Architectural Physics

Will V. Norris
University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon

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Online Jul 2005

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A+erican Association o, Physics Teachers

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The Laws of Architecture From a Physicist's Perspective

Nikos A. Salingaros
Physics Essays volume ! num"er # $%ecem"er &''() pages *+ ,*#+. Poste- "y permission of Physics Essays Pu"lications! . Physics Essays Pu"lications! &''(.

SPANISH VERSION Ta"le of /ontents

1. 0NT12%3/T02N 2. 13LES 2F 4EA3T5 AN% 21%E1 0N PAST T06ES 3. T7E T71EE LA8S 2F A1/70TE/T31E i. 2r-er on the Small Scale ii. 2r-er on the Large Scale iii. The Natural 7ierarchy of Scales 2. A /LASS0F0/AT02N 2F A1/70TE/T31AL ST5LES 3. T7E 3NNAT31ALNESS 2F /2NTE6P21A15 430L%0N9S i. The Emotional 4asis of Architecture ii. 3ni:ueness of Structural 2r-er 2. /2N/L3S02N 3. 1eferences

A"stract

Three laws of architectural order are obtained by analogy from basic physical principles. They apply to both natural and man-made structures. These laws may be used to create buildings that match the emotional comfort and beauty of the world's great historical buildings. The laws are consistent with Classical, Byzantine, Gothic, Islamic, astern, and !rt "ou#eau architectures$ but not with the modernist architectural forms of the past se#enty years. It seems that modernist twentieth-century architecture intentionally contradicts all other architectures in actually pre#enting structural order. ;ey wor-s< structural order, architecture, design rules

&. 0NT12%3/T02N Architecture is an ex ression and a lication o! geo"etrical order. One #ould ex ect the su$%ect to $e descri$ed $& "athe"atics and h&sics, $ut it is not. 'here is no acce ted !or"ulation o! ho# order is achie(ed in architecture. )onsidering that architecture a!!ects "an*ind through the $uilt en(iron"ent "ore directl& than an& other disci line, our ignorance o! the actual "echanis" is sur rising. +e ha(e concentrated on understanding natural inani"ate and $iological structures, $ut not the s&ste"atic atterns re!lected in our o#n constructions. 'here exist historical $uildings that are uni(ersall& ad"ired as $eing the "ost $eauti!ul ,Section 2-. 'hese include the great religious te" les o! the ast ,1- and the cultural #ealth contained in (arious indigenous architectures. ,2,3- .oth #ere $uilt $& !ollo#ing so"e rules o! thu"$, and these rules can $e deduced !ro" the structures the"sel(es. 'his set o! e" irical rules has $een anal&sed and collected in the %attern &anguage o! Alexander. ,/Structural la#s underlie h&sics and $iolog&, and #e ex ect si"ilar la#s to hold !or architecture as #ell. Alexander ro oses a set o! rules that go(ern architecture, deri(ed !ro" $iological and h&sical rinci les. ,0- 'he& are $ased on the h& othesis that "atter o$e&s a co" lex ordering on the "acrosco ic scale. E(en though !orces such as electro"agnetis" and gra(it& are too #ea* to account !or this, (olu"es and sur!aces a arentl& interact in a #a& that "i"ic*s the "icrosco ic interaction o! articles. Architecture can $e reduced to a set o! rules that are a*in to the la#s o! h&sics.

1sing analogies #ith the structure o! "atter, three la#s o! architectural order are ostulated here ,Section 3-. 'he& are chec*ed in three di!!erent #a&s2 ,1- $& agreeing directl& #ith the greatest historical $uildings o! all ti"e ,1-3 ,2- $& agreeing #ith 10 ro erties a$stracted $& Alexander !ro" creations throughout hu"an histor& ,0-3 and ,3- $& agreeing #ith h&sical and $iological !or"s. 'his result re resents a success!ul a lication o! the h&sicist4s a roach to a highl& co" lex ro$le", #hich has u until no# resisted a scienti!ic !or"ulation. 'he la#s can $e a lied to classi!& architectural st&les in a #a& that has not $een done $e!ore ,Section /-. +hereas "ost traditional architectures !ollo# the three la#s, "odernist $uildings do the o osite o! #hat the three la#s sa&. 'his result categori5es traditional and "odernist architectures into t#o se arate grou s. It a ears that all $uildings are created $& a s&ste"atic a lication o! the sa"e three la#s, #hether in !ollo#ing the" or in o osing the". 'hus !ar, the results do not distinguish #hich architecture, traditional or "odernist, is 6$etter6. Ne(ertheless, Alexander, in co" an& #ith )harles, the Prince o! +ales, re!ers traditional architecture. 'he& are also con(inced that traditional architecture is "ore suited to "an*ind !or !unda"ental reasons, and not "erel& as a "atter o! taste. Section 0 resents argu"ents to su ort this (ie#. 'he $asis o! those argu"ents is the sense o! co"!ort one !eels !ro" a $uilding and the uni7ueness o! structural order.

