George Mpantes mathematics teacher

2
.

The not so simple idea of Galois theory

Algebraic equations .

With a careful comparison we can say that Galois theory was in algebra as the relativity in physics.

The general algebraic equation of the n-th degree (where n is any positive integer) if of the general form xn+c1xn-1+c2xn-2+.cn-1x+cn=0(1 where the coefficients c are constants of arbitrary value . The values of the roots of the equation depend on the values credited to the coefficients ci in the equation, and hence the roots are function of these coefficients. To solve the equation means to obtain the explicit expression of the roots in terms of the coefficients (as for example in quadratic equation). At the close of sixteenth century the general equations of the first four

degrees had been solved. The solutions were obtained in the form of explicit algebraic functions of the coefficients1 so that no irrationals other than radical appeared in these solutions. This is because then the only functions that knew were the algebraic functions. Therefore the mathematicians were restricted to these solutions, as the Greeks were limited to the exclusive use of the rule and diabetes for the proof of their theorems. Because of those beliefs, it was introduced the term "solution by radicals" as before "construction with ruler and compass." During the two next centuries numerous attempts were made to secure such solutions, but no progress were made and some mathematicians, notably Lagrange, expressed doubts on the existence of algebraic solutions for the equations of higher degree. Finally in 1825, Abel put an end to further discussion by proving in a celebrated theorem that the general equation of the n-th degree (n>4) cannot be solved algebraically. Shortly after Galois , by applying his theory of groups, extended Abels results. Galois established a general theorem which provided a test for deciding under what conditions any algebraic equation can be solved by radicals

Is a function which can be constructed by performing on these coefficients a finite

number of algebraic operations (addition, substraction, multiplication, division and extraction of roots).

The idea of Galois theory

(algebraically) It should be noted that the two young mathematicians, did not imply that non-algebraic solutions were unobtainable. Indeed , some fifty years after Galois memoir, Hermite solved the general equation of the fifth degree, and Poincare indicated the possibility of expressing the roots of the degree. These two mathematicians equations of still higher functions utilized modular and automorphic

respectively and their solutions were of course non algebraic. ( the squaring the circle
was achieved by the Archimedes with the aid of the helix). Does the nave outlook of the

earlier mathematicians about the limits of algebraic functions was shared by Abel and Galois? Nevertheless the problem of solving algebraic equations by means of radicals was deemed by them of sufficient interest in itself to warrant investigation.

Galois theory of groups

Galois appears to have been the first mathematician to realize the importance of the group concept in mathematics. A few hours before meeting the death in a duel, he jotted down a summary of his discoveries on groups of permutations which were the only groups he considered , while today the concept has been extended to various operations.
all modern theories of nuclear and electromagnetic interactions, are based in the group theory..Andrew Watson

The theory has two readings, the "original " and the "modern". The second is based on abstract algebraic structures (abstract algebra) but is easier to understand despite or perhaps because of abstraction. But the original is the historical evolution. We will move between, following the procedure of Galois but with modern terms.

Elements of abstract algebra

Definition 1 we cal group a nonempty set G together with a binary operation on G such that the following conditions hold: (i) Closure: For all a,b G the element a b is a uniquely defined element of G. (ii) Associativity: For all a,b,c G, we have a (b c) = (a b) c. (iii) Identity: There exists an identity element e G such that e a = a and a e = a

George Mpantes mathematics teacher for all a G. (iv) Inverses: For each a G there exists an inverse element a-1 G such that a a-1 = e and a-1 a = e. If holds a,b=b.a for every a,b G the group is named abelian .

The symmetric group of permutations

... Mathematicians do not study objects, but relations between objects. So they can replace some objects with others, if remain unchanged the relations ..... H.Poincare ....

For Galois , all groups were the groups of permutations of the elements of a set. Definition 2. a permutation of a set of objects S is an arrangement of those objects into a particular order. For example, there are six permutations of the set {1,2,3}, namely (1,2,3), (1,3,2), (2,1,3), (2,3,1), (3,1,2), and (3,2,1). The permutations are thought of as bijective functions from the set S to itself. Is easy to understand that the number of permutations o of n objects is n! Theorem 12. We may readily verify that the aggregate of the n! different permutations connected with the n magnitudes, forms a group with the operation of composition of permutations (functions): For two elements a, b of Sn It is (a.b).c=a.(b.c) and we define the composition of the elements as a-1:a(x)x the identity element is the

the permutation a.b : x a(b(x)) that is an element of Sn. permutation (1) : xx that is 1.a=a.1=a This group generally is not Abelian and is called the symmetric group of the permutation of n elements Definition 3. If a group G has a finite number of elements, then the number of elements is called the order of the group and is denoted [G: 1], or |G|. Otherwise called of infinite order. For example, the S5 is the group of permutations of elements 1,2,3,4,5 and [S5: 1] = 120. The degree of the group is defined by the number of objects a,b,c,on which the permutations operate. The degree of S5 is 5.

