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Processors (CPU)
A Central Processing Unit (CPU) or processor is an electronic circuit that
can execute computer programs, which are actually sets of instructions. This
term has been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s
(Weik 2007). The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed
dramatically since the earliest examples, but their fundamental operation
remains much the same.
Early CPUs were custom-designed as a part of a larger, sometimes one-of-a-
kind, computer. However, this costly method of designing custom CPUs for a
particular application has largely given way to the development of mass-
produced processors that are made for one or many purposes. This
standardization trend generally began in the era of discrete transistor
mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the
popularization of the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly
complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order
of nanometers. Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have
increased the presence of these digital devices in modern life far beyond the
limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern
microprocessors appear in everything from automobiles to cell phones and
children's toys.
A processor is the logic circuitry that responds to and processes the basic
instructions that drives a computer. The Processor, also called the CPU, is
the brain of the PC. It performs all general computing tasks and coordinates
tasks done by memory, video, disk storage, and other system components.
The CPU is a very complex chip that resides directly on the motherboard of
most PCs, but may instead reside on a daughter card that connects to the
motherboard via a dedicated specialized slot. The term processor has
generally replaced the term central processing unit (CPU). The processor in a
personal computer or embedded in small devices is often called a
microprocessor.
The most powerful microprocessor chip in your computer is the CPU. For
example the Intel Pentium chip handles the central management functions of
a high-powered PC. Intel's newest Hyper-Threading (technology that allows
the CPU to process two separate threads of data simultaneously) CPU
supports a 1 megabyte on-board L2 cache (the on-board cache functions as
a buffer to feed data to the CPU at a faster rate). The speed of the CPU is
measured in Gigahertz (billions of cycles per second).
For many years only single-core processors containing one processing unit
were available. However over the last few years dual-core processors that
contain two identical processing units and quad-core processors that contain
four identical processing units have become available from AMD and Intel.
AMD also provide triple-core processors that have three processing cores.
The manufacturer of a particular model of processor sets it to run at a
particular speed, which is really the frequency (measured in gigahertz in
modern processors) that it operates at. The higher the frequency (1GHz,
2GHz, 2.5GHz, 3.0GHz, etc.) the faster the processor can process data. Note
that the design is also an important factor in how fast a particular
make/model of processor processes data. However, most processors can be
over clocked to run faster than the manufacturer's setting allows. The
amount of speed/frequency overhead that a particular processor has
depends on several factors.
Computer processors are responsible for analyzing data and controlling how
data flows in a computer. Also known as the central processing unit or the
CPU, they are considered to the brains of a computer since they perform the
actual data processing, with speeds that normally run between 2.6 to 3.66
Ghz (gigahertz). Computer processors are in the form of small microchips
and fit into sockets in motherboards.
The CPU (Processor) is the brain of every computer. Every calculation and
process made by a computer is executed by the CPU. The processor
performs calculations by using bits (definition of bit), which can have a value
of 1 or 0. The most common processor is 32-bit, but 64-bit processors are
becoming more popular in newer computers. You can read here what's
different between 64 & 32 bit processors.
Moore's Law from 1965 predicts that processing power should double every
18 months, but was revised in 1975 to every 2 years. This prediction was
made on the basis that the circuitry, resistors, and other processor parts are
being made smaller and smaller.
Currently, an average CPU can have processing speeds from about 2.0 GHz
to 3.4 GHz, with the manufacturers fast approaching the 4.0 GHz mark.
-Word length
The word length is the number of bits the CPU can process per second. Early
CPUs were 4 bits /sec, but now we have 8, 16 and 32 bit machines.
PARALLEL PROCESSING
The simultaneous use of more than one CPU or processor core to execute a
program or multiple computational threads. Ideally, parallel processing
makes programs run faster because there are more engines (CPUs or cores)
running it. In practice, it is often difficult to divide a program in such a way
that separate CPUs or cores can execute different portions without
interfering with each other. Most computers have just one CPU, but some
models have several, and multi-core processor chips are becoming the norm.
There are even computers with thousands of CPUs.
With single-CPU, single-core computers, it is possible to perform parallel
processing by connecting the computers in a network. However, this type of
parallel processing requires very sophisticated software called distributed
processing software.
Note that parallel processing differs from multitasking, in which a CPU
provides the illusion of simultaneously executing instructions from multiple
different programs by rapidly switching between them, or "interleaving" their
instructions.
Parallel processing is also called parallel computing. In the quest of cheaper
computing alternatives parallel processing provides a viable option. The idle
time of processor cycles across network can be used effectively by
sophisticated distributed computing software.
