, strategic, and sociolinguistic competence.
Grammatical competence is an umbrella concept including grammar
(morphology, syntax), vocabulary, and mechanics. With regards to
speaking, the term mechanics reIer to basic sounds oI letters and syllables,
pronunciation oI words, intonation, and stress. Grammatical competence
enables speaker to use and understand English-language structures
contributing to students` Iluency. Discourse competence is concerned with
speakers` relationships, Iormal or inIormal occasion, the rules oI cohesion
and coherence etc. Discourse competence contributes in turn taking in
conversation (Scarcella and OxIord, 1992 in Richards and Renandya, 2002:
207).
Brown (1994) in Richards and Renandya (2002: 207) states that
sociolinguistic competence means knowing what is expected socially and
culturally by users oI target language. Learners must acquire the rules and
norms governing the appropriate timing and realization oI speech acts.
Understanding the sociolinguistic side oI language helps learners to know
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what comments are appropriate, how to ask questions during interaction,
and how to respond nonverbally according to the purpose oI the talk.
In addition, Brown (2004: 102) also asserts that strategic competence
is the way learners manipulate language in order to meet the communicative
goals. It is perhaps the most important oI all the communicative competence
elements. This argument is highlighted by Berns (1990) in Richards and
Renandya (2002: 208) who suggests that strategic competence is the ability
to compensate Ior imperIect knowledge oI linguistic, sociolinguistic, and
discourse rules. With reIerence to speaking, strategic competence reIers to
the ability to know when and how to take the Ilow, how to keep the
conversation going on, how to terminate the conversation, and how to clear
up communication breakdown as well as comprehension problems.
2. Functions of Speaking
Numerous attempts have been made to classiIy the Iunctions oI
speaking in human interaction. Richards (2008: 21-28) distinguishes three
Iunctions oI speaking which are diIIerent in terms oI the Iorm, Iunction, and
teaching approaches. The Iunctions oI speaking are talk as interaction, talk
as transaction, and talk as perIormance.
Talk as interaction reIers to conversation and describes interaction that
serves a primarily social Iunction. Brown (2004: 142) uses a diIIerent term
to reIer to talk as interaction. He uses the term oI interpersonal exchange.
The main Ieatures oI talk as interaction can be quoted as Iollows (Richards,
2008: 22)
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a. Has a primarily social Iunction
b. ReIlects role relationships
c. ReIlects speaker`s identity
d. May be Iormal or casual
e. Uses conversational conventions
I. ReIlects degrees oI politeness
g. Employs many generic words
h. Uses conversational register
i. Is jointly constructed
Richards also promotes some skills involved in using talk as
interaction. They are opening and closing conversations, choosing topics,
making a small talk, joking, recounting personal incidents and experiences,
turn taking, using adjacency pairs, interrupting, reacting to others, and using
an appropriate style oI speaking (Richards, 2008:23). These ideas are
supported by Brown (2004: 142) saying that interpersonal exchanges can
become pragmatically complex with the need to speak in a casual register
and use colloquial language, ellipsis, slang, humor, and other sociolinguistic
conventions. Talking with some Iriends in a party and chatting with
companions during the coIIee break are the examples oI talk as interaction.
Talk as a transaction reIers to situations where the Iocus is on what is
said or done. The message and making oneselI understood is the central
Iocus rather than the participants and how they interact socially with each
other (Richards, 2008: 24). Meanwhile, to reIer to the same thing, Brown
(2004: 142) uses another term, transactional language. He promotes that the
purpose oI transactional language is to exchange speciIic inIormation.
Classroom group activity and buying things in a shop are the examples oI
transactional language.
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To see the diIIerences between talk as interaction and transaction, it is
important to see the main Ieatures oI talk as transaction. Talk as transaction
has a primarily inIormation Iocus. It Iocuses on the message not the
participant. There may be Irequent questions, repetitions, comprehension
checks, negotiation and digression. While the speakers are talking to get
some inIormation or obtaining goods or services, they employ a range oI
skills such as explaining a need or intention; asking questions, clariIications,
opinions; making suggestions and etc (Richards, 2008:26)
The last type oI speaking Iunctions is talk as perIormance. It reIers to
public speaking to share the inIormation. Audiences are the part oI this talk.
It tends to be written language than conversational language since it has
recognizable Iormat which is like monolog rather than dialog. Classroom
presentations, public announcements, and speeches are kinds oI examples oI
talk as perIormances. Some skills are involved in public speaking such as
using an appropriate Iormat, presenting inIormation in an appropriate
sequence, maintaining audience engagement, using an appropriate opening
and closing, and creating an eIIect on the audience (Richards, 2008: 28)
Another distinction oI speaking has been made by Brown and Yule in
Nunan (1989:27) who consider the development oI speaking skills into two
parts that are dialogue and monologue. Besides, Thornburry (2005: 14)
proposes Iour language Ieatures in speaking. They are interactive, non
interactive, planned and unplanned. Multy-party speeches like casual
conversation between Iriends or between children and their parents is
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interactive speaking or dialogue. Monologues such as news reporting on a
television, and voice-mail message are non interactive speaking. Public
speeches and business presentations are typically planned. On the other
hand, chatting with Iriends at the classroom and conversation at the shop are
kinds oI unplanned speaking.
3. Aspects of Speaking Skills
Fluency is natural language use occurring when a speaker engages in
meaningIul interaction and maintains comprehensible and ongoing
communication despite limitations in his or her communicative competence.
Accuracy means that the speakers are required to use the correct vocabulary,
grammar, and pronunciation. Fluency is developed by creating classroom
activities in which students must negotiate meaning, use communication
strategies, correct misunderstandings, and work to avoid communication
breakdowns (Richards, 2006: 14).
In addition, Nunan (1999) states that Iluency means that the speakers
are required to be able to keep going when speaking spontaneously.
However, it does not mean that the speakers speak so Iast because
sometimes pausing is important. That pause is an aspect oI Iluency which
may be long but not Irequent. Moreover, when speaking Iluently, speakers
should be able to get the message across with whatever resources and
abilities they have got and regardless oI any grammatical and other
mistakes.
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Otherwise, Nunan (1999) also asserts that accuracy means that the
speakers are required to use the correct vocabulary, grammar, and
pronunciation. It uses correct example oI language use.