Subgroups .
Definition 4. A subset H of a group G is called subgroup of G, if it is a group, on the group operation of G and is denoted H G, or if is proper subset we write H
2

From the properties of group, Galois noted initially only the closure of the operation

The idea of Galois theory

<G. Even we call the index of a subgroup H of the group G the number of left (right ) side groups3 of H in G, ( the number of the partition ) , denoted by [G: H] and gives the " relative size " of H in G. Obviously applies :

Theorem 2. (Lagrange): ie the order of every subgroup divides the order of the (finite) group . The reverse is not true . For example if [G: H] = 2 then the half of the elements of G belong to the H . Definition 5: The invariant subgroup is the most important subgroup of Galois theory: If H is a subgroup of the group G and is aH = Ha for every a G ,

then H is called invariant subgroup or normal divisor of G and is denoted H < G . Obviously also applies aHa-1 = H for every aG . It is a subset whose elements commute with all elements of the group. The invariant sub-group of Sn of maximum order is named the alternating group of degree n with order n!/2 and is symbolized An. Galois considered a succession of groups beginning from Sn, each one of which is an invariant subgroup of maximum order of the preceding groups. The first member of this succession is the alternating group and the last the identity permutation which also betrays the characteristics of an invariant sub-group. Example 1. in S4 The alternating group contains 12 elements. This in turn contains, as invariant subgroup of maximum order, a group of order 4, next order 2 and the later of order 1. the orders of succession of groups are 24, 12, 4, 2, 1. Galois considered the ratio of the order of each one of these groups to that of its successors, the ratios are given by the numbers 2, 3, 2, 2. he calls it series of composition, and its importance seems below.

Theorem 3 .
3

Are the classes of equivalence aH aG

George Mpantes mathematics teacher Lagrange 's theorem extends when H is invariant subgroup, then

G
[G: H] =

= G/H

Cyclic groups .
Definition 6. Let G be a group and gG. The set <g> = {gn /nN} called cyclic
subgroup generated by g.

Definition 7. Let a set G. If there is one gG such that G = <g> then G is named cyclic group generated by g. Even every cyclic group is Abelian .

Theorem 4. If the order of a group is a prime number then the group is circular , with a genetic element any element other than e.

Solvable groups .
Definition 8. A finite group G is called solvable if there is a sequence of subgroups ,

G = H n H n 1 ..... H 1 H 0 = {1}
such that : ( a) for each n = 1,2,3 ... n the group H is invariant subset of H+1 ( this series called subnormal series of groups) ( b ) any quotient Hn+1 / Hn be Abelian group. It is obvious that when the index [ Hn+1 : Hn ] is a prime number then the order of quotient group Hn+1 / Hn is a prime number, so it is circular , and hence Abelian as required by the definition . The orders of these quotient groups , are our Known " composition series " that is a sequence of numbers i.e on the S2 is 2 on S3 is 2,3 on S4 is 2,3,2,2 and for n > 5, is 2, n!/2.

G/H is the quotient group of G divided with H and is a partition of G which is a

group as the operation of G

The idea of Galois theory

Galois group of a polynomial . We come again to the discoveries of Galois. The idea of the theory was to associate each irreducible algebraic equation of degree n with the symmetric group of permutations of the roots, or by some subgroup . Its importance appears from the following considerations: For a given polynomial f in Q [ x ] ( ie with rational coefficients ) degree n , there is a unique group G of permutations of n roots , such that each Q- valued rational function of the roots of f remains invariant under the permutations of G and conversely, such that every rational function of the roots is unchanged from the permutations of G is Q- valued . The group G is the Galois group of a polynomial f
over Q. (Q- valued rational function of the roots is every function of the roots, withthe

four operations of Q, and the constant coefficients belong in Q. ) .