=. 13LES 2F 4EA3T5 AN% 21%E1 0N PAST T06ES E(er& distinct ci(ili5ation or di!!erent eriod in the ast has le!t us a set o! rules, usuall& i" licit, that hel roduce the ulti"ate ideal in $eaut&. Each set o! rules is rele(ant to a articular ti"e, the a(aila$ilit& o! indigenous "aterials, the local cli"ate, or an underl&ing religious ritual, and de!ines architectural !or"s that are $eauti!ul. +hat is i" ortant is that these (er& di!!erent $uildings and o$%ects are seen as $eauti!ul $& "ost eo le toda&, #ho li(e outside the ti"e and culture that roduced the". 'his i" lies the existence o! uni(ersal la#s go(erning structural order. 'here is no di!!icult& in a l&ing a traditional set o! rules to conte" orar& architecture. A 8ree* te" le in 9a an ,as a $an*-, or a )hinese te" le in the 1nited States ,as a restaurant- can $e $eauti!ul, i! $uilt $& !ollo#ing the a ro riate rules. Such rules tell us ho# to du licate so"ething !ro" an earlier culture or di!!erent eo le. Rather #hat #e need, and #hat architects are al#a&s loo*ing !or, is a rescri tion !or $uilding so"ething $eauti!ul that is not constrained $& a rigid and ossi$l& irrele(ant tradition.

Rules that are genuinel& inde endent o! an& s eci!ic culture and ti"e can $e deri(ed $& a roaching architecture as a h&sics ro$le". +e gi(e uni(ersal la#s go(erning architectural order that include, as s ecial cases, "ost o! the re(ious sets o! rules !or creating $eauti!ul $uildings : exce t those !or "odernist $uildings. +e then sho# that the rules !or $uilding "odernist structures are si" l& to do the o osite o! #hat is needed to achie(e natural order. 'his result singles out "odernis" as a distinct class in the histor& o! hu"an construction. ;odernist $uildings are ercei(ed as un leasant $& "an& eo le. 'his is true !or their (isual as ect, and is es eciall& so !or the ractical !unctions ,entr& and exit, #or*ing, circulation, etc.- that are su osed to ta*e lace in those $uildings. Pu$lic reaction against "odernis" has $een noted $e!ore ,<,=-, and is !orce!ull& ex ressed $& )harles, the Prince o! +ales. ,>,?- @es ite all these criticis"s, ho#e(er, the "odernist aesthetic re"ains dee l& entrenched in our societ&. Pro onents o! "odernis" ha(e identi!ied their credo #ith the technological rogress o! the t#entieth centur&. In the "inds o! "an& eo le, ost:#ar industrial rogress is lin*ed to, i! not outright due to, the ex ansion o! "odernist architecture, and !or this reason the& are reluctant to 7uestion it. It has $eco"e auto"atic !or third:#orld countries to $uild the "ost "odern: loo*ing $uildings as the !irst ste to#ards "oderni5ation. Ne(ertheless, it is no# acce ted that "odernist $uilding rogra"s in the reindustriali5ed #orld ha(e largel& $een disastrous. ,<-

+. T7E T71EE LA8S 2F A1/70TE/T31E I a" ostulating these la#s !or the !irst ti"e here. 'he& ha(e gro#n out o! "& discussions and interaction #ith Alexander o(er the ast !i!teen &ears. 1. Order on the s"allest scale is esta$lished $& aired contrasting ele"ents, existing in a $alanced (isual tension. 2. Aarge:scale order occurs #hen e(er& ele"ent relates to e(er& other ele"ent at a distance in a #a& that reduces the entro &. 3. 'he s"all scale is connected to the large scale through a lin*ed hierarch& o! inter"ediate scales #ith scaling !actor a roxi"atel& e7ual to e B 2.=1>.

Se(eral inde endent argu"ents su orting these la#s are resented $elo#. 'he !irst t#o la#s go(ern the t#o extre"es o! scale2 the (er& s"all and the

(er& large3 and the third la# go(erns the lin*ing o! the t#o scales. Each la# gi(es rise to se(eral distinct conse7uences3 together these de!ine a set o! "aster rules !or architecture. 'he& are (alidated $ecause their i""ediate conse7uences corres ond to realit&.