Processor Components
Modern processors have the following internal components:
-Execution unit
the core of the CPU, the execution unit processes instructions.
-Branch predictor
the branch predictor attempts to guess where the program will jump (or
branch) next, allowing the prefect and decode unit to retrieve instructions
and data in advance so that they will already be available when the CPU
requests them.
-Primary cache
also called Level 1 or L1 cache, primary cache is a small amount of very fast
memory that allows the CPU to retrieve data immediately, rather than
waiting for slower main memory to respond. See Chapter 5 for more
information about cache memory.
-Bus interfaces
Bus interfaces are the pathways that connect the processor to memory and
other components. For example, modern processors connect to the chipset
Northbridge via a dedicated bus called the front side bus (FSB) or host bus.
-Processor Speed
the processor clock coordinates all CPU and memory operations by
periodically generating a time reference signal called a clock cycle or tick.
Clock frequency is specified in megahertz (MHz), which specifies millions of
ticks per second, or gigahertz (GHz), which specifies billions of ticks per
second. Clock speed determines how fast instructions execute. Some
instructions require one tick, others multiple ticks, and some processors
execute multiple instructions during one tick. The number of ticks per
instruction varies according to processor architecture, its instruction set, and
the specific instruction. Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) processors
use complex instructions. Each requires many clock cycles to execute, but
accomplishes a lot of work. Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
processors use fewer, simpler instructions. Each takes few ticks but
accomplishes relatively little work.
AMD Processors
AMD chipsets
Before the launch of Athlon 64 processors in 2003, AMD designed chipsets
for their processors spanning the K6 and K7 processor generations. The
chipsets include the AMD-640, AMD-751 and the AMD-761 chipsets. The
situation changed in 2003 with the release of Athlon 64 processors, and AMD
chose not to further design its own chipsets for its desktop processors while
opening the desktop platform to allow other firms to design chipsets. This is
the "Open Platform ATI, VIA and SiS developing their own chipset for Athlon
64 processors and later Athlon 64 X2 and Athlon 64 FX processors, including
the Quad FX platform chipset from Nvidia.
The initiative went further with the release of Opteron server processors as
AMD stopped the design of server chipsets in 2004 after releasing the AMD-
8111 chipset, and again opened the server platform for firms to develop
chipsets for Opteron processors. As of today, Nvidia and Broadcom are the
sole designing firms of server chipsets for Opteron processors.
AMD will also return to the server chipsets market with the next-generation
AMD 800S series server chipsets, scheduled to be released in 2009
timeframe.
Embedded systems
For the past couple of years AMD has been introducing 64-bit processors into
its embedded product line starting with the AMD Opteron processor. In 2006
AMD added the AMD Athlon, AMD Turion and Mobile AMD Sempron
processors to its embedded product line. Leveraging the same 64-bit
instruction set and Direct Connect Architecture as the AMD Opteron but at
lower power levels, these processors were well suited to a variety of
traditional embedded applications. Throughout 2007 and into 2008 AMD has
continued to add both single-core Mobile AMD Sempron and AMD Athlon
processors and dual-core AMD Athlon X2 and AMD Turion processors to its
embedded product line and now offers embedded 64-bit solutions starting
with 8W TDP Mobile AMD Sempron and AMD Athlon processors for fan-less
designs up to multi-processor systems leveraging multi-core AMD Opteron
processors all supporting longer than standard availability.
Current
Geode · Sempron · Athlon 64 (Athlon Neo) · Athlon X2 · Phenom (Phenom
II) · Athlon II · Turion · Opteron
Future
Fusion (Bulldozer · Bobcat)
The future
The future is here. Newer ARM processors exist, but they are 32 bit devices.
This means, basically, that RISC OS won't run on them until all of RISC OS is
modified to be 32 bit safe. As long as BASIC is patched, a reasonable
software base will exist. However all C programs will need to be recompiled.
All relocatable modules will need to be altered. And pretty much all
assembler code will need to be repaired. In cases where source isn't
available (ie, anything written by Computer Concepts), it will be a tedious
slog.
It is truly one of the situations that could make or break the platform.
I feel, as long as a basic C compiler/linker is made FREELY available, then we
should go for it. It need not be a 'good' compiler, as long as it will be a drop-
in replacement for Norcroft CC version 4 or 5. Why this? Because RISC OS
depends upon enthusiasts to create software, instead of big corporations.