Let's look at examples of the Q- valued functions of Galois . Example 1. for the irreducible quadratic x2 + ax + b with roots p1 ,p2 these Q- valued functions of Galois are f1 = p1 + p2 + a and f2=p1p2-b with their values 0, (Vieta) which are fully symmetric with respect to the roots that if you replace p1 with p2 and vice versa , relations again have the value 0 , and are unique if it appears that there are many others. So the Galois group of the quadratic is our Known S2. Example 2 . But there are polynomials with more unbalanced relationship between the roots as x4 - 2x3 +2 x +4 ( roots are

1, 2 = ( + i ) 1 + i
and their conjugate ) where Q- valued functions are p1 p2 + p3 p4 = -2 (p 1 + p 2 ) ( p3 + p4 ) = 2 p1 p2 ( p3 + p4 ) = -2 ( p1 + p2 ) p3 p4 = -2 These Q- valued o functions have fewer symmetries, and from 24 permutations of the four roots , the Galois group consists of permutations that conform to these restrictions. The number of such relations is large and not known in advance. It is a difficult computational problem, the Abstract Algebra smoothens it with the theorems

1 2

1 2

3 2

George Mpantes mathematics teacher of fields extension. Galois himself generalized the research using a special polynomial for this purposes, the resolvent)5. We keep that Galois group can always be determined.

But the big discovery was that these permutations were subset ( or all) of the group of permutations of the roots . This was the spark of the theory .
. Gallois states without proof that the Galois group of the general polynomial degree n is the symmetric group Sn. The second example given is the cyclotomic equation + ++1 n prime on which shows that the group contains only n permutations .PPG Dyke.
n-1 n-2

In his book Galois theory, Emil Artin (1942) defines the Galois group without using the Galois resolvent, and abstract algebra reformulated rigorously the theory (the rigor that always comes from 'post, as in all major mathematical discoveries ) through the theory of extensions of fields, automorphisms, intermediate fields, one-to-one mapping between the intermediate fields and the subgroups of G etc, things that Galois did not know, and we will not mention.

The fundamental theorem of Galois theory .

I first observe that to solve an equation, it is to reduce its group until it contains only a single permutation. Given this we will try to find the condition satisfied by the group if an equation for which it is possible toy reduce the group (to a single permutation) by adjunction of radical quantities. In the first sentence Galois states the goal of reducing the Galois group to the identity and in the second he says that in the case of solvability by radicals the goal is to reduce the Galois group by adjoining radicals.. David A.Cox : Galois theory

We wish to ascertain whether a given irreducible algebraic equation can be solved by radicals. Galois method consists in obtaining the group of the equation and then proceeding to construct the series of composition which starts from this group. Galois theorem then states: the equation will be solvable by radicals if, and only if, all the numbers appearing in the series of composition are prime. In composition series previously seen primes exist when n <5 and composite numbers for n> 5. Therefore we conclude that the general algebraic equation of degree n = 2,3,4 is solvable by radicals and that greater degree is not. Galois himself gave the example of the general biquadratic equation.

Details for the resolvent in Galois theory for beginners Jrg Bewersdorff (AMS)

p.113 as in Managing Mathematical Projects with success P.P.G Dyke (Springer)

The idea of Galois theory Example 4. The Sn is solvable if n 4 and not solvable when n5 After each subgroup of a solvable group is solvable (theorem solvable groups) it suffices to show that the S4 is solvable, and S5 not solvable. Consider the subnormal series of S4:

S 4 A4 V4 W {1}
are all invariant subgroups of the foregoing and have index prime number.

S4 A4 V4 W =2 =3 =2 =2 A4 V4 W {1}
That is, the S4 is solvable. For S5 the only subnormal series available is S 5 A5 {1} and number, hence not solvable. We can now understand that Galois theorem is an immediate proof of Abels theorem.

A5 = 60 not a prime {1}

Biography
varist Galois grew up in the post-Napoleon restoration, studied the solution of equation in radicals as a self-taught mathematician. He obtained a good education for the time first at the Collge Louis -le-Grand, in Paris , and then at the cole preparatoire, later the cole Normale. He twice failed the entrance examination for the cole Polytechnique and he was initially refused entrance to the cole Preparatoire in early 1831 in account of his republican agitation At age 17 he wrote a paper and presented it to the Academy , but Cauchy , one of the leading mathematicians of the time, lost it. Shortly after, presented a new work at the Academy, but Joseph Fourier the secretary of the Academy, died shortly after receiving the work. During his studies, his life was marked by miscarriages, illness and imprisonment for political reasons. Eventually he took part in a duel where he wounded mortally and died on March 31, 1832 , before reaching 21 years. Galois wrote his discoveries in the last night of his life before the duel in a 31-page illegible manuscript, which remained in obscurity until the French Academician Joseph Liouville showed it to the French Academy on July 4, 1843

From my book " introduction to Galois theory .

George Mpantes mathematics teacher

10 mpantes on scribd .

George Mpantes mathematics teacher