+.& 2r-er on the Small Scale +e #ill esta$lish an analog& #ith the #a& that "atter is !or"ed out o! contrasting airs o! ele"entar& co" onents. Cro" the (acuu" in 7uantu" electrod&na"ics arising out o! (irtual electron: ositron airs to nuclei !or"ed !ro" $ound neutrons and rotons #ith o osite isos in3 to ato"s !or"ed o! $ound electrons and nuclei o! o osite charge, "atter !ollo#s a $asic attern. 'he s"allest scale consists o! aired ele"ents #ith the o osite characteristics $ound together. )ou ling *ee s o osites close to each other $ut does not allo# the" to o(erla , $ecause the& #ould "utuall& annihilate3 this creates a d&na"ic tension. +e no# a l& this conce t to architecture. 6Order on the s"allest scale is esta$lished $& aired contrasting ele"ents, existing in a $alanced (isual tension6. 'here are se(eral #a&s to achie(e contrast #ith "aterials2 sha e ,con(ex:conca(e-3 direction ,5ig:5ags-3 color hue3 and color (alue ,$lac*: #hite-. Aocal contrast identi!ies the s"allest scale in a $uilding, thus esta$lishing the !unda"ental le(el o! geo"etrical order. 'he scale is rele(ant to the o$ser(er : in regions #here a erson #al*s or sits or #or*s, contrast and tension are needed at the s"allest ercei(a$le detail3 in areas !ar !ro" hu"an acti(it&, the scale is necessaril& "uch larger. Structural order is a heno"enon that o$e&s its o#n la#s. Its !unda"ental $uilding $loc*s are the s"allest ercei(a$le di!!erentiations o! color and geo"etr&. +hereas (isi$le di!!erentiation on the s"all scale is not necessar& to de!ine structure, it is necessar& !or structural order. 'his is de"onstrated in architecture and in "ost o$%ects "ade $e!ore the t#entieth centur&. )lassical 8ree* te" les ha(e "ar(ellous contrasting details. 'his #as also true o! color, $ut the original coloration has $een lost #ith ti"e. 'o see the e!!ecti(e use o! color contrast, loo* at the extraordinar& !i!teenth centur& tiled #alls in Isla"ic S ain and ;orocco. 'here are se(eral i" ortant conse7uences o! the !irst la#. 1. .asic ele"ents, li*e ele"entar& h&sical co" onents, ha(e to $e si" le. 'hat "eans that the !unda"ental units are si" le in sha e, !or exa" le, triangles, s7uares, and their co"$inations.

2. .asic units are held together $& a short:range !orce. 'he onl& #a& to do this using geo"etr& is to ha(e interloc*ing units #ith o osite characteristics. 3. 'he s"allest units occur in contrasting airs, li*e !er"ions. +hen these airs o! units re eat, the re etition is not o! a single unit, $ut o! a air, leading to alternation rather than si" le re etition. /. 'he contrast conce t recurs on di!!erent scales, thus actuall& re(enting detail !ro" !illing all the s ace. A region o! detail #ill need to contrast #ith a lainer region, and the t#o regions co"$ine to !or" a contrasting air. In the sa"e #a&, roughl& $uilt areas are necessar& to co" le"ent those areas $uilt #ith a (er& !ine !inish.

)onsider the nucleus, in #hich rotons and neutrons are $ound together $& (irtual ion exchange. 'he strong !orce is constantl& re(ersing the nucleons4 identit&. A neutron is a$le to $eco"e a roton, then s#itch $ac* again. A $asic air o! contrasting units in a design, as descri$ed in ,2-, "ust also ossess this dualit&. Cor an o$%ect and its surrounding s ace to $e e!!ecti(el& $ound into a contrasting air, $oth the s ace and the o$%ect itsel! "ust ha(e the sa"e degree o! structural integrit&.

+.= 2r-er on the Large Scale In h&sics, #hen noninteracting o$%ects are %uxta osed, nothing ha ens. An interaction induces a rearrange"ent that leads to higher order !or the large: scale structure, and there!ore to a reduction o! the entro &. 'he rocess could $e as co" lex as the gro#th in a cr&stal lattice, or as si" le as the aligne"ent o! co" ass needles. 'his is the #a& that cr&stalline structures are !or"ed, galaxies condense, etc. Action:at:a:distance, #hether it is electric, "agnetic, or gra(itational, i" oses a large:scale ordering that is characteri5ed $& geo"etrical connections. One conse7uence o! organi5ation is that si"ilarities a ear $et#een di!!erent su$regions. 'his has to $e "i"ic*ed in architecture and used to tie the s"all:scale structures together into a har"onious #hole. 6Aarge:scale order occurs #hen e(er& ele"ent relates to e(er& other ele"ent at a distance in a #a& that reduces the entro &6. 'his $asic rescri tion su!!ices to generate large:scale order in $oth color and geo"etr&. ;i"ic*ing a long: range interaction deter"ines the orientation and si"ilarit& o! s atiall& se arated units.

