METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS AND SPATIAL MODELLING The major difference betweem eo ra!

hica" information #$#tem# and #$#tem# for ca!abi"itie# for tran#formin the ori ina" #!atia" data in order to be ab"e to an#wer !artic%"ar &%erie#' Some tran#formation ca!abi"itie#( #%ch a# tho#e nece##ar$ for data c"eanin or %!dtin ( or for chan in #ca"e# !rojection#( wi"" be common to both eo ra!hica" information #$#tem# and com!%ter)a##i#ten carto ra!h$' The#e tran#formation method# were di#c%##ed in *ha!ter +' Geo ra!hica" information #$#tem#( howe,er( !ro,ide a ,er$ m%ch "ar er ran e of ana"$#i# ca!abi"itie# that wi"" be ab"e to o!erate on the to!o"o $ or #!atia" a#!ect# of the eo ra!hica" data( on the non)#!atia" attrib%te# of the#e data( or on non)#!atia" and #!atia" attrib%te# combined' The#e ana"$#i# ca!abi"itie# wi""( in mo#t eo ra!hica" information #$#tem#( be !ro,ided in #%ch a wa$ that a %#er can wor- interacti,e"$ in order to !erform the ana"$#e# and #$nthe#e# re&%ired' Fi %re .'/ !re#ent# a hierarchica" o,er,iew of the main -ind# of ca!abi"itie# that can be %#ed for data %ti"i0ation and ana"$#i# in eo ra!hica" information #$#tem#' The#e ca!abi"itie# ran e from #im!"e method# for retrie,in #%b#et# of information from the databa#e( thro% h %ni,ariate and m%"ti,ariate method# of #tati#tica" ana"$#i# to #!atia" ana"$#e# %#in nei hbo%rhood f%nction# and inter!o"ation method#' 1eca%#e inter!o"ation method# and #tati#tica" method# of c"a##if$in data are more com!"e2 than man$ of the other data ana"$#i# techni&%e# %#ed( the$ are de#cribed in more detai" in *ha!ter 3 and 4' F%rthermore( a# we #ha"" #ee( #!atia" mode"in method# can be %#ed to create an a"mo#t %n"imited ran e of ca!abi"itie# for data ana"$#i# b$ #trin in to ether #et# of #im!"e ana"$#i# ca!abi"itie#( or b$ writin #!ecia" #im%"ation !ro ram#' The enera" !rob"em of data ana"$#i# i# #tated in Fi ' .'5' The %#er ha# a !artic%"ar !rob"em or &%er$' The databa#e contain# information in the form of ma!# that can be %#ed to an#wer the %#er6# !rob"em' A"" that i# nece##ar$ i# to e#tab"i#h a "in- between databa#e and o%t!%t that wi"" !ro,ide that an#wer in the form of a ma!( tab"e#( or fi %re#' The "in- i# an$ f%nction that can be %#ed to con,ert data from one or more in!%t ma!# into an o%t!%t ma!' Thi# cha!ter i# abo%t how "in-# can be defined and %#ed'

T7ANSFO7MATIOAN MAINTENAN*E Editin 8!datin 8TILI9ATION AND ANALYSIS to!o"o $ 7otation( tran#"ation Sca"e tran#formation( #tretch :)D di#!"a$ Area( !erimeter ca"c%"ation !ro!ertie# 7etrie,a" Lo ica";mathematica" ana"$#i# rec"a##ification To!o"o $<!ro!ertie# 7etrie,a" O,er"a$ and inter#ection =re ion6ana"$#i# Nei hbo%rhood ana"$#i# S!readin Detectin #ha!e( narrowne## etc' Inter!o"ation deternini#tic 1)#!"ine# Thie##en !o"$ on# *onto%r# b$ In,er#e di#tance >ei htin #tati#tica" Trend #%rface# A%toco,ariance Ana"$#i# ?ri in etc'

