Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.

CHAPTER-2

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SNO.
1. 2. #. %. &. (. ). *. -. 1.. 11. ALTERNATING & DIRECT CURRENT RE I TANCE & RE I TI!EL" CA$ACITANCE INDUCTANCE I'$EDANCE ERIE CIRCUIT $ARALLEL CIRCUIT $+,ER FACT+R $+,ER FACT+R I'$R+!E'ENT DE!ICE $+,ER / 0 INGLE $1A E & T1REE $1A E CIRCUIT ELECTRICAL ENERG"

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.2

ALTERNATING CURRENT An alternating current i2 t3at 4uantit5 63ic3 flo62 fir2t in one direction in a circuit7 called t3e 8o2iti9e direction7 t3en in t3e re9er2e on negati9e direction7 re8eating 2uc3 c5cle2 of c3ange2 continuou2l5. :Ima;
Am8litude

t <time= 2

/Ima; <1> T= Figure-1 A gra83 to a ?a2e of time 23o62 t3e 6a9eform of t3e current a2 a 2ucce22ion of in2tantaneou2 9alue2. In general t3ere 6ill ?e a 8ea@ 9alue2 in ?ot3 8o2iti9e and negati9e 3alf c5cle2 63ere t3e current i2 momentaril5 3ig3e2t. T3e time occu8ied ?5 one com8lete c5cle i2 called t3e A8eriodB FRECUENC"0 T3e num?er of c5cle2 of com8lete c3ange re8eated 6it3in one 2econd i2 called t3e fre4uenc5 in c5cle2 8er 2econd or 1ertD <1D=. F E N$ 12. 63ere N E 28eed7 $ E Num?er of 8ole2

Common fre4uenc5 in India i2 &. c5cle2>2econd or &. 1D. DIRECT CURRENT0 It i2 t3e unidirectional current7 onl5 63o2e magnitude c3ange2 ?ut direction i2 not c3ange at all.

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.#

RESISTANCE: It ma5 ?e defined a2 t3e 8ro8ert5 of a 2u?2tance due to 63ic3 i2 o88o2e2 <or re2trict2= t3e flo6 of electricit5 <i.e electron2= t3roug3 it. UNIT OF RESISTANCE0 T3e 8ractical unit of re2i2tance i2 Fo3mG A conductor i2 2aid to 3a9e a re2i2tance of one Fo3mG if it 8ermit2 one am8ere current to flo6 t3roug3 it 63en one 9olt i2 im8re22ed acro22 t3e terminal2. For in2ulator2 63o2e re2i2tance2 are 9er5 3ig37 a muc3 ?igger unit i2 u2ed ie mega o3m E 1. ( o3m and Hilo o3m E 1.# o3m. LAWS OF RESISTANCE: T3e re2i2tance R offered ?5 a conductor de8end2 u8on t3e follo6ing factor2. i= ii= iii= i9= It 9arie2 directl5 a2 it2 lengt3 FLG It 9arie2 in9er2el5 a2 t3e cro22 2ection area FAG It de8end2 on t3e nature of t3e material It al2o de8end2 on t3e tem8erature of t3e conductor

1ence R L>A +r R E L>A

LELent3 of conductor

7 A E Cro22 2ection area of conductor 7 R E Re2i2tance of conductor Figure -2

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.%

RESISTIVITY A2 6e @no6 R E . L . A ,3ere i2 t3e con2tant de8ending on t3e material of t3e conductor and i2 @no6 a2 t3e 28ecific re2i2tance or re2i2ti9it5. If L E 1 meter7 A E 1 metre 2 t3an R E 1ence 28ecific re2i2tance or re2i2ti9it5 ma5 al2o ?e defined a2 t3e re2i2tance ?et6een t3e o88o2ite face2 of a meter cu?e of t3at materialB. Unit of t3e re2i2ti9it5 i2 o3m meter <.m=.