'her"od&na"ic entro & relates di!!erent arrange"ents o! the sa"e nu"$er o! articles according to their ro$a$ilit& o! occurring. Entro & a lies to structural order in a slightl& di!!erent #a&, $ecause it relates di!!erent states #ith the sa"e nu"$er o! $asic contrasting units. Architectural order is in(ersel& ro ortional to the entro & o! a !ixed nu"$er o! interacting structural co" onents. 'he entro & o! a design could $e lo#ered $& reducing the local contrasts, $ut this also reduces the structural order : that #ould $e analogous to eli"inating the "olecules in a gas. 'he conse7uences o! the second la# are the distinct #a&s in #hich glo$al order is achie(ed. 1. Aarge:scale ordering arranges the $asic units into highl& s&""etric co"$inations. As in cr&stalli5ation, the glo$al entro & is lo#ered $& raising the local s&""etries. 'he s"aller scales are there!ore characteri5ed $& a high degree o! s&""etr&, #hich is not re7uired o! the large scales, ho#e(er. 2. Order is also achie(ed $& ha(ing units on a co""on grid, ta*ing the cue !ro" cr&stal lattices. )ontinuit& o! atterns across structural transitions raises the degree o! connecti(it&. 3. In the a$sence o! a h&sical !orce $et#een areas, (isual si"ilarit& connects t#o design ele"ents through co""on colors, sha es, and si5es. 8lo$al har"on& re resents the o osite e!!ect !ro" local contrast. /. Insisting on 6 urit&6 can destro& the connection rocess, $ecause connections "a& $e "isinter reted as i" urities and eli"inated. 'here!ore, i" er!ections are $oth use!ul and necessar&3 %ust as in a do ed cr&stal, #here i" urities enhance the structure. 'he second la# "a*es it easier to understand the (isual interaction o! t#o o$%ects laced near each other, #ell *no#n !ro" o tical illusions. 'he $rain creates connecting lines that a ear to tie t#o units together. No#, i! #e ta*e t#o o$%ects, dra# the (irtual connections that #e see on a er, then construct the" !ro" so"e "aterial, the resulting structure #ill hold together against stresses. 'his esta$lishes a h&sical rele(ance !or a strictl& (isual heno"enon. It a ears that the $rain 6sees6 the ro er h&sical connections !or a sta$le structure. 'he entro & o! a design is ercei(ed $& our innate a$ilit& to (isuali5e connections. 'he "ain s aces o! an& $uilding, and their relation to each other, are go(erned $& the "utual interaction o! all the #alls and an& other structural ele"ents. )ertain di"ensions, certain co"$inations, #ill a ear to 6resonate6 #hen all co" onents interact har"oniousl&. 'hese corres ond to the states o! least entro &. ;a*ing ad%ust"ents to a co" lex structure so as

to lo#er its entro & con!or"s recisel& to the rocess that gi(es rise to natural !or"s.