Fi ' .'/ Schematic o,er,iew of the hierarch$ of data tran#formation o!eration# in eo ra!hica" information #$#tem#' Definition of the database 1efore oin f%rther it i# a i# we"" to define c"ear"$ the nat%re of the eo ra!hica" databa#e that wi"" !ro,ide the information re&%ired' In mo#t eo ra!hica" information #$#tem# it i# a##%med it i# a##%med that the information in the databa#e i# !re#ent in the form of !oint#( "ine#( and area# and their a##ociated attrib%te#' >hi"e it i# not e##entia" for the %#er to -now whether the #!atia" e2tent# of the data are encoded in a ,ector or a ra#ter form( certain o!eration# wi"" be ea#ier in the ,ector form( and other# wi"" be ea#ier form' Sim!"e data retrie,a" If the data ha,e been encoded in a ,ector #$#tem %#in an o,er"a$ or "a$er #tr%ct%re @#ee *ha!ter 5A( then the data that ha,e been ro%!ed to erther on that "a$er can be ,er$ #im!"$ retrie,ed' For e2am!"e( if a #$#tem a""ow# B+ different "a$er# to be %#ed( and if major road# ha,e been entered into "a$er /( minor road# on "a$er 5( rai"wa$# on "a$er :( ri,er# on "a$er +( and #o on( it i# tri,ia" to be ab"e to di#!"a$ on"$ major road#( or minor road# and ri,er# and ri,er#( #im!"$ b$ ca""in %! the a!!ro!riate "a$er#' The#e "a$er faci"itie# were ,er$ common on the ear"$ *AD)*AM t%rn)-e$ #$#tem# and are dea" for #it%ation# where there are few different -ind# of ra!hica" e"ement# in the databa#e' In eo ra!hica" databa#e the#e method# are hard"$ a!!ro!riate beca%#e of the "ar e n%mber of attrib%te# that each e"ement ma$ ha,e' 1i#ide#( the #im!"e "a$er #$#tem re&%ire# that data be c"a##ified for a !artic%"ar "a$er before in!%t( which ha# to be done man%a""$ thi# i# not fea#ib"e for a "ar e databa#e' 1oo"ean Lo ic The a"ternati,e !roced%re i# to retrie,e data b$ %#in the r%"e# of 1oo"ean "o ic to o!erate on the attrib%te# and #!atia" !ro!ertie#' 1oo"ean a" ebra %i#e# the o!erator# AND( O7( 1oo"ean "o ic i# often !ortra$ed ,i#%a""$ in the form of Cenn dia ram# @Fi ' .':A' If #et

A i# the #et of item# ha,in attrib%te a( and #et 1 i# the #et of item# ha,in attrib%te b( then the #tatement A AND 1( A O7 1( A DO7 1( A NOT 1( >i"" ret%rn item# that ha,e attrib%te combination# co,ered b$ the #haded !ortion# of the re#!ecti,e Cenn dia ram' For e2am!"e( in a databa#e of #oi" ma!!in %nit#( each ma!!in %nit ma$ ha,e attrib%te# de#cribin te2t%re and !H of the to!#oi"' If #et A i# the #et of a"" ma!!in %nit# for which the to!#oi" ha# a c"a$ "oam te2t%re( and if #et 1 i# the #et of a"" ma!!in %nit# for which the to! #oi" !H e2ceed# 3'E( then "o ica" retrie,a" #tatement# wi"" wor- a# fo""ow# F D G A AND 1 find# a"" ma!!in %nit that ha,e to!#oi" te2t%re c"a#$ "oam and a !H H 3'E combined( D G A O7 1 find# a"" ma!!in %nit# that ha,e either a to!#oi" te2t%re of c"a$ "oam or a !H H 3'E( either #e!arate"$ or in combination( D G A DO7 1 find# a"" ma!!in %nit# that ha,e either a to!#oi" te2t%re of c"a$ "oam( or a !H H 3'E( b%t not in combination with each other' D G A NOT 1 find# a"" ma!!in %nit# that ha,e a to!#oi" te2t%re of c"a$ "oam in which the !H i# 3'E or "e##' Note that %n"i-e arithmetic o!eration#( 1oo"ean o!eration# are not comm%tati,e' The re#%"t of A AND 1 O7 * de!end# on the !riorit$ of AND with re#!ect to O7' Parenthe#e# are %#%a""$ %#ed to indicate c"ear"$ the order of e,a"%ation @Fi ' .':A' In the e2am!"e( if #et * i# a"" ma!!in %nit# of !oor"$ drained #oi"( then D G @A AND 1A O7 * ret%rn a"" ma!!in %nit# with a to!#oi" te2t%re of c"a$ "oam combined with a !H H 3'E or a"" !oor"$ drained #oi"' Thi# retrie,a" i# not ,er$ #!ecific' On the other hand( D G A O7 @1 AND *A ret%rn# a"" ma!!in %nit# with the combination of !H 3'E and !oor draina e or tho#e with a to!#oi" te2t%re of c"a$ "oam' 1oo"ean o!eration #ho%"d not be tho% ht of a# bein on"$ a!!"icab"e to the attrib%te# of the eo ra!hica" e"ement#( beca%#e the$ can a"#o be a!!"ied to the #!atia" !ro!ertie#' For e2am!"e( find a"" ma!!in %nit# with c"a$ "oam te2t%re in combination with a !H H 3'E that e2ceed . ha in area' More com!"icated #earche# ma$ in,o",e the #ha!e# of area#( the !ro!ertie# of the bo%ndarie# of area# or the !ro!ertie# of nei hbo%rin area#' For e2am!"e( in -now a"" area# of wood"and borderin %rban area#( or in ,i#%a" c"a##ification of "and#ca!e to retrie,e a"" o!en area# that ha,e a !artic%"ar #ha!e and are bo%nded b$ a certain -ind of hed erow @cf' 1%itenh%i# et a"' /I45A' 7ec"a##ification and di#!"a$ Once the eo ra!hica" data ha,e been retrie,ed( it i# %#%a""$ nece##ar$ to rec"a##if$ them and to redi#!"a$ them #o that the ,i#%a" !re#entation ref"ect# the new data #tr%ct%re a# !ercei,ed b$ the %#er' >hen the data are !o"$ on# in ,ector format( rec"a##ification !roced%re# m%#t en#%re that when two or more adjacent !o"$ on# recei,e the #ame new name( the "ine# between them are di##o",ed and a new !o"$ on networ- i# con#tr%cted to obtain the #tati#tic# of the new ma! and for a c"ean ma! ima e @Fi # .'+( .'.A' 1oo"ean o!eration# on two or more ma!#