CAPACITANCE: T3e 8ro8ert5 of a ca8acitor to 2tore electricit5 ma5 ?e called it2 ca8acitance or t3e ca8acitance of a ca8acitor i2 defined a2 A t3e amount of c3arge re4uired to create a unit 8otential differential ?et6een it2 8late2.B u88o2e 6e gi9e C coulom? of c3arge to one of t6o 8late2 of a ca8acitor and if a 8otetial difference of ! 9olt2 i2 e2ta?li23ed ?et6een t3e 8late27 t3em it2 ca8acitance i2 C= V T3e unit of ca8acitance i2 coulom?>9olt 63ic3 i2 al2o called FfaradG < in 3onour of 'ic3ael Farada5= 1 farad E 1 coulom? !olt. +ne farad i2 actuall5 too large for 8ractical 8ur8o2e2. 1ence muc3 2maller 4uantitie2 li@e micro farad <f=7 nanofarad <f= and micro I micro farad <F= or 8ico farad <8f= are generall5 u2ed 1 f E 1. I ( F 1 nf E 1. I - F 1 f or 8f E 1. / 12 F = C!"rge# P$%e&%i"' (i))ere&%i"'

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.&

INDUCTANCE: T3e 8ro8ert5 of t3e coil due to 63ic3 it o88o2e2 an5 c3ange <increa2e or decrea2e= of current or flu; t3roug3 it7 i2 @no6n a2 AinductanceB. It i2 mea2ured in term2 of coefficient of 2elf induction FLG. T3i2 8ro8ert5 i2 analogou2 to inertia in a material ?od5 6e @no6 ?5 e;8erience t3at initiall5 it i2 difficult to 2et a 3ea95 ?od5 into motion7 ?ut once in motion7 it i2 e4uall5 to 2to8 it. imilarl5 in a coil 3a9ing large 2elf induction7 it i2 initiall5 difficult to e2ta?li23 a current t3roug3 it7 ?ut once e2ta?li23ed it i2 e4uall5 difficult to 6it3dra6 it. Con2ider a 2olenoid 3a9ing N turn2 and carr5ing a current of I am8ere27 if t3e flu; 8roduced i2 6e?er27 <N > I= 6e?er turn2 8er am8ere 2o ?5 definition. I 1enr5 / A coil i2 2aid to 3a9e a 2elf inductance of one 3enr5 if a current of 1 am8ere 63en flo6ing t3roug3 it 8roduced flu; lin@age2 of 1 6? I turn2 in it. L = N He&r* I

+UTUAL INDUCTANCE0 'utual inductance ma5 ?e defined a2 Ft3e a?ilit5 of one coil or circuit to 8roduce an emf in a near?5 coil ?5 induction 63en t3e current in t3e fir2t coil c3ange2. T3i2 action i2 reci8rocal7 t3e 2econd coil can al2o induce an emf in t3e fir2t coil 63en current in t3e 2econd coil c3ange2. It i2 mea2ured in term2 of t3e coefficient of mutual induction F'G.

I+PEDANCE: T3e total o88o2ition due to re2i2tance7 inductance and ca8acitance in t3e A.C circuit i2 called im8edance. It i2 mea2ured in o3m and i2 denoted ?5 t3e letter FJG. J E ! o3m2 I

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.(

SERIES CIRCUITS For t3e 2tud5 of 2erie2 and 8arallel circuit fir2t of all 6e 23ould @no6 a?out Hirc3offG2 9oltage and current la62. 1. ,IRCHOFF-S VOLTAGE LAW T3e alge?raic 2um of all ?ranc3 9oltage at around an5 clo2ed loo8 of net 6or@ i2 Dero at all in2tant of time. C D

L1
A K !1

L2
!2 L& !&

L#
F !#

L%
E !%

Figure-. In a?o9e electric circuit con2i2ting of 2i; node2 A7K7C7D7E & F. !AK E !1:!2:!#:!%:!& <!oltage dro8 at different 8oint2= +r A88lied 9oltage E um of 9oltage dro8 at all 8oint2 in clo2ed loo8 +r !AK I <!1:!2:!#:!%:!&= E . ! E . 2. ,IRCHOFF-S CURRENT LAW T3e alge?raic 2um of t3e 2um of t3e ?ranc3 current2 at a node i2 Dero at all in2tant of time. T3e 2um of current entering at a node mu2t ?e e4ual to t3e 2um of current2 lea9ing t3e node. I1 : I2 E I# : I% +R I1 : I2 / I# / I% E . +R IE. A I# I1 D I% C I2 Figure-/ K

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.)