The diIIerences between activities that Iocus on Iluency and those that
Iocus on accuracy can be summarized as Iollows.
1. Activities Iocusing on Iluency
a) ReIlect natural use oI language
b) Focus on achieving communication
c) Require meaningIul use oI language
d) Require the use oI communication strategies
e) Produce language that may not be predictable
I) Seek to link language use to context
2. Activities Iocusing on accuracy
a) ReIlect classroom use oI language
b) Focus on the Iormation oI correct examples oI language
c) Practice language out oI context
d) Practice small samples oI language
e) Do not require meaningIul communication
I) Control choice oI language
(Richards, 2006: 13-14).
Besides considering the importance oI Iluency and accuracy in
speaking, teachers should also pay attention to an essential oI language
perIormance. Richards and Renandya (2002: 204) say that learning to speak
a Ioreign language is more than knowing its grammatical and semantic
rules. Learners must also acquire the knowledge oI how native speakers use
the language in the context oI structured interpersonal exchange in which
many Iactors interact.
Harmer (2001: 24-25) suggests a number oI variables which govern
learners` choice in order to meet the appropriacy during the conversation
such as setting, participants, gender, channel and topic. Setting is related to
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the place where the conversations take place. People speak diIIerently at
oIIice and night clubs. Participants reIer to people involved in an exchange.
The language Iorms students use will be diIIerent when they speak with
their Iriends and teachers. Gender represents how women and men use
language in conversations. Women have Irequently used more concessive
language than men Ior example, and crucially have oIten talked less than
men in mix-sex conversations. Channel represents how people communicate
whether they will use spoken or written grammar. Speaking Iace to Iace and
giving speech at the hall will generate diIIerent uses oI language. Finally,
the topic aIIects the grammatical and lexical choices (Harmer, 2001: 24-25).
Furthermore, Harmer (2001: 269-270) also proposes Iour language
Ieatures that are necessary Ior spoken production. They are connected
speech, expressive devices, lexis and grammar, and negotiation meaning.
The Iirst Ieature is the use oI connected speech. EIIective speakers oI
English need to be able not only to produce the individual phoneme oI
English but also to use Iluent connected speech. In connected speech,
sounds are modiIied (assimilation), omitted (elision), added (linking verb),
or weakened (through contractions and stress patterning). Due to the
complexity oI the connected speech, thereIore, English teachers should
involve the students in activities which are designed to improve their
connected speech.
The second Ieature is the use oI expressive devices. Some native
speakers oI English use expressive devices in speaking through some ways,
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such as changing the pitch and stress oI particular parts oI utterances,
varying volume and speed, and using Iacial expressions. The use oI these
devices can contribute to the ability to convey meanings. ThereIore, in order
to be Iully eIIective communicators, students should be able to employ
those devices.
The third Ieature is the use oI lexis and grammar. The use oI common
lexical and grammatical Ieatures can be Iound in spontaneous speech when
perIorming certain language Iunctions.
The last Ieature is the use oI negotiation. The negotiation is used to
seek Ior clariIication. The speakers need to ask Ior clariIication when they
are listening to someone else especially when they know that their talks are
not being understood. Students choose language Iorms provided to ask Ior
clariIication.
4. Types of Classroom Speaking Performance
In designing speaking activities or instructional materials Ior second
language or Ioreign-language teaching, it is necessary to recognize the
diIIerent Iunctions speaking perIorms in daily communication and the
diIIerent purposes Ior which the students need speaking skills. According to
Brown (2001: 271-274), there are Iive types oI speaking. They are imitative,
intensive, responsive, interactive, and extensive.
In imitative speaking perIormance, learners imitate or parrot back a
word or phrase or possibly a sentence. The purpose oI imitation is not Ior
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meaningIul interaction but Ior Iocusing on some particular elements oI
language Iorm. Drilling is the example oI imitative speaking perIormance.
An intensive speaking perIormance is related to the production oI
short stretches oI oral language to demonstrate the competence such as
grammatical, phrasal, lexical, or phonological relationship (prosodic
elements: intonation, stress, rhythm, juncture) (Brown, 2004: 273).
Another type oI classroom speaking perIormance is called responsive.
Short replies are the example oI speaking perIormance which does not
extend into dialogues, Ior example standard greetings, simple requests and
comments etc. The stimulus is always a spoken prompt in order to preserve
the authenticity with only one or two Iollow-up questions (Brown, 2004:
141).
Interactive speaking perIormance consists oI transactional and
interpersonal dialogues. Transactional dialogue is carried out Ior the purpose
oI conveying or exchanging inIormation. This type oI speaking perIormance
is an extended Iorm oI responsive language. A conversation is the example
oI transactional dialogue. Another extended Iorm oI perIormance in
interpersonal dialogue.
Compared to the purpose oI transactional language, interpersonal
(dialogue) tends to maintain social relationships better than exchange
inIormation. Some elements may involve in a dialogue such as a casual
register, colloquial language, emotionally charged language, slang, ellipsis,
sarcasm etc.
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The last speaking perIormance is extensive (monologue). Extensive oral
production can be in the Iorm oI reports, summaries, and speeches. It can be
planned or impromptu.
Thornbury (2005: 89-110) suggests some activities to promote
speaking. They are discussion and debate; drama, role play, and simulation;
presentation; classroom conversation and casual chat; outside-class
speaking; and storytelling, joke, and anecdote.
Discussion and debate tend to be diIIicult speaking activities and
thereIore they are commonly suitable Ior higher level students
(intermediate/advance). Many teachers would agree that discussion at class
which arise students to talk spontaneously is a good activity since it
provokes the students to exchange inIormation. Meanwhile, Brown (2004:
175) states that discussion can promote some skills such as topic
nomination, maintenance, and termination; attention getting, interrupting,
Iloor holding, control; clariIying, questioning, paraphrasing, comprehension
signals; negotiating meaning; intonation patterns Ior pragmatic eIIect;
kinesics, eye contact, proxemics, body language; and politeness, Iormality,
and other sociolinguistic Iactors.