Cer$ often the %#er wi"" want to e2tract data from two or more ma!#F for e2am!"e( he ma$ want to -now where a i,en -ind of "and %#e occ%r# on a !artic%"ar -ind of #oi"' The #oi" information wi"" ha,e been encoded in one ma!( the "and)%#e information in another' The c"a##ica" method of #o",in thi# !rob"em i# to "a$ tran#!arent co!ie# of each ma! on a "i ht tab"e and to trace off the corre#!ondin area# @c'f' P"ate# /)5A' Thi# i# a time) con#%min and inacc%rate !roce##( #o one of the fir#t re&%irement# of man$ eo ra!hica" information #$#tem# ha# been the abi"it$ to inter#ect two !o"% on networ-# #o that 1oo"en "o ic can be a!!"ied to the re#%"t' Fi %re .'B #how# the re#%"t# of o,er"a$in on two #im!"e ma!#( each containin #i2 !o"$ on#' In thi# e2am!"e( the re#%"tin networcontain /. !o"$ on#' The n%mber# of !o"$ on# on the initia" ma!#( ba%t a"#o on the form of the bo%ndarie#' The more con,o"%ted the bo%ndarie# on the #o%rce ma!#( the more deri,ed !o"$ on# can be e2!ected' The !rob"em of how to o,er"a$ two or more !o"$ on networ-# occ%!ied the attention# of com!%ter carto ra!her# for man$ $ear#' The major #t%mb"in b"oc- wa# how to dea" with the ,er$ "ar e n%mber of #ma"" and #eemin "$ %nim!ortant !o"$ on# that re#%"ted when "ine# on the two ma!# were a"mo#t b%t not &%ite( identica"' The#e =non#en#e6 area# m%#t be fi"tered awa$ or mer ed with the adjacent "ar er "o"$ on# in order to i,e a #ati#factor$ ma! ima e of c"ean !o"$ on o%t"ine#( a !roced%re that ma$ "ead to "o## of information or to the creation of mi#information' The !rob"em of the error# that can occ%r when !o"$ on# are o,er"aid i# di#c%##ed more f%""$ in *ha!ter B' Another major !rob"em with !o"$ on o,er"a$ in ,ector format wa# the ,er$ hea,$ com!%tin demand# when #earchin for inter#ection# of the bo%ndar$ "ine# on the two ma!#( reconnectin the "ine# and b%i"din the new !o"$ on networ- to ether with it a##ociated attrib%te#' The and i# incor!orated in the ODYSSEY !ro ram @Laborator$ for *om!%ter Gra!hic# /I4:A' Now man$ other commercia" eo ra!hica" #$#tem# inc"%de !o"$ on o,er"a$ #oftware'