+.+ The Natural 7ierarchy of Scales 'he third la# o! architecture is $ased on the idea o! si"ilarit& and scaling. 6'he s"all scale is connected to the large scale through a lin*ed hierarch& o! inter"ediate scales #ith scaling !actor a roxi"atel& e7ual to e B 2.=1>6. Sur!aces interact3 the& de!ine su$di(isions3 all that one has to do is to create structures at the a ro riate scales, and lin* the" together. 'he di!!erent scales ha(e to $e close enough so that the& can relate, and the lin*ing is acco" lished through structural si"ilarities. 'he h&sical reasoning is that "aterial !orces are "ani!ested di!!erentl& on di!!erent scales. 'he sha e o! natural structures is in!luenced $& stresses, strains, and !ractures in solids, and $& tur$ulence in "o(ing !luids. ;atter is not uni!or"2 it loo*s totall& di!!erent i! "agni!ied $& a !actor o! 1D or "ore. +e #ant the scaling !actor !or #hich t#o distinct scales are still related e" iricall&, this !actor is around 3. In !ractal geo"etr&, the Eoch, Peano, and )antor sel!:si"ilar !ractal atterns that "ost closel& rese"$le natural o$%ects ha(e si"ilarit& ratio r B 1F3 or r B 1F=1F2 B 1F2.<0 , su orting the scaling !actor ,1D- 1Fr B 2.=. 'hese argu"ents "a& a ear totall& heuristic, and &et the& re(eal a $asic heno"enon $est seen in $iological structures. 'he secret o! $iological gro#th is scaling, either (ia a Ci$onacci series, or an ex onential series. Ordered gro#th is ossi$le onl& i! there is a si" le scaling so that the $asic re lication rocess can $e re eated to create structure on di!!erent le(els. 'hus, di!!erent structural scales "ust exist, and the& "ust $e related, re!era$l& $& onl& one ara"eter. 'he ex onential scaling !actor e !its $oth natural and "an:"ade structures. 'a*e one (ie# o! a $uilding as a t#o:di"ensional design. 'hen decide #hether to "easure areas, or linear di"ensions, de ending on the situation. @i!!erent su$structures o! roughl& the sa"e si5e #ill grou the"sel(es into distinct sets o! "easure"ents. 'he nu"$er o! di!!erent scales #ill $e denoted $& " . )all the "axi"u" scale '"ax and the "ini"u" ercei(a$le scale '"in . An ideal structure #ill ha(e n sets o! su$units #ith si5es corres onding to e(er& ele"ent o! the !ollo#ing se7uence2 G'"in, e'"in, e2'"in, ..., en:1'"in B '"ax H. ,1-

Sol(ing the last ter" o! the se7uence ,1- !or n relates the ideal nu"$er o! scales n to the s"allest and largest "easure"ents ,in the sa"e units-. +e ha(e, n B 1 I ln'"ax : ln'"in ,2#here n is the nearest integer (alue. One "easure o! structural order is ho# close the theoretical index n ,2- co"es to the nu"$er " o! distinct scales in a structure. 'his rule "easures onl& i! the hierarchical scaling exists3 it does not deter"ine #hether si"ilarities actuall& lin* the di!!erent scales together. Cor exa" le, a three:store& $uilding #ith 1:in. ,2.0:c"- detail re7uires n to $e a$out = . In "an& "odernist $uildings, ho#e(er, " is nearer 2, regardless o! si5e, $ecause there are intentionall& no structures in the inter"ediate scales. ;odernist $uildings are 6 ure6, "eaning that the& ha(e large e" t& sur!aces. On the other hand, so"e ost"odernist $uildings #ith unorgani5ed structures o! "an& di!!erent si5es "ight ha(e " higher than n . A $uilding #ith a natural hierarch& o! scales, regardless o! #hat it loo*s li*e, should ha(e " (er& close to the theoretical index n . 'here are se(eral conse7uences o! the third la#. 1. E(er& unit #ill $e e"$edded into a larger unit o! the next scale in si5e. 'his naturall& leads to a (er& #ide $oundar& !or each o$%ect in a design. 'he #hole design is a hierarch& o! #ide $oundaries #ithin other $oundaries. 2. As alread& "entioned, si"ilarit& o! sha e should lin* the di!!erent scales together3 !or exa" le, the sa"e cur(e or attern re eated at di!!erent si5es. 3. 'he di!!erent scales can colla$orate to de!ine a gradient through si"ilar sha es o! decreasing si5e. Each $uilding re7uires an entrance gradient as #ell as other !unctional gradients, and these succeed onl& #hen the& corres ond to structural gradients. /. A $uilding "ust $e laced into the en(iron"ent in a #a& that !its the existing hierarch& o! scales. 'he surrounding nature and other $uildings #ill then de!ine the largest scales o! the ense"$le. 'he #ide:$oundar& rinci le ,1- states that an interacting o$%ect has a $oundar& o! si"ilar si5e as the o$%ect itsel!. Cor exa" le, a s7uare e"$edded s&""etricall& in another s7uare has a ratio o! areas !2F !1 B e . 'his gi(es a ratio o! the #idth o! the $order to the #idth o! the s"aller s7uare as wF'1 B ,e1F2:1-F2 B D.32. One illustration co"es !ro" h&sics. 'he "agnetic !ield around a s herical di ole "agnet o! radius ( goes out to

in!init&, &et the e!!ecti(e region o! !ield is co" ara$le to the si5e o! the "agnet. 'he !ield strength along the axis !alls to 1F1D o! its sur!ace (alue at 2.10( , gi(ing the thic*ness o! !ield as D.0> ti"es the "agnet4s dia"eter. ,11-