A0

RESISTANCES IN SERIES Let u2 con2ider 2ome re2i2tance are connected in 2erie2 in a clo2ed loo8 circuit a2 ?elo6. R1 R2 R# R% R& Rn //////99999////999999////9999////99999////9999/////// / / / / /9999//
I

Figure-1 In a?o9e circuit current i2 t3e 2ame for all 8oint2. According to t3e H!L. +R +R +R 20 ! E !1 : !2 : !# : !% : !& /////////// : !N IR E IR1 : IR2: IR#: IR%: IR& : ///////: I RN E I <R1 : R2: R#: R%: R& : ///////: RN= R E R1 : R2: R#: R%: R& : ///////: RN INDUCTANCES IN SERIES Con2ider 2ame inducti9e coil2 connected in 2erie2 in a clo2ed loo8 circuit. ! E !1:!2:!#:!%:!& LLL. !n !1 L1 !2 L2 !# L# I ! !% L% !& L& !n Ln

Figure-3 ! E I ML <+3m = ,3ere ML E 2 f L E IM2fL Ff I fre4uenc5 < in 1D = 7 L I Inductance < in 1enar5= I M 2 f L E 2 f <L1 :L2 : L# : L% : L& : //////// : LN = I L E L1 :L2 : L# : L% : L& : //////// : LN

C=

CAPACITANCES IN SERIES

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.*

Con2ider 2ome ca8acitance are connected in 2erie2 in a clo2ed loo8 circuit a2 ?elo60 C1 !1 C2 !2 C# !# C% !% C& !& CN !N

Figure-4 In t3e a?o9e circuit ca8acitance C17C27C#7C%7C& LLL.. are connected to a 2ource of 9oltage a2 t3e 2ame c3arge2 FCG i2 flo6ing t3roug3 t3e ca8acitor2 in a 2erie2 clo2ed circuit. ! E !1 : !2 : !# : !% : !& LLLLL. !n < C E C! coulom?2 la6= In an5 ca8aciti9e circuit t3e 8otential difference F!G ?et6een t3e terminal2 of a ca8acitor i2 T3e c3arge on it. ! C CEC! +R ! E C>C ,3ere C i2 t3e con2tt. of 8ro8ortional and called t3e ca8acitance. ! E !1 : !2 : !# : !% : !& LLLLL. !n +R C>C E C>C1 : C>C2: C>C# : C>C% : C>C& : //// C>CN +R 1>C E 1>C1 : 1>C2: 1>C# : 1>C% : 1>C& : ////// : 1>CN Anot3er formula for ca8acitance can ?e 8ro9ed from I ! E I MC < ,3ere MC E 1> 2 f C Unit of MC +3m & C in farad = ! E I<1> 2 f C= E<I> 2 f =<1>C1: 1>C2: 1>C# : 1>C% :1>C&:// / : 1>CN= +R 1>C E 1>C1 : 1>C2: 1>C# : 1>C% : 1>C& : ////// : 1>CN RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE IN SERIES A.C u88l5 t3roug3 re2i2tance and inductance. R I ! !R !L !R
!L

L !
JE<R2:ML2=1>2 ML

I R

Figure-5

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.-

! E R' 9oltage of a88lied 9alue I E R' !alue of re2ultant current !R E !oltage dro8 acce22 R <In 83a2e 6it3 I= <!R E IR= !L E IML E !oltage dro8 o9er coil <at rig3t angle to I =

PARALLEL CIRCUITS Let u2 con2ider a com?ined 8arallel circuit 3a9ing re2i2tance7 Inductance and ca8acitance a2 ?elo60/ R1 L I1 A I R2 I2 ! ac 2ource Figure-6 U2ing Hirc33off2 !oltage La6 for Kranc3/A ! E I1 R1 : I1 ML E I1 <R1 : ML= ! E I1 J1 +r I1 E ! > J1 And co2 1 E R1 > J1 C I K

I1 current lag2 ?e3ind t3e a88lied 9oltage ! ?5 1 < 83a2e angle = U2ing Hirc33off2 !oltage La6 for Kranc3/K ! E I2 R2 : I2 MC E I2 <R2 : MC = ! E I2 J2 +r I2 E ! > J2 And co2 2 E R1> J1 I2 current lead2 t3e a88lied 9oltage ! ?5 2 < 83a2e angle =

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.1.