A enera" a!!roach to ma! o,er"a! The inter#ection of two or more !o"$ on net# b$ o,er"a$ i# a #!ecia" ca#e of m%ch "ar er #et of o!eration# that can be %#ed to ana"$#e area data' In order to enera"i0e it i# %#ef%" to con#tr%ct the fo""owin conce!t%a" mode" of the eo ra!hica" databa#e' A re ion i# defined a# a #et of "oci #harin a !artic%"ar attrib%te or a certain ,a"%e of a !artic%"ar attrib%te' The "oci are defined in term# of #et# of D and Y coordinate#' The #in!"e# re ion i# a !oint( ha,in on"$ one DY coordinate !airJ the mo#t com!"e2 enc"o#e# man$ "oci' Note that a re ion ma$ con#i#t of one or more !o"$ on# or ma$ be !erforated b$ re ion# of another -ind @cf' Fi ' 5'/ @d'eAA' An attrib%te i# a i,en eo ra!hica" ,ariab"e or !ro!ert$' Attrib%te# can be e2!re##ed on binar$( nomina"( inter,a"( or ratio #ca"e#' Each attrib%te can be tho% ht of a# definin a #e!arate o,er"a$'

An o,er"a$ i# a #et of m%t%a""$ e2c"%#i,e conti %o%# re ion# a##ociated with a !artic%"ar area' Each o,er"a$ i# defined b$ a i,en attrib%te' Note that thi# mode" ha# a #tr%ct%re that i# ,er$ #imi"ar to that %#ed for ra#ter re!re#entation# of #!atia" data de#cribed in *harter 5' In fact( the on"$ difference i# that in the ra#ter databa#e #tr%ct%re #!ace i# nece##ari"$ &%anti0ed into re %"ar( %#%a""$ #&%are ce""#( wherea# in thi# mode" no &%anti0ation# i# im!"ied' P%t another wa$( the ra#ter databa#e i# a di#crete a!!ro2imation to the #tr%ct%re !ro!o#ed here' It i# a"#o a##%med that for e,er$ "oc%# on a ma!( a new attrib%te can be enerated a# a f%nction of attrib%te# on the o,er"a$# a"read$ !re#ent in the databa#e' So( for e,er$ "oc%#( with coordinate# D( Y( a ,a"%e of a new attrib%te can be e2!re##ed a# F 8 G f@A(1(*( ' ' 'A @.'/A

>here A(1(*( ' ' ' are the ,a"%e# of the attrib%te definin the fir#t( #econd( third ' ' ' o,er"a$( and f i# a f%nction that ha# $et to be defined @Fi ' .'3A' The idea behind thi# f%nction i# of co%r#e the #ame a# that behind the ="in-6 that wa# in Fi ' .'5' *"a##e# of tran#formation#F !oint#( re ion#( and nei hbo%rhood# There are three major c"a##e# of tran#formation that can be %#ed to contro" the tran#formation f%nction# #% e#ted b$ e&n @.'/A' The fir#t ro%! of f%nction# o!erate# on"$ on the ,a"%e# of a"" the attrib%te# re"atin to each "oc%#( @the ,ertica" ,ector# of attrib%te ,a"%e#A' In other word#( the f%nction or o!eration# i# inde!endent of the effect# of the ,a"%e# of the attrib%te# at nei hbo%rin "oci( and of enera" !ro!ertie# of the re ion# or #et# to which the "oci ma$ a"#o be"on @Fi ' .'4@aAA' The #im!"e#t of the#e !%re"$ =!oint6 tran#formation# are the mathematica" o!eration# of addition( #%b#traction( m%"ti!"ication( di,i#ion( e2!onentiation( ta-in "o arithm#( and e,a"%atin tri onometrica" f%nction#' K%#t a# #im!"e are the findin of e2treme# or a,era e# or a!!"$in 1oo"ean "o ic' The ,a"%e of the attrib%te on the new o,er"a$ co%"d be a c"a## ,a"%e or name( or it co%"d be the re#%"t obtained from a !rinci!a" com!onent ana"$#i# or a c"%#terin a" orithm' The f%nction for com!%tin the ,a"%e on the new o,er"a$ co%"d a"#o be a #im%"ation !ro ram de#i ned to com!%te a #in "e o%t!%t ,a"%e a# a f%nction of #e,era" in!%t ,a"%e( that in thi# mode" of eo ra!hica" data wo%"d be obtained from the other o,er"a$#' Tab"e .'5@aA "i#t# a n%mber of the more o,er"a$ %#ed =!oint6 f%nction#' Note that the inter#ection of two !o"$ on networ-# de#ribed abo,e i# e##entia""$ a #im!"e "o ica" o!eration for combinin two o,er"a$#' Mo#t eo ra!hica" information #$#tem#( !artic%"ar"$ commercia" #$#tem#( inc"%de method# for !erformin #ome =!oint6 o!eration#( e,en if the#e are %#%a""$ main"$ "imited to 1oo"ean "o ic and rec"a##ification' The ,a"%e of the#e method# in #!atia" ana"$#i# id often more the re#%"t of #!atia" a%toco,ariance @"oci c"o#e to ether are more "i-e"$ to ha,e #imi"ar ,a"%e than "oci that far a!artA than of an$ de"iberate attem!t to mode" #!atia" interaction#'