And without inexpensive reasonable tools, they might decide it is too much
to bother with converting their software, so may decide to leave RISC OS and
code for another platform.
I, personally, would happily download a freebie compiler/linker and convert
much of my own code. It isn't plain sailing for us - think of all of the library
code that needs to be checked. It will be difficult enough to obtain a 32 bit
machine to check the code works correctly, never mind all the other pitfalls.
Asking us for a grand to support the platform is only going to turn us away in
droves. Heck, I'm still using ARM 2 and ARM 3 systems. Some of us smaller
coders won't be able to afford such a radical upgrade. And that will be VERY
BAD for the platform. Look how many people use the FREE user-created
Internet suite in preference to commercial alternatives. Look at all of the
support code available on Arcade BBS. Much of that will probably go, yes.
But would a platform trying to re-establish itself really want to say goodbye
to the rest?
I don't claim my code is wonderful, but if only one person besides myself
makes good use of it - then it has been worth it.
blade Center JS22 servers, both powered by this new chip, would
be available in the country. According to Morgan Stanley, energy used to
power and cool today's data centers represents 44 per cent of the centre's
total cost of ownership - and for a company of any size today, a 50 per cent
saving is huge.
In 2007, $10 billion has been spent on data centre energy requirements
worldwide, and IDC predicts that power and cooling spend in the data centre
will grow eight times the rate of hardware spend. For the cost conscious
Indian companies, virtualization and adoption of green technologies is the
ideal solution.
The new chip at 4.7 GHZ, is twice as fast as its predecessor, but
uses nearly the same amount of electricity to run and cooL This means
custom¬ers can use the new processor to either increase their performance
by 100 per cent or cut their power consumption by 50 per cent, said Manish
Gupta who heads the research Lab at IBM.
On the card itself, you can't help noticing the presence of a big E-MU
processor called E-DSP, which is a special version of the processor used in
top-of-the-line E-MU and Creative brand products. This DSP can perform
many types of sound processing without calling on your computer's CPU,
thus avoiding overloading it. It's accompanied by a specific FGPA also from E-
MU.
Analog/digital conversion is handled by a well-known component, the TI Burr-
Brown PCM1804, which is a delta/sigma stereo converter operating in 24 bits
up to 192 kHz. Conversion in the other direction (digital/analog) uses an AKM
AK4395, which is also a delta/sigma stereo converter operating in 24 bits up
to 192 kHz. Note that the two converters can function at 192 kHz, whereas
the card itself is limited to 96 kHz. True, that frequency is quite sufficient in
practice - except for reading certain DVD Audios, but then that's not the
purpose of the 0404.
An Inside Look at a Computer
This is a Motherboard of a 386 PC.
The thing in the middle that says
"intel" is the CPU. CPU stands for
"Central Processor Unit". It is really
the brains of the computer. This is
where all the adding, subtracting,
dividing and multiplying takes place.
Examples of CPUs are Intel's Pentium
and now Pentium II. On the Mac side
you have the new G3 chip or Motorola
604E. Each chip operates at a certain
clock speed measured in megahertz or
Mhz. This is how fast the chip can
perform a single operation.
Amd Athlon Processors History began with the original Athlon Classic, which
is the first seventh-generation x86 processor and since it is the first, it
remained to be the first performance lead over Intel for a couple of years.
It showed a lot of promise as it showed superior performance compared to
the Pentium 3 which was the champion at that time. The second generation
Athlon called The Thunderbird came along in year 2000. It had a speed
ranging from 600 to 1400 MHz. AMD replaced the 512 KiB external reduced
speed cache used by the Athlon Classic with 256 KiB of on-chip, full speed
exclusive cache. The Thunderbird at this time, won over rival Pentium 3 but
AMD did not stop there. AMD released The Palomino or the Athlon XP. XP
meaning "Extreme Performance". Then AMD released The Thunderbird which
is at 1.8 GHz. Then the fifth generation Athlon came along, Barton core
processors, running at the same speed as the Thoroughbred predecessors.
Finally, the Mobile Athlon XP was introduced. It has lower power
consumption, and lower heat production which is basically used for the
notebook. AMD is not stopping and is still continuing to improve its
processors as to beat it's rival Intel. See cpu-lab.com for more details on the
AMD Processor.
AMD ex CEO Jerry Sanders vision was to create a "virtual gorilla" that would
equip AMD to compete with Intel. A couple of years later, AMD released
Athlon K7 processor. AMD got lots of benefits working with Motorola as AMD
was able to refine copper interconnect manufacturing to the production
stage one year earlier than Intel.