I E

I1 co2 1 : I2 co2 2 ! I Figure-17

I2 2in 2 I2 2 1 I1 2in1 E1/ 2 I I1 !

T3e re2ultant current I i2 t3e 9ector 2um of t3e ?ranc3 current2 I1 and I2 can ?e found ?5 u2ing 8arallelogram la6 of 9ector2. No6 um of t3e acti9e com8onent2 of I1 and I2 I co2 E I1 co2 1 / I2 co2 2 No6 um of t3e reacti9e com8onent2 of I1 and I2 I 2in E I1 2in 1 / I2 2in 2 T3e I i2 t3e re2ultant current and i2 it2 83a2e angle.

POWER FACTOR 8 9.).0 It ma5 ?e defined a2 1. Co2ine of t3e angle of leading or lagging . 2. $o6er factor i2 t3e ratio of re2i2tance and im8edance E R J #. 8.f i2 t3e ratio of 6att and 9olt am82 E , < acti9e 8o6er = !A <a88arent 8o6er = ,e 2u88o2e t3at t3e current i2 lagging ?5 83a2e angle 6it3 a88lied 9oltage7 t3en t3e mean 8o6er con2umed ?5 t3e circuit i2 gi9en ?5 t3e 8roduct of 9oltage and t3at 8art of t3e current I 63ic3 i2 in 83a2e 6it3 ! . < refer figure 11=

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.11

$ E !I co2 $ E rm2 9olt ; rm2 Current ; co2 t3e term :$; i2 called t3e 8o6er factor of t3e circuit. It 23ould ?e remem?ered t3at in an AC circuit t3e 8roduct of rm2 !oltage and rm2 current gi9e2 9olt Am8. <!A= and not true 8o6er in 6att2 . True 8o6er <,= E !olt ; am8ere2 ; 8o6er factor ,att E !A Co2 +r H, E H!A co2 And co2 E H, H!A A:%i<e "&( Re":%i<e :$=9$&e&%; $) :urre&%. A:%i<e :$=9$&e&%: Acti9e com8onent i2 t3at 63ic3 i2 in 83a2e 6it3 t3e a88lied 9oltage i.e I co2 . It i2 al2o @no6 a2 6att full com8onent. Re":%i<e C$=9$&e&%. Reacti9e com8onent i2 t3at 63ic3 i2 in 4uadrature 6it3 ! i. e. I 2in . It i2 al2o @no6 a2 6att le22 or Idle com8onent. Acti9e com8onent H, E H!A co2 <Hilo6att= Reacti9e com8onent H!AR E H!A 2in < Hilo9olt Am8ere Reacti9e= NNNNNNNNNNNNNN H!A E < H,2 : H!AR2 =

POWER FACTOR I+PROVE+ENT DEVICES POWR FACTOR T3e term 8o6er factor i2 u2ed 6it3 AC 8o6er 2u88lie2. A2 6e @no6 from 8rinci8le2 of Electrical Engineering t3at in AC circuit2 current i2 not al6a52 in 83a2e 6it3 9oltage. Follo6ing t3ree condition can occur 63ic3 i2 e;8lained 6it3 t3e 3el8 of 83a2er diagram 63ere ! i2 9oltage & I i2 current of a circuit.

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.12

! I <i=

! I E. <ii= Figure/ 11

! I <iii=

In ca2e <i= 7 Current i2 leading 9oltage In ca2e <ii=7 Current & 9oltage are in 2ame 83a2e In ca2e <iii= 7 Current i2 lagging 9oltage $o6er factor i2 co2ine of angle ?et6een 9oltage & current of a circuit. $o6er factor 63en multