Behavioral Frame of reference - concerned with identifying and eliminating problem behaviour and building necessary functional skills.

Theories: a. Ivan Pavlovs classical conditioning - a new stimulus becomes capable of evoking a given response because the stimulus presented together with a new stimulus that already evokes the response. b. B.F. Skinners operant conditioning - focused on the role of reward or reinforcement in learning. - when response is desirable, it was rewarded or reinforced. A. Techniques increasing behaviour 1. Reinforcement - use to increase appropriate behaviour. - any consequence that increases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repated 2 major classes of reinforcement: a. Positive reinforcement - a behaviour that will be strengthened or maintained in order for an individual to acquire something. b. Negative reinforcement - a behaviour will be strengthened or maintained in order for an individual to avoid something. Several types of reinforce: a. Primary reinforcer - include the things that humans need for survival; they are thing that we need in order to live. Ex: water, air, food, movement, temperature and shelter. b. secondary reinforce - Things that have acquired their reinforcing value in society. Ex: social reinforcer such as smile or nod, activity reinforcers

c. Object reinforcers ex: money Guiding principles that enhance the effectiveness of your reinforcement: 1. Be positive, not punishing 2. Reinforce immediately 3. Reinforce descriptively 4. Use social reinforcers in conjunction with primary reinforcement 5. Fade the contrived reinforcers as soon as possible Other techniques: 2. Chaining - taught the specific steps required to reach the behaviour. 2 types of chaining a. Backward chaining - Teach the separate links in the chain of behaviour starting with the last link. b. Forward chaining 3. Shaping - any action that is similar to or preliminary to the desired behaviour is reinforced. - Successive actions that more closely approximate or lead to the desired response. 4. Modeling - a strategy for increasing appropriate behaviours that utilizes the ripple effect. - Imitative forms of learning. 5. Contingency/ contracting - use of appealing activities to get an individual to perform activities that are less appealing. - Can be written or verbal. 6. Token economies -the demonstration of the desired behaviour results in the acquisition of a token. B. Techniques decreasing behaviour

1. Extinction - a method of reducing inappropriate behaviours which eliminates that reinforcing attention by ignoring the behaviour. 2. Time out - the withholding of all reinforcement in an attempt to decrease a behaviour. 3. Overcorrection 2 types: a. restitutional overcorrection - the individual modifies the effects of his or her maladaptive behaviour by making environment better. b. Positive practice overcorrection -child is required to practices the appropriate behaviour that would have prevented the chair from being turned. - child practices the appropriate action a number of times. 4. Satiation - allow the inappropriate behaviour to occur so many times that it is no longer reinforcing to the child to act out the behaviour. 5. Aversives - giving stimulus that the individual does not like. Therapeutic use of self -Being aware of oneself and of the patient and being able to control what one communicates. - help patients identify their problem, set reasonable goals and work toward accomplishing goal. Therapeutic qualities 1. Empathy- the ability o understand how the other person feels. 2. Sensitivity- alertness to the patients needs and awareness of your effect on him or her. 3. Respect 4. warmth- the sense of friendliness, interest, and enthusiasm the therapist convey.

-it is shown by smiling, eye contact, leaning forward, touching, and other non verbal behaviours. 5. Genuineness- the ability to be oneself openly. 6. Specificity- the art of stating things simply, directly and concretely, focusing on what is relevant. Techniques for relating to patients 1. Make initial contacts brief 2. Choose words carefully 3. Be comfortable with silence 4. Encourage by minimal response 5. Listen and observe 6. Summarize and focus 7. Ask for clarification 8. Follow through on promises

Recording techniques: 1. Anecdotal recording- record specific incidents, including what happened immediately before the behaviour(antecedents) and what happened as a result of the behaviour (consequence) 2. Event recording- counts how many times the behaviour occurs in a given period of time. 3. Permanent product recording- keeps samples of work as a means of measuring behaviour. 4. Duration recording- measures how long a childs behaviour occurs. 5. Time sampling- record the occurrence of the behaviour within a specified time at specific intervals but may be done momentarily. Reference: 1. Psychosocial Frame of reference by Mary Ann Bruce 2. Lecture of behavioural modification techniques by Ms. Jocelyn Simbol, OTRP