The #econd c"a## of f%nction# re"ate# to !ro!ertie# of the re ion or #et to which a i,en "oc%# be"on #' The#e !ro!ertie# mi ht be tho#e of "en th( area( !erimeter or #ha!e( or the$ mi ht re"ate to the n%mber of "oci ha,in a certain ,a"%e on one o,er"a$ that occ%r within the area defined b$ a re ion on another' For e2am!"e( one ma$ wi#h to !rod%ce a new ma! in which admini#trati,e area# are coded accordin to the n%mber of #choo"# within their bo%ndarie# from an o,er"a$ of admini#trati,e area# and #choo" "ocation#' A"ternati,e"$( one ma$ wi#h to ca"c%"ate a new ,a"%e for a "oc%# accordin to the !ro!ertie# of the bo%ndar$ of the re ion in which the !oint "ie#' An e2am!"e from "and#ca!e ma!!in wa# &%oted abo,e' The#e =re ion6 o!eration# are #%mmari0ed in Tab"e .'5@bA( #ome are i""%#trated in Fi ' .'4 @b and cA; The third c"a## of f%nction re"ate# the !oint to it# nei hbo%r#' The#e are a"" f%nction# that e2!"icit"$ ma-e %#e of #ome -ind of #!atia" a##ociation# in order to determine the ,a"%e for the "oc%# on the new o,er"a$' The#e ma$ inc"%de whether or not nei hbo%rin !oint# ha,e the #ame ,a"%e a# the !oint in &%e#tion( or the di#tance on a i,en o,er"a$ from the !oint in &%e#tion to a !oint ha,in a different ,a"%e' Nei hbo%rhood f%nction# a"#o inc"%de the ca"c%"ation of a ,a"%e re!re#entin a wei hted a,era e( ma2im%m ,a"%e( minim%m ,a"%e( mea#%re of di,er#it$ or rate of chan e of a !art of the #tati#tica" #%rface re!re#ented b$ the o,er"a$ in an area aro%nd the !oint( and #o on' Some of the#e f%nction( #%ch a# com!%tation of #"o!e( a#!ect( and rid e and ,a""e$ "ine# were de#cribed in cha!ter :' Other#( #%ch a# method# of #!atia" inter!o"ation( wi"" be di#c%##ed in cha!ter 4' Nei hbo%rhood o!eration# are #%mmari0ed in Tab"e .'5@cA and #ome are i""%#trated in Fi ' .'4 @d''hA' A fo%rth c"a## of o!eration# in eo ra!hica" information ana"$#i# concern# ,ariation# in #!atia" !attern# o,er time' Mo#t eo ra!hica" information #$#tem# in c%rrent %#e treat the databa#e a# a #tatic mode" of the "and#ca!e' A i,en ana"$#i# !roceed# in one direction from e2i#tin #oi" ma!#' 1%t there are man$ #it%ation# where the "and#ca!e chan e# ra!id"$ o,er time a# a re#%"t of !roce##e# of ero#ion( #a"ini0ation( defore#tation( %rban rowth( "owerin or rai#in the ro%ndwater "e,e"( and #o on' In the#e #it%ation( ana"$#e# ba#ed on a databa#e that ha# been b%i"t %! with a !hi"o#o!h$ of #emi)!ermanence cannot ho!e to !rod%ce re"e,ant an#wer#' Gi,en that the ,ariation of a !roce## o,er time i# %nder#tood( howe,er( there i# no rea#on wh$ d$namic e"ement# #ho%"d not be incor!orated into the ana"$#i# of eo ra!hica" data' *arto ra!hic mode"in %#in nat%ra" "an %a e command# The %#er of a eo ra!hica" information #$#tem# i# not nece##ari"$ intere#ted in -nowin e2act"$ how the ,ario%# !oint( re ion or nei hbo%rhood o!eration# are !ro rammed( nor in the e2act method# %#ed for or ani0in the data in the com!%ter' He or #he i# m%ch more "i-e"$ to ha,e a ood enera" -now"ed e of arithmetica" and "o ica" !roce##e# and wo%"d !refer to %#e the#e e2i#tin #-i""# for the eo ra!hica" ana"$#e# that m%#t be done' Idea""$( the %#er wo%"d "i-e to be ab"e to e2!re## hi# tho% ht# in a "an %a e that i# a"#o ,er$ #imi"ar to that %#ed in hi# dai"$ wor-' The reat !o!%"arit$ of a!read#heet !ro ram#( on b%#ine## microcom!%ter# for e2am!"e( i# a #tri-in e2am!"e of how %#er# re#!ond to