Drama, role play and simulation are other speaking activities that
activate students` imagination. Drama allows the learners to take an
imaginative leap out oI the conIines oI the classroom, provides a useIul
springboard Ior real-liIe language use. Just in a real theatre, a preparation
stage including rehearsal is done Ior public perIormance. Role play has
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appeal Ior students because it allows the students to be creative and to put
themselves in another person`s place Ior a while. The students can play as a
customer and buyer, teacher and student etc. In a simulation, on the other
hand, the students play themselves in a simulated situation Ior example they
make a simulation oI what students should do when an earthquake strikes.
Presentation is a planned talk that is arranged systematically. It can be
done individually or in group. It is usually Iollowed by a question session
which is the most challenging stage oI presentation.
Classroom conversation and casual chat are two diIIerent activities.
Casual chat or talk is primarily interpersonal, unplanned communication,
and tends to be natural since it is spontaneous. But, not many students can
speak spontaneously with their Iriends. Many teachers then make a planned
conversation called a classroom conversation to encourage the students to
speak English.
Outside-class speaking consists oI some activities done outside the
classroom. These include (a) such as tape diaries which are the learners
recording their voice and submitting the recording to the teacher in order
that they can get the Ieedback; (b) video conIerencing in which the learners
communicate via a live audio or video link over the internet; and (c) human-
computer interaction in which people talk by responding to written input
like using chat room at yahoo messenger and Iacebook.
The last speaking activity type includes storytelling, jokes, and
anecdotes. Storytelling is a universal Iunction oI language and one oI the
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main ingredients oI casual conversation. Delivering jokes and anecdotes
could be a Iunny rehearsal oI speaking.
Harmer (2001: 88-93) gives Iour activities to promote the speaking
skills. The Iirst activity is an inIormation gap in which two speakers have
diIIerent parts oI inIormation making up a whole. The second activity is
called survey. The students can conduct questionnaires and surveys asking
some questions about certain topics. They go around the class questioning
other students and noting down what they say. The third activity is
discussion. The important things when the teacher conducts debate or
discussion are the activity should include engage, study, and activate stages
(ESA). The students should engage in the topic. Then, they might do some
studies to Iigure out language inputs and Iacts. Finally, they move quickly to
activate stage, that is discussion itselI. The last activity is role play where
the students are asked to imagine what they are in diIIerent situations and
act accordingly.
5. Micro- and Macroskills of Speaking
Brown (2004: 142) distinguishes between microskills and macroskills
oI speaking. The microskills reIer to producing the smaller chunks oI
language such as phonemes, morphemes, words, collocations, and phrasal
units. The macroskills imply the speaker`s Iocus on the larger elements:
Iluency, discourse, Iunction, style, cohesion, nonverbal communication, and
strategic options. Brown (2004: 142-143) continues to explain micro- and
macroskills oI oral production as quoted bellow.
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a) Microskills
1. Produce diIIerences among English phonemes and allophonic
variants.
2. Produce chunks oI language oI diIIerent lengths.
3. Produce English stress patterns, words in stressed and unstressed
positions, rhythmic structure, and intonation contours.
4. Produce reduced Iorms oI words and phrases.
5. Use an adequate number oI lexical units (words) to accomplish
pragmatic purposes.
6. Produce Iluent speech at diIIerent rates oI delivery.
7. Monitor one`s own oral production and use various strategic
devices pauses, Iillers, selI- corrections, backtracking to enhance
the clarity oI the message.
8. Use grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs etc.), system (e.g. tense,
agreement, pluralization), word order, patterns, rules, and elliptical
Iorms.
9. Produce speech in natural constituents: in appropriate phrases, pause
groups breathe groups, and sentence constituents.
10. Express a particular meaning in diIIerent grammatical Iorms.
11. Use cohesive devices in spoken discourse.
b) Macroskills
1. Appropriately accomplish communicative Iunctions according to
situations, participants, and goals.
2. Use appropriate styles, registers, implicature, redundancies, pragmatic
conventions, conversation rules, Iloor-keeping and Iloor-yielding,
interrupting, and other sociolinguistic Ieatures in Iace-to-Iace
conversations.
3. Convey links and connections between events and communicate such
relations as Iocal and peripheral ideas, events and Ieelings, new and
given inIormation, generalization, and exempliIication.
4. Convey Iacial Ieatures, kinesics, body language, and other nonverbal
cues along with verbal language.
5. Develop and use a battery oI speaking strategies, such as emphasizing
key words, rephrasing, providing a context Ior interpreting the
meaning oI words, appealing Ior help, and accurately assessing how
well your interlocutor in understanding you.
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6. The Difficulties in Speaking
Many people regard that speaking is diIIicult. The Iollowing eight
characteristics oI spoken language are adapted Irom several sources.
a. Clustering. Fluent speech is phrasal not word by word. Learners can
organize their output both cognitively and physically through clustering.
b. Redundancy. The speaker has an opportunity to make meaning clearer
through the redundancy oI language.
c. Reduced Iorms. Contractions, elisions, reduced vowels etc are special
problems in teaching spoken English. Learners who never learn
colloquial contractions sometimes speak too Iormal in casual context.
They become bookish and stilted.
d. PerIormance variables. In spoken language there is a process called
thinking time. During this thinking time, learners can employ a certain
number oI perIormance hesitations, pauses, backtracking, and correction.
Some examples oI thinking time in English such as inserting Iillers like
uh, um, well, vou know, I mean etc. Hesitation phenomena are the most
salient diIIerence between native and nonnative speakers oI language.
e. Colloquial language. Students should be Iamiliar with words, idioms, and
phrases and they practice to produce these Iorms.
I. Rate oI delivery. It is one oI the characteristics oI Iluency. Teachers
should help learners achieve an acceptable speed along with other
attributes oI Iluency.
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g. Stress, rhythm, and intonation. The stress-timed rhythm oI spoken
language and its intonation patterns convey important message in any
communication Iorms.
h. Interaction. Having no interlocutor will rob the speaking skill
components, one oI them is the creativity oI conversational negotiation.