#. A /LASS0F0/AT02N 2F A1/70TE/T31AL ST5LES 'he three la#s and their t#el(e conse7uences are (eri!ied in the historical $uildings and arti!acts !ro" all o(er the #orld, throughout "ore than !our "illennia o! ci(ili5ation $e!ore the 2Dth centur&. ,1- 'his (alidates our !indings in an essential "anner. +e ha(e used argu"ents !ro" theoretical h&sics to o$tain ractical results that corres ond to realit&. Our deri(ation con!ir"s so"ething alread& esta$lished $& Alexander in a strictl& architectural context. ,/,0All architects in histor&, including the "odernists, ro$a$l& had so"e *no#ledge o! the three la#s ro osed here. 'hese la#s de!ine the (arious !or"s and the $asis o! design and construction that "i"ic the $eaut& and order !ound in nature. ;odernists, ho#e(er, deli$eratel& stri(e to roduce hu"an constructions that contrast #ith nature. 'he shoc* (alue o! so"ething unnatural gi(es "odernist $uildings their no(elt&. 'o achie(e this, the& do the o osite o! #hat the three la#s sa&. ;odernist $uildings "ini"i5e their structural order. 'he& in(aria$l& ha(e a "onu"ental $ilateral s&""etr&, #hich is un#arranted, $ut none o! the necessar& s"all:scale s&""etries. .oth structure and !unction are deli$eratel& disguised. S"all:scale order is !or$idden. 'here is no di!!erentiation o! the s ace3 no contrast $et#een outside and inside, or o! $us& #ith cal" areas, or o! areas ha(ing distinct !unction. I! there is an& re etition, it is "onotonous and #ithout contrast. All arts o! a $uilding exist in isolation, and do not interact in an& #a&. )onnections $et#een regions are su ressed. @i!!erent scales are allo#ed onl& i! the scaling !actor is 10 or "ore, so the scales are disconnected. 'here are no $orders, no connecting $oundaries3 sur!aces are sheer and co"e to straight edges and shar corners. Cinall&, an& natural or existing order is usuall& ra5ed $e!ore $uilding, thus re(enting an& connection to the surroundings. +e can classi!& all architectural st&les into t#o grou s2 natural and "odernist. 'his classi!ication is $ased on #hether the& !ollo# or o ose the three la#s o! structural order and has nothing to do #ith the age o! the $uildings. ;an& eo le ha(e al#a&s instincti(el& se arated "odernist !ro" traditional $uildings, $ut, #ithout a set o! #ritten rules, there #as ne(er a s&ste"atic #a& o! doing this. It is e(en ossi$le to %udge a 6"ixed6 st&le $&

seeing #hich la#s and su$la#s it !ollo#s, and #hich it deli$eratel& contradicts. 'he architectural co""unit& distinguishes architectural st&les according to the use o! traditional "aterials such as stone and $ric* (ersus "odern "aterials such as steel, glass, and light:#eight rein!orced concrete. Our results sho# this distinction not to $e (er& rele(ant, since constructions that contradict the three la#s are ossi$le using any "aterials. On the other hand, so"e o! the "ost $eauti!ul Art Nou(eau $uildings, #hich !ollo# our la#s, #ere "ade ossi$le $& "odern "aterials. ,12-

(. T7E 3NNAT31ALNESS 2F /2NTE6P21A15 430L%0N9S 'his section discusses t#o criteria !or choosing $et#een natural and "odernist architectures2 ,1- the e"otional res onse to a $uilding3 and ,2- the dee er connection $et#een architectural order and nature. ;odernis" #as in(ented $& a grou o! "en in the 1?2Ds #ho cha" ioned extre"e olitical and hiloso hical ideas. ,<,=- 'he& #ere o$sessed $& the urge to $rea* totall& #ith an& existing historical order. 'heir ai" #as to trans!or" societ& $& "a*ing constructions that de!ied nature, going against eo le4s instincti(e !eelings o! $eaut&. In Section / #e sho#ed ho# "odernist architecture relies on rules that are logicall& the o osite o! the three la#s o! structural order. Ne(ertheless, "odern h&sics #as also a deli$erate $rea* !ro" classical h&sics, $ut that #as not a reason to dis"iss it. 'he crucial di!!erence is that "odern h&sics sur(i(ed $ecause o! its agree"ent #ith ex eri"ental heno"ena. 'his identi!ies a de!icienc& in architectural theor&2 the lac* o! an ex eri"ental $asis or so"ething analogous to it.