com!%ter #$#tem# that are de#i ned #!ecifica""$ to co!e with their need# in term# the$ can ea#i"$ %nder#tand' So( if a !"anner want# to create a b$ffer 0one aro%nd a #et of road( he dae# not rea""$ want to ha,e to di iti0e the b%ffer 0one interacti,e"$ aro%nd a"" the road# he ha# di#!"a$ed on a #creen( b%t

Lin-in command #e&%ence# into carto ra!hic mode"# 1$ "in-in the =!rimiti,e6 !oint( re ion( and nei hbo%rhood command# to ether in #e&%ence( #o that the o%t!%t o,er"a$ from one command i# the in!%t to the ne2t( Tom"in( Steinit0( and co""ea %e# ha,e #hown that it i# !o##ib"e to create an %n"imited n%mber of tai"or)made ma!)!roce##in ca!abi"itie# that can be %#ed to tac-"e man$ ana"$tica" !rob"em# in eo ra!hica" information !roce##in ' The$ ca"" the#e command #e&%ence# =carto ra!hic mode"#6' And the !roce## =carto ra!hic mode"in 6' The idea i# that the %#er when confronted b$ a !rob"em #ho%"d not immediate"$ r%#h to the neare#t a,ai"ab"e -e$board b%t #ho%"d fir#t attem!t to wor- o%t for him#e"f the data needed in order to !ro,ide the an#wer' The ne2t #te! i# to wor- o%t %#in c"ear "o ic how one #ho%"d !roceed from the data to the re&%ired an#wer' Thi# mean# #ettin %! a f"ow chart in which a"" the nece##ar$ #te!# are c"ear"$ #hown' Thi# i# fo""owed b$ tran#"atin the !roce##in #te!# into the "an %a e of the MAP command# @or the "an %a e of the #$#tem bein %#ed if it i# not the Ma! Ana"$#i# Pac-a eA' On"$ when thi# "ine of rea#onin ha# been c"ear"$ tho% ht o%t and tran#"ated #ho%"d the %#er o to the com!%ter' The ea#ie#t wa$ to a!!reciate how #%ch a #$#tem of carto ra!hic mode"in and ma! =a" ebra6 can be %#ed for ana"$0in eo ra!hica" data i# to fo""ow thro% h a n%mber of #im!"e e2am!"e# that i""%#trate c"ear"$ the !rinci!"e# in,o",ed' Three

@aA Point o!eration#

O!eration S%mmation S%btraction M%"ti!"ication Di,i#ion E2!onentiation Tri ' F%nction S&%are root A,era in *o,erin *o,erin 1oo"ean combination Findin e2treme# E2traction or i#o"ation Detrmine fre&%enc$ di#trib%tion Match fre&%enc$ di#trib%tion to theoretica" di#trib%tion A##i n a con#tant ,a"%e to an o,er"a$ Di,ide ran e of ce"" ,a"%e# into e&%a" c"a##e# Two)wa$ com!ari#on of two o,er"a$# M%"ti,ariate o!eration# and c"a## a""ocation Fo%rier tran#form# < fi"terin ?e$word ADD S81T7A*T M8LTIPLY Modifier >ei htin >ei htin >ei htin S%mmar$ decri!tion O,er a"" "oci and ,a"%e# of two or more attrib%te# to i,e new ,a"%e S%btract M%"ti!"$