(Dunkel, 19991; Richards, 1983; Ur, 1984) in Brown (2001: 270-271)
C. Teaching Speaking.
1. Principles of Language Teaching
Teachers have an important role in making the teaching and learning
process succeed. They may try to use various approaches to teach English
and then select an appropriate approach which is suitable Ior their classes. It
is necessary to connect teachers` experience during the teaching and
learning process with the theory oI teaching derived Irom research so that it
will help the teachers to comprehend when to use a certain technique, with
whom it will work, how to adapt it Ior the students, and how to judge its
eIIectiveness. Brown (2001:55-70) suggests twelve teaching principles that
must be taken into account by the teachers during the language teaching.
These twelve principles are classiIied into three parts as explained below.
a. Cognitive Principles
(1) Automaticity
Children acquire language subconsciously. Through an
inductive process oI exposure to language input and opportunity to
experiment with output, they appear to learn languages without
30
thinking about them. Barry Mclaughlin in Brown (2001:55) called this
as automatic processing with peripheral attention to language Iorms.
This is, in order to manage the incredible complexity and quantity oI
language. Both adults and children must sooner or later move away
Irom processing language unit by unit, piece by piece, Iocusing
closely on each and graduate` to a Iorm oI high-speed, automatic
processing in which language Iorms (words, aIIixes, word order, rules
etc) are only in the periphery oI attention. Over generalizing language,
thinking too much about its Iorms, and consciously lingering on rules
oI language all tend to impede the automaticity.
(2) The anticipation of reward
According to Skinner in Brown (2001: 57-58), the anticipation
oI reward is the most powerIul Iactor in directing one`s behavior.
Everything people do is inspired and driven by a goal. During the
teaching and learning process, a reward can be in the Iorm oI praise
Ior a correct response e.g. very good and appropriate grades or scores
or other public recognition. However, teachers should careIully use a
reward to motivate the students. They may consider the Iollowing
things.
a. Provide an optimal degree oI immediate verbal praise and
encouragement to students as a short-term reward.
b. encourage students to reward each other with compliments and
supprtive action
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c. short-term reminders oI progress may help students to perceive
their development in class with low motivation.
d. Display enthusiasm and excitement during the teaching and
learning process.
e. Explain the long-term rewards in learning English such as the
academic beneIits oI knowing English.
(3) Meaningful learning
MeaningIul learning happens when new inIormation is linked
with the existing structures and memory systems. It creates stronger
retention than rote learning in which new inIormation does not
connect with one`s existing cognitive. Teachers can avoid the pitIalls
oI rote learning such as too much grammar explanation, abstract
principles and theories, drilling and memorization; activities whose
purposes are not clear and do not contribute to accomplishing the
goals oI lesson, unit, or course; and techniques that are so mechanical
that students Iocus on the mechanics instead oI on the language or
meanings.
(4) Intrinsic motivation
The most powerIul rewards are those that are intrinsically
motivated within the learner. Because the behavior stems Irom needs,
wants, or desires within oneselI, the behavior itselI is selI-rewarding.
ThereIore, no externally administered reward is necessary. At the
class, the learners may perIorm the task volunteerily because the task
32
is interesting, useIul, or challenging and not because they anticipate
some cognitive or aIIective rewards Irom the teacher.
(5) Strategic investment
SuccessIul mastery oI the second language will be due to a large
extent to learner`s own personal investment oI time, eIIort, and
attention to the second language. In this case, learners use various
styles and strategies in learning process. Teachers should give
attention to every student at the classroom.
b. Affective Principles
(6) Language ego
Learners learning the second language may have the second
identity, a new mode oI thinking, acting, and Ieeling. Language ego
can be a Iragility, deIensiveness, and rising oI inhibition. Teachers
should give much attention to students having those Ieelings. Teachers
can display a supportive attitude to students. They can also help their
students to understand that the conIusion oI developing the second
identity in the second culture is a normal and natural way. Considering
learners` language ego help teachers to determine some aspects in the
teaching and learning process such as who to call on, who to ask to
volunteer inIormation, when to correct a student`s speech error, how
much to explain something, how structured and planned an activity
should be, who to place in which small groups or pairs etc.
33
(7) Self-confidence
Another term to reIer to selI-conIidence is selI-esteem.
Learners` belieI that they can Iinish the task is one oI the Iactors in
their eventual success in attaining the task. Teachers can give ample
verbal and nonverbal assurances to students. Besides, they can
sequence techniques Irom easier to more diIIicult.
(8) Risk- taking
SuccessIul language learners must be willing to become
gamblers` in the game oI language, to attempt to produce and to
interpret language that is a bit beyond their absolute certainty. Risk-
taking contributes to long-term retention and intrinsic motivation oI
learners. Teachers can encourage students to try out language, to
venture response, and not to wait Ior someone else to volunteer
language.
(9) The language-culture connection
Teachers who teach language to students should also teach its
culture such as values, ways oI thinking, Ieeling, acting etc as culture
and language are intricately intertwined. The language-culture
connection will aIIect the process oI acculturation in students. For
those who can adapt with a new culture will aIIect their language
acquisition.
34
c. Linguistic principles
(10) The native language effect
The native language oI learners inIluences the acquisition oI the
target language system. The inIluence oI the native language can both
Iacilitate and interIere learners in learning the target language. But, the
interIering eIIects are likely to be the most salient. Teachers can give
Ieedback whenever students made errors by explaining the native
language cause oI the error. Besides, they can persuade students to
directly think into the second language instead oI making translation
words in the native language to the target language.
(11) Interlanguage
Second language learners tend to go through a systematic or
quasi-systematic developmental process as they progress to Iull
competence in the target language. SuccessIul interlanguage
development is partially a result oI utilizing Ieedback Irom others.
Teachers are enganged in a never- ending process oI giving Ieedback
to students about whether or not their actual language is clear and
unambiguous.
(12) Communicative competence
Communicative competence is the goal oI a language classroom.
According to Bachman (1990), Canale and Swain (1980) in Brown
(2001:68), communicative competence consists oI some components.
They are organizational competence (grammatical and discourse),
35
pragmatic competence (Iunctional and sociolinguistic), strategic
competence, and psychomotor competence. Communicative goals are
best achieved by giving due attention to language use and not just
usage, to Iluency not just accuracy, to authentic language and
contexts, and to students` eventual need to apply classroom learning to
previously unrehearsed contexts in the real world.
2. Principles for Designing Speaking Techniques
Brown (2001:275-276) proposes some principles Ior designing
speaking techniques. These principles will help teachers to conduct the
speaking class.
a. Use techniques that cover the spectrum oI learner needs, Irom
language- based Iocus on accuracy to message-based Iocus on
interaction, meaning and Iluency. Make sure that the tasks include
techniques designed to help students to perceive and use the building
block. At the same time, do not make the students Ieel bored with
repetitious drills. Teachers should make any drilling as meaningIul as
possible.
b. Provide intrinsically motivating techniques. Try to appeal to students`
ultimate goals and interests in their need Ior knowledge, Ior status, Ior
achieving competence and autonomy, and Ior being all that they can be.
Help them to see how the activity will beneIit them.
c. Encourage the use oI authentic language in meaningIul contexts. It
takes energy and creativity to design authentic contexts and meaningIul
36
interaction, but with the help oI storehouse oI teacher resource material
it can be done. Even drilling can provide a sense oI authenticity.
d. Provide appropriate Ieedback and correction. In ESL situations,
Ieedback is mostly Irom the teacher. Feedback can be Iound outside oI
the classroom but it is important Ior teachers to inject the kinds oI
corrective Ieedback that are appropriate Ior the moment.
e. Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening. Many
interactive techniques involving speaking will also include listening.
The two skills can reinIorce each other. Skills in producing language
are oIten initiated through comprehension.
I. Give students opportunities to initiate oral communication. Part oI oral
communication competence is the ability to initiate conversations, to
nominate topics, to ask questions, to control conversation and to change
the subject. Teachers can design speaking techniques allowing students
to initiate language.
g. Encourage the development oI speaking strategies. Not all students are
aware oI strategic competence. Teachers should help their students
develop strategic competence to accomplish oral communicative
purposes. The strategies are asking Ior clariIication (What?), asking
someone to repeat something (Excuse me?), using Iillers (uh, I mean,
Well), using conversation maintenance cues (Huh, Right, Yeah), getting
someone`s attention (Hey, So) and so Iorth.
37
3. Approaches to the Teaching of Speaking
Many language experts have argued the best approach to language
learning during years. Some believe in the old approaches, some welcome the
use oI current approach to improve the teaching and learning process.
According to Richards (2006: 24-25) communicative language teaching (CLT)
is a new approach used widely since the 1990s. Here are some core
assumptions oI current CLT.
1. Native language is allowed as long as learners engage in interaction and
meaningIul communication.
2. Learners negotiate meaning through the task, expand their language
resource, and notice how language is used.
3. Learning language is a gradual process involving creative use oI language
and trial and error. The goal oI learning is using the new language Iluently
and accurately.
4. SuccessIul language learning uses communication strategies.
5. The role oI the teacher is a Iacilitator and learners learn through
collaboration and sharing.
CLT requires a syllabus that identiIies all the relevant components oI a
language. The Iirst widely adopted communicative syllabus developed within
the Iramework oI classic CLT was termed Threshold Level. It described the
level oI proIiciency learners need to attain to cross the threshold and begin real
communication. It consists oI topics, Iunctions, notions, situations as well as
grammar and vocabulary (Van Ek and Alexander in Richards, 2006: 10-11)
Regarding CLT, Richards also distinguishes two current methodologies
that can be described as extensions oI the CLT movement. These
methodologies are also suggested by Thornburry (2005: 119-122) Ior teaching
speaking. They are a task-based approach and a text-based or genre approach.
38
Richards (2006: 33-40) asserts that a task-based approach or task based
instruction (TBI) Iocus on classroom process. The interactional process in the
classroom is achieved by the use oI instructional tasks. Furthermore,
Thornburry (2005: 119) states that TBI was originally motivated by the belieI
that a language is best learned through using it rather than learned then used. A
task based syllabus Ior speaking would be based around a sequence oI
integrated tasks. Speaking would not necessarily exclusive, but the task would
meet the real world uses oI language identiIied through need analysis. Willis
(1966) in Richards (2006: 37-38 and 2008: 34-35) suggests using a cycle oI
activities with task work consisting oI pre-task activities, i.e. introduction to
topic and task; the task cycle comprising task, planning, and report; and the
language Iocus comprising analysis and practice.
On the contrary oI a task-based, a text-based or genre-based approach
Iocuses on product. According to this view, learners in diIIerent contexts have
to master the use oI the text types occurring most Irequently and
communicative competence involved in diIIerent kinds oI spoken and written
texts in speciIic contexts. Mixed syllabus is used in a text-based approach that
speciIies other components oI text such as vocabulary, grammar, topics,
Iunctions. Thus, it integrates reading, writing, oral communication, and
grammar teaching through the mastery oI texts rather than in isolation
(Richards, 2006: 39-45). Feez and Joyce (1998: 28-31) in Richards (2006: 42-
44 and 2008: 36-38) propose sequences oI implementing a text-based lesson.
They are building the context, modeling and deconstructing the text, joint
39
construction oI the text, independent construction oI the text, and linking to
related texts.
4. Teaching Speaking for SMK Students
There are two goals oI learning English in vocational high schools which
is developed by BSNP (2006). First, students are expected to master the
knowledge and skills oI basic English to sustain their vocational competency
achievement. Second, students are expected to implement their mastery oI
ability and skills oI English to communicate in spoken and written Iorms in
intermediate level.
Acccording to Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional number 23 year
oI 2006 (Permendiknas), the scope oI English teaching in vocational high
schools consists oI three levels: novice, elementary, and intermediate. Those
levels are designed Ior the Iirst, second, and third grade oI vocational high
school students. The Iirst grade oI vocational high school students have to pose
several speaking competencies in a year as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: The Standard of Competency and Basic Competency of the First
Grade Students of Vocational High School
Standard oI Competency Basic Competency
1. Communicating in English at a novice level 1.1. Understanding basic expression oI social
interaction in daily liIe.
1.2. Mentioning things, people, characteristics,
times, dates, months, and years.
1.3. Describing things, people, characteristics,
times, dates, months, and years.
1.4. Giving simple talks, using basic English.
1.5. Describing an event in a simple way.
1.6. Comprehending simple memos, menus,
schedules, and road signs.