(.& The Emotional 4asis of Architecture Success!ul $uildings ha(e one o(erriding 7ualit&2 the& !eel natural and co"!orta$le. ;an connects #ith his surroundings on the s"all scale and needs to !eel reassured a$out an& large:scale structure. 'here is a $uilt:in hu"an reaction to threats !ro" the en(iron"ent, and structures threaten our ri"e(al sense o! securit& #hen the& a ear unnatural. A $uilding, regardless o! sha e or use, is ercei(ed as $eauti!ul #hen an e"otional lin* is esta$lished #ith the structural order. 'his is inde endent o! o inion and !ashion.

E"otional #ell:$eing can $e used as an ex eri"ental criterion !or %udging a structure4s e!!ecti(eness. ;an relates to the detail in a design or structure i""ediatel&, $ecause the connection to the s"all scale is e"otional. .& contrast, ercei(ing the o(erall !or" o!ten re7uires so"e thought, #hich is a "ore intellectual rocess. According to the three la#s o! structural order, our connection to architecture occurs (ia the s"allest scale, through the inter"ediate scales, and !inall& to the large scale : and is success!ul onl& i! all the scales are connected. 'he !unda"ental hu"an need !or s"all:scale structural order is "ani!ested in al"ost e(er& o$%ect and $uilding "ade $e!ore the t#entieth centur&. ;odern architects, ho#e(er, are relentless in attac*ing s"all:scale order as 6cri"inal6. 'his state"ent re resents an extre"e and o(er$lo#n reaction to nineteenth:centur& orna"ent. 'he solution to ha(ing too "uch decoration is not to $anish detail altogether3 it is to !ind the exact detail necessar& !or anchoring the larger !or"s. A "ini"u" o! detail, ro erl& laced, esta$lishes e"otional #ell:$eing. ;odernist architecture disregards the $asic hu"an need !or a co"!orta$le "ental en(iron"ent in #hich to li(e and #or*. According to the !ounders o! ;odernis", one has no right to ex ect e"otional co"!ort in $uildings. ,<,=- ;odern architects, "oreo(er, deli$eratel& see* to create e"otional disco"!ort $& introducing shar corners, "etallic edges, "assi(e rotruding o(erhangs, etc. 'he& unco" ro"isingl& insist on straight lines, e(en in situations #here cur(es are clearl& "ore a ro riate. None o! this is done !or a !unctional reason, and o!ten #or*s against the !unctions in those $uildings. It is *no#n !ro" studies in en(iron"ental s&cholog& that "odernist structures "a*e their inha$itants !eel (er& unco"!orta$le. Hu"an instincts to#ards the reduction o! s atial disco"!ort tr& to reduce da"age to the sense o! #ell:$eing o! the "ind. 'his is analogous to our instincts in a(oiding h&sical ain, #hich rotect our $od& tissues !ro" da"age. ;odernist architects ha(e not aid serious attention to the hu"an need !or e"otional #ell:$eing in an architectural setting2 so"ething (ital in hu"an consciousness could #ell $e da"aged $& an en(iron"ent that lac*s structural order.

(.= 3ni:ueness of Structural 2r-er 'here exist t#o o osite conce tions o! structural order in the #orld toda&. ;ost eo le ha(e $een taught to thin* o! 6order6 in "odernist architectural ter"s2 large:scale $ilateral s&""etr&, !lat e" t& sur!aces, straight edges and

right angles, etc. 'his essa& argues that the structural order o! our #orld as re(ealed $& science is contradicted $& the "odernist $uilt en(iron"ent. +e cannot %usti!& t#o "utuall& contradictor& de!initions o! structural order, #hich i" lies that the la#s o! structural order "ust $e uni7ue, and are the ones de!ined in this essa&. As ointed out earlier in Section 3, "an can (isuali5e connections intuiti(el&. 'his innate a$ilit& has ena$led hu"ans to de(elo architecture earl& in the e(olution o! "an*ind. 'he "ind esta$lishes atterns and connections not onl& $et#een o$%ects, $ut also $et#een ideas and conce ts. 'o a h&sicist, it a ears that our $uilt:in intuiti(e notions o! structural order arise !ro" the sa"e source as our a$ilit& to do h&sics. Instead o! $eing nurtured, ho#e(er, this a$ilit& is su ressed, as is descri$ed $elo#. Either #e inherit an innate conce tion o! structural order, or #e learn it !ro" our en(iron"ent. Peo le in the late t#entieth centur& are surrounded $& "odernist structures that ur osel& (iolate the three la#s, &et the& are constantl& re"inded that those $uildings re resent the onl& 6true6 order. I!, as is clai"ed here, the la#s are uni7ue, then "odernist $uildings su ress the conce tion o! structural order that #e inherit. 'he conse7uence o! this is to irre ara$l& da"age our a$ilit& to ercei(e connections, #hich a!!ects "ore than %ust architecture.