S*O7E P*OMP *L8STE7 ALLO*ATE FO87IE7

*om!%te two)dimen#iona" Fo%rier tran#form# and a!!"$ fi"ter# for hi h or "ow com!onent#' 7ecom!%te ma! b$ %ni,er#a" Fo%rier tran#form Modifier# S%mmar$ de#cri!tion

@bA =7e ion6 or "e end %nit o!eration# O!eration ?e$word 7ec"a##if$ or 7EN8M1E7 ren%mber "e end %nit#

Determine A7EA PE7IMETE7 LENGTH N%mber of #e!arate occ%rrence# Determine #ha!e of re ion and;or ho"e# 7ec"a##if$ accordin to area O,er"a$ inter#ect two !o!$ on# net# 1oo"ean #earch on re ion# *"a##if$ re ion accordin to inc"%#ion#

7EPO7T SI9E

Line#( 7e ion#

E8LE7 SI9E OCE7LAY La$ two !o"$ on# networ-# o,er each other and !rod%ce new !o"$ on net @,ector or ra#terA' A# for !oint# A# for !oint#

@cA Nei hbo%rhood f%nction# o!eration# O!eration ?e$word *ontin%it$ of *L8MP adjacent %nit# S*AN SPAN DSEA7*H SLOPE ASPE*T P7OFILE SP7EAD *ONTO87 T7END INCE7SE OPTIMAL CIE> ST7EAM PATH>AY Point in !o"$ on PPOINT

Modifier# Di#tance criterion friction criterion

S%mmar$ De#cri!tion or

O,er O,er

Find #horte#t ro%te between two !oint# on a contin%o%# #%rface' Find #horte#t !arh a"on networ- in term# of time( co#t( di#tance( ect' Find the area containin a i,en !oint

E2am!"e /' Pre!are a #%itabi"it$ ma! for #ma""ho"der mai0e c%"ti,ation( %#in the FAO Land E,a"%ation Methodo"o $ @FAO /I3BJ Mc7ae and 1%rnham /I4/A'

The FAO "and e,a"%ation methodo"o $ !roceed# b$ con,ertin "and characteri#tic#( or !rimar$ "and attrib%te# that are recorded b$ a #oi" #%r,e$( into a #et of "and &%a"itie# that are re"e,ant for the "and %ti"i0ation t$!e %nder con#ideration @in thi# ca#e #ma""ho"der mai0eA' Fo%r "and &%a"itie# are im!ortant for deteminin the !h$#ica" "and #%itabi"it$ for rowin mai0eJ the#e are n%trient #%!!"$( o2$ en #%!!"$( water #%!!"$ and ero#ion #%#ce!tibi"it$' The#e "and &%a"itie# can be ran-ed accordin to the fo""owin c"a##e# F No "imitationJ Moderate "imitationJ Se,ere "imitation' Each "and &%a"it$ i# determined b$ a##e##in $he a!!ro!riate "and characteri#tic#' >a ater a,ai"abi"it$ i# a f%nction of #oi" de!th and #oi" #erie#J o2$ en a,ai"abi"it$ and n%trient a,ai"abi"it$ can be deri,ed direct"$ from the #oi" #erie# information( and the ero#ion #%#ce!tibi"it$ or ha0ard can be con#idered to be a f%nction of #"o!e radient and #oi" #erie#' The act%a" ,a"%e of the con,er#ion f%nction are i,en in >ie"ema-er and 1o2em @/I45A' Fi %re .'I #how# a f"ow chart of o!eration# that co%"d be %#e to determine the "and #%itabi"it$' The #oi" #erie#

Soi" de!th

Soi" Serie#

DEM

*HA7A*TE7ISTI*S

S"o!e *"a##e#

>ater A,ai"abi"it$

O2$ en A,ai"abi"it$

N%trient A,ai"abi"it$

Ero#ion Ha0ard

L8ALITIES

S8ITA1ILITY *LASSES

ECAL8ATION