1.7. Writing a simple invitation.
40
5. Teacher`s Roles during the Speaking Lesson
Role reIers to the part that learners and teachers are expected to play in
carrying out learning tasks as well as the social and interpersonal relationships
between the participants (Nunan,1989: 79). Teachers will employ diIIerent
roles when teaching certain skills oI English. Richards (2005: 4) proposes two
roles that must be played by teachers in communicative classroom: Iacilitator
and monitor. Meanwhile, Breen and Candlin (1980) in Nunan (2004: 67)
suggest Iour roles teachers should employ in communicative classroom.
Teachers should be able to act as a Iacilitator, a participant, an observer and a
learner.
According to Harmer (2001: 57-64), in learner-centered lessons, teachers
are appropriate to be a Iacilitator. A Iacilitator means being a prompter,
resource, and tutor. When teachers take charge to be a prompter, they
occasionally oIIer discrete suggestions such as words or phrases. It happens
when students lose their Iluency. It will diminish the sense oI Irustration some
students Ieel when they come to a dead end oI language or idea. Teachers need
to do it sensitively and sympathetically, but without losing students` initiative.
As a resource, teachers are a place where students can ask inIormation, but at
the same time they should resist the urge to spoon-Ieed students. As a tutor,
teachers are combining the roles as a prompter and resource meaning that
teachers work with individuals or small groups giving general guidance. One
41
thing to consider is that teachers do not intrude too much because it can impede
learner autonomy.
Taking role as a participant means that teachers are parts oI the activity
during the lesson. For example, when a discussion is carried out, teachers can
enliven inside the discussion as a member instead oI always having to prompt
or organize Irom outside the group. Yet, the danger is that teachers can
dominate the discussion.
As an observer or monitor, teachers observe students` perIormances in
order to give Ieedback. Teachers also judge the success oI activities and
materials during the teaching and learning process so that they can make an
evaluation Ior the improvement.
To create a good atmosphere oI teaching and learning, teachers should
try to adapt themselves with students who have been changing all the times.
The 21st century teachers play many roles during the teaching and learning
process. In a speaking class, the teacher can be an adaptor. He must be able to
adapt himselI to students who have diIIerent proIiciency in English. He
harnesses technology to improve students` speaking skills. The teacher also
plays role as a visionary which means he is a crucial component oI the educator
oI today and tomorrow. He knows that the education will be always
developing. The teacher provides his students with appropriate material or
technology which has been developing all the times. Another important role at
the speaking class is that a teacher is a model. He does not only teach how to
speak well, but also teaches values. Students are required to speak
42
appropriately with whom, when, in what situation and where
(www.charactereducation.org, accessed on January 1
st
, 2012).
6. Character Education in Teaching Speaking
Character education is a national movement creating schools that Ioster
ethical, responsible and caring young people by modeling and teaching good
character through emphasis on universal values that people all share. Good
character is not Iormed automatically. It is developed over time through a
sustained process oI teaching, example, learning and practice. It is developed
through character education (www.character.org, accessed on January 1
st
,
2012).
Character values can be taught during the speaking class. Students
communicate with others are not merely Ior the sake oI speaking, but also Ior
building a convenient conversation which is ethically appropriate. They should
learn pragmatic competence (Iunctional and sociolinguistic) and strategic
competence. Students know the diIIerence oI Indonesian culture and western
culture; how to start the conversation with Ioreigners and how to interrupt it;
how to be a good listener; how to respect someone`s opinion and deliver it and
so Iorth. During the cooperative learning, character values can be conducted
when students learn how to work with diIIerent people; how to delegate duty to
Iriends; how to respect one another and so Iorth.
7. Feedback in Speaking
Most students expect their teachers to give Ieedback on their
perIormance. Consequently, teachers need to know how to deals with these
43
things. According to Brown (2000: 217), errors reIlect the students`
competence on the target language that is wrong or incomplete and cannot be
selI-corrected, while mistakes reIer to a perIormance error which is either a
random guess or a slip and students can correct themselves.
Both errors and mistakes are caused by interlingual transIer and
intralingual transIer. Interlingual transIer means the interIerence oI the Iirst
language or native language. Intralingual transIer occurs when learners have
already acquired the new system oI the target language and then make
overgeneralization on it.
As teachers are people on whom students always rely on, they need to
help students to cope with errors by giving Ieedback. They cannot do this all
the time. Here are some basic options and possible Ieedback quoted Irom
Kathleen Bailey (1985) in Brown (2001: 291) that can be considered by
teachers during the language learning.
a. Basic options
1. To treat or to ignore
2. To treat immediately or to delay
3. To transIer treatment or not
4. To transIer to another individual, a subgroup, or the whole class
5. To return, or not, to the original error maker aIter treatment
6. To permit other learners to initiate treatment
7. To test Ior the eIIicacy oI the treatment
b. Possible Ieedback
1. Fact or error indicated
2. Location indicated
3. Opportunity Ior new attempt given
4. Model provided
5. Error type indicated
6. Remedy indicated
7. Improvement indicated
8. Praise indicated
44
Another suggestion is also made by Harmer (2001: 104-109) in relation
to giving Ieedback to students. Whether the tasks require Iluency or accuracy
or even both should be taken into account. When the perIormance emphasizes
accuracy, it is part oI the teacher`s Iunction to point out and correct the
mistakes the students are making. There are several ways to give Ieedback
during accuracy work.
a. Repeating the errors or mistakes made
b. Echoing like a precise way oI pin-pointing error
c. Making statement or question Ior exanple 'That`s not quite right and so
Iorth
d. Hinting which is a quick way oI helping students to activate rules they
already know
e. Giving a Iacial expression or gesture indicating there is something wrong
with the perIormance
I. ReIormulating the sentence
Furthermore, Harmer also says that when students do Iluency work
demanding communicative activities, teachers should not interrupt students in
mid-Ilow to point out a grammatical, lexical, or pronunciation error, since it
can breakdown the communication and drag them to study language Iorm.
Harmer suggests some ways to oIIer Ieedback. First, a gentle correction when
the communication breakdown during a Iluency activity. Second, giving
correction aIter students` perIormance by recording them Iirst so that teachers
45
will not Iorget what students have said. Third, observing them while writing
down some mistakes or errors that will be explained latter.
8. Assessing Speaking
Assessing speaking is challenging because there are so many Iactors that
inIluence raters` (teachers`) impression on how well someone can speak a
language. When teachers assess speaking it means that the teachers` listening
skills determine the reliability and validity oI an oral production test. Assigning
a score and ranging Irom 1 to 5 Ior example is not easy. The lines oI
distinctions between levels are quite diIIicult to pinpoint. The raters can
consume much time to see the recording oI speaking perIormance to make an
accurate assessment (Brown, 2004: 140 and Luoma, 2004: 84).
Thornburry (2005: 127-129) claims that there are two main ways to
assess speaking. They are holistic scoring and analytic scoring. Holistic scoring
uses a single score as the basis oI an overall impression, while analytic scoring
uses a separate score Ior diIIerent aspect oI the task. This holistic way has
advantages oI being quick and is perhaps suitable Ior inIormally assessing
progress. By contrast, analytic scoring takes longer since it requires the teacher
to take a variety oI Iactors into account and is probably Iairer and more
reliable. It also provides inIormation on speciIic weaknesses and strengths oI
students. However, the disadvantage oI analytic scoring is that the score may
be distracted by all categories and lose sight oI the overall situation perIormed
by the students. ThereIore, Iour or Iive categories seem to be the maximum that
can be handled at one time.
46
Furthermore, Thornburry (2005: 127-129) states that based on
Cambridge CertiIicate in English Language Speaking Skills (CELS), Iour
categories must be taken into account: grammar and vocabulary, discourse
management, pronunciation, and interactive communication. When dealing
with grammar and vocabulary, students need to use appropriate syntactic Iorms
and vocabulary in order to meet the task requirements at each level. Discourse
management reIers to the ability oI students to express the ideas and opinions
coherently and convey clear inIormation. Pronunciation reIers to the ability to
use the right stress and intonation to convey the intended meaning. Finally,
interactive communication depicts the ability oI test takers to respond
appropriately with interlocutors with required speed and rhythm to IulIill the
task requirements. Those Iour elements are similar with what Brown (2004:
172) states about the aspects oI assessing speaking: grammar, vocabulary,
comprehension, Iluency, pronunciation, and task.
On the other hand, Luoma (2004: 4-5) points out that a rating scale is
important in assessing students` speaking ability since it can determine exactly
how the criteria will be applied to the perIormances. Scales describe what each
score means. She claims that the development and use oI a the speaking test is
a cyclic process in which it begins with a need Ior speaking scores and ends
with the use oI the scores. In addition, she states that there are two interactive
processes needed Ior doing speaking assessment. The Iirst is the test
administration or test perIormance process where the participants (students)
interact with the examiner (teacher) or with students to show a sample oI their
47
speaking skills. It can be recorded. The second process is rating or evaluation
in which the rater applies the rating to the test perIormance that produces
scores. The scores should satisIy the need that has been identiIied when test
development Iirst started.
Regarding those two ways in assessing the students` speaking ability
proposed by Thornbury (2005) and Louma (2004), it seems that the
combination oI analytic scoring and rating scale will be better than one type.
The analytic scoring can be combined with the rating scale so that it is more
detailed in giving the students` speaking assessment while providing
descriptions on each category. The criteria or aspects oI the assessment can be
the same as Thornbury`s criteria, such as grammar, vocabulary, Iluency,
comprehension, and pronunciation. Meanwhile, the rating scale can be used in
each criterion so that the assessment criteria become more detailed. By
combining the analytic scoring and rating scale techniques, the process oI
assessing the students` speaking ability will be more detailed. Besides, through
the use oI analytic scale, the teacher knows the students` weaknesses so that he
or she can give some treatment to make improvement.
D. Cooperative Learning
1. The Definition of Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is the instructional use oI small groups so that
students work together to maximize their own and each other`s learning
(Johnson and Johnson, 1999:9). Jacob, Power, and Loh (2002) assert that
cooperative learning comprises principles and techniques Ior helping students
48
work together more eIIectively. Another deIinition suggested by Slavin (1995:
2) who states that cooperative learning reIers to a variety oI teaching methods
in which students work in small groups to help one another learn academic
content. The higher-level students will help lower-level ones to improve their
understanding oI the subject. The idea behind cooperative learning is that by
giving a reward to a group rather than individual, the students will be
motivated to help one another to master academic materials. Each member oI a
team is responsible not only Ior learning the materials but also Ior helping
teammates to understand the subject and complete the task given. Thus, it
creates an atmosphere oI achievement.
In addition, a cooperative classroom increasingly emphasizes mediated
learning. Mediation can be deIined as Iacilitating, modeling, and coaching.
Facilitating involves creating a rich environment and activaty Ior linking new
inIormation to prior knowledge, providing opportunities Ior cooperative work
and problem solving, and oIIering students several oI authentic learning tasks.
Coaching involves giving hints or clues, providing Ieedback, redirecting
students` eIIorts and helping them in using the strategy. This is to provide them
with right amount oI help when they need it.
The decision to include cooperative learning assignments in a course
should be based on a careIul examination oI the course goal. For example, iI
students are expected to be able to apply theoretical knowledge to real world
problems, or demonstrate decision making or problem solving, then it may be
appropriate to Iinish it in a group work. The size oI the classroom is an
49
important element also that must be considered in applying cooperative
learning. The number oI students in each team must enable them to participate
in their work. Individual accountability is essential to group success (Mandal,
2009).
2. The Principles and Advantages of Cooperative Learning
Many principles have been proposed Ior cooperative learning. Below
are some principles oI cooperative learning proposed by diIIerent experts.
a. Heterogeneous grouping. This principle means that the groups in which
students do cooperative learning tasks are mixed on one or more oI a
number oI variables including sex, ethnicity, social class, religion,
personality, age, language proIiciency, and diligence (Jacobs, 2000).
b. Collaborative skills. Collaborative skills, such as giving reasons, are
those needed to work with others. Students may lack these skills, the
language involved in using the skills, or the inclination to apply the skills
(Jacobs, 2000).
c. Group autonomy. This principle encourages students to look to
themselves Ior resources rather than relying solely on the teacher. When
student groups are having diIIiculty, it is very tempting Ior teachers to
intervene either in a particular group or with the entire class (Jacobs,
2000).
d. Simultaneous interaction. In classrooms in which group activities are not
used, the normal interaction pattern is that oI sequential interaction, in
which one person at a time, usually the teacher speaks. In contrast, when
50
group activities are used, one student per group is speaking. In a class oI
40 divided into groups oI Iour, ten students are speaking simultaneously,
i.e., 40 students divided into 4 students per group 10 students (1 per
group) speaking at the same time (Kagan, 1994).
e. Equal participation. A Irequent problem in groups is that one or two
group members dominate the group and Ior whatever reason, this
impedes the participation oI others. Cooperative learning oIIers many
ways oI promoting more equal participation among group members
(Kagan, 1994).