*. /2N/L3S02N 'hree la#s o! structural order #ere ostulated !ro" $asic h&sical analogies. 'hese la#s #ere sho#n to ha(e a scienti!ic (alidit& a$o(e and $e&ond an& architectural !ashion or o inion. Natural !or"s ha(e an ordered internal co" lexit& that "i"ics interacting h&sical rocesses, and this is re!lected in the #orld4s great historical $uildings and (ernacular architectures. 'he three la#s deri(ed here are e"inentl& ractical and can $e a lied to create $uildings o! intense h&sical and e"otional $eaut&. At the end o! the t#entieth centur&, "odernist architecture do"inates our entire #orld. 'his essa& sho#ed that "odernist architecture deli$eratel& o oses nature $& "ini"i5ing structural order. 'his (iolates dee l& seated !eelings that are an intrinsic art o! hu"an consciousness. 1ntil no#, eo le ha(e $een !rustrated $& the re"o(al o! structural order and the i" osition o! $uildings that "a*e us !eel unco"!orta$le. Our results should con(ince eo le that their intuiti(e !eelings o! architectural $eaut& are correct, and that a nourishing "an:"ade en(iron"ent is again ossi$le. Acknowle-gement

I a" inde$ted to Pro!essor )hristo her Alexander !or letting "e #or* #ith his soon:to:$e u$lished $oo* 6'he Nature o! Order6, and !or generous encourage"ent o(er the &ears. 1>sum> Trois lois de l'ordre architectural sont obtenues par analogie ) partir de principes fondamentau' de physi*ue. Ces lois, s'appli*uent aussi bien au' structures naturelles *u') celles cr++es par l'homme. lles peu#ent ,tre utilis+es pour construire des +difices pour satisfaire au confort +motionnel et de beaut+ des plus grands +difices histori*ues du monde. Ces lois sont en accord a#ec l'architecture classi*ue, byzantine, gothi*ue, islami*ue, orientale, et de l'art nou#eau$ mais pas a#ec les formes architecturales modernistes des soi'ante-di' derni-res ann+es. !pparemment, l'architecture moderniste du #ingti-me si-cle contredit intentionnellement toutes les autres formes d'architecture en emp,chant l'ordre structural.

1eferences 1. Sir .anister Cletcher, ! .istory of !rchitecture, 1?th Edition, edited $& 9ohn ;usgro(e ,.utter#orths, Aondon, 1?>=-. 2. .ernard Rudo!s*&, !rchitecture /ithout !rchitects ,@ou$leda&, 8arden )it&, Ne# Jor*, 1?</-. 3. .ernard Rudo!s*&, The %rodigious Builders ,Harcourt .race 9o(ano(ich, Ne# Jor*, 1?==-. /. ). Alexander, S. Ishi*a#a, ;. Sil(erstein, ;. 9aco$son, I. Ci*sdahl: Eing and S. Angel, ! %attern &anguage ,Ox!ord 1ni(ersit& Press, Ne# Jor*, 1?==-. 0. )hristo her Alexander, The "ature of 0rder ,Ox!ord 1ni(ersit& Press, Ne# Jor*, 2DD1-. ,in ress-. <. Peter .la*e, 1orm 1ollows 1iasco ,Aittle, .ro#n and )o., .oston, 1?=/-. =. 'o" +ol!e, 1rom Bauhaus to 0ur .ouse ,Carrar Straus 8iroux, Ne# Jor*, 1?>1-. >. )harles, Prince o! +ales, 6S eeches on Architecture6, in2 The %rince, the !rchitects, and "ew /a#e 2onarchy , edited $& )harles 9enc*s ,Ri55oli, Ne# Jor*, 1?>>?. )harles, Prince o! +ales, ! 3ision of Britain4 ! %ersonal 3iew of !rchitecture ,@ou$leda&, Aondon, 1?>?-. 1D..enoit .. ;andel$rot, The 1ractal Geometry of "ature ,Cree"an, Ne# Jor*, 1?>3-. 11.Oleg @. 9e!i"en*o, lectricity and 2agnetism 2nd. Ed., ,Electret Scienti!ic )o, Star )it&, +. Virginia, 1?>?-. . /?3.

12.Cran* Russell, !rt "ou#eau !rchitecture ,Arch )a e Press, Ne# Jor*, 1?=?-. K'his age #as selected as a 5ey (esource !or Patterns $& Ain*s2 8o . Nikos A. Salingaros Division of Mathematics University of Texas at San Antonio San Antonio, TX 78249 USA Email< salingar?sphere.math.utsa.e-u