I. Individual accountability. In a classroom, the team success depends on
the individual learning oI all team members. Accountability Iocuses the
activity oI the team members on helping one another learn and making
sure that everyone in the team is ready Ior a quiz or any other assessment
that students take without teammate help (Slavin, 1995: 5)
g. Positive interdependence. When positive interdependence exists among
members oI a group, they Ieel that what helps one member oI the group
helps the other members and that what hurts one member oI the group
hurts the other members. It is this 'All Ior one, one Ior all Ieeling that
leads group members to want to help one another, to see that they share a
common goal (Kagan, 1994).
h. Cooperation as a value. This principle means that rather than cooperation
being only a way to learn, i.e., the how oI learning, cooperation also
becomes part oI the content to be learned, i.e., the what oI learning.
51
Cooperation as a value involves taking the Ieeling oI 'All Ior one, one
Ior all (Jacobs, 2000).
i. Reward. It is very important to enhance students` perIormance (Slavin,
1995).
Language experts and researchers do not only explore the principles oI
cooperative learning, but also Iind the advantages oI it. A good deal oI
research has revealed a number oI advantages in cooperative learning such
as increasing student talk, more varied talk, a more relaxed atmosphere,
greater motivation, more negotiation oI meaning, and increasing amount oI
comprehensible input (Liang, Mohan and Early, 1998; Olsen and Kagan,
1992). Other advantages oI cooperative learning are described as Iollows:
a. Promote student learning and academic achievement
b. Increase student retention
c. Enhance students satisIaction with their learning experience
d. Help students develop skills in oral communication
e. Promote student selI- esteem
I. Provide a shared cognitive set oI inIormation between students
g. Motivate students to learn the material
h. Provide Iormative Ieedback
i. Develop social and group skills necessary Ior success outside the
classroom
j. Promote positive interaction between members oI diIIerent cultural and
socio- economic groups (Slavin, 1995; Kagan, 1994)
52
3. Cooperative Learning Methods
According to Johnson, Johnson, Stanne and Geribaldi (1990),
cooperative learning is actually a generic term that reIers to numerous
methods Ior organizing and conducting classroom instruction. Many
teachers use cooperative learning in so many diIIerent ways that the list oI
methods are impossibly explained in this literature review. Here are some
class activities in cooperative learning cited Irom Mandal (2009)
a. Jigsaw
A group oI Iive is set up and each member oI group learns diIIerent
material. This is called as origin group. Then everybody who is Irom the
origin group will get together with the expert group consisting oI students
who will talk the same material. AIter discussing with the expert group,
each member oI group gets back to the origin group to teach about the
material he has been discussed with the expert group.
b. Think- Pair- Share
The teacher gives the students questions and let them think about the
answer. She then asks the students to share their ideas with a partner.
This task gives them opportunity to collect and organize their thoughts.
In the end, the pair shares their responses with other pairs.
c. Three- step interview
Students interview each other in pairs during the Iirst step. They then
switch their roles as an interviewer and an interviewee. The Iinal step is
53
that members share their partner`s response with the team. Interview is
used to gain competence in speaking, listening and summarizing,
d. Team- Pair- Solo
Students do problem Iirst as a team then with a partner, and Iinally on
their own. It is a good design to motivate the students to solve the
problems which are beyond their ability.
e. Numbered Heads Together
A team oI Iour is established. Each member is given numbers oI 1, 2, 3,
4. Questions are asked oI the group. Groups work together to answer the
question so that all can verbally answer the question. The teacher calls
out a number (two) and each two is asked to give the answer.
E. Conceptual Framework
Speaking is one oI the important skills that should be acquired by
students. Ideally, in the speaking teaching and learning process, students have
to be given some opportunities to practice a target language and produce it in
the spoken Iorm. They can practice the language in the Iorms oI dialogs,
monologs, discussions, games, or role plays. Besides, those practices can be
given in controlled, guided, or creative. Moreover, they have to be able to not
only speak Iluently in English, but also pronounce phonemes correctly, use
appropriate stress and intonation patterns, and speak in connected speech and
diIIerent genres and situations.
As has been stated in Chapter I, the tenth grade students oI the tourism
program at SMKN 7 Yogyakarta have a main problem which is related to
54
speaking skills. This problem will be improved by using some methods in
cooperative learning. The actions will be carried out in the second semester.
Cooperative learning is used since the teacher seldom puts her students in some
groups during the teaching and learning process. Besides, the students enjoy
learning together as their learning can be Iacilitated through working in a team.
By working together, it is not only speaking skills that can be improved, but
also it will simultaneously give a positive impact to the students` vocabulary,
selI- esteem, pronunciation etc. Having a partner to work with will help the
students learn the materials . They have more chances to practice speaking with
their Iriends as well.These things are supported also on a research about
improving speaking skills by using cooperative learning conducted by Tamaela
in 2009.
The activities that will be used during the teaching and learning process
are communicative tasks that require students to speak up. They will be applied
in the second semester in 2012. The materials made will be a combination
between what has been explained on the standard oI competency, basic
competence and tourism. Thus, the learning materials will IulIill the students`
needs at the tourism program.
According to some literature about speaking and cooperative learning, the
conceptual Iramework can be described as Iollows.
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Figure 1: The schema of the conceptual framework of the study
F. Hypothesis
Based on the conceptual Iramework mentioned above, the hypothesis oI
this research can be Iormulated as Iollows: when the tenth grade students oI the
tourism program are involved in cooperative learning, their speaking skills will
improve.
Cooperative
Learning (CL)
Methods oI CL
Communicative
tasks
Contextual
material
The students`
speaking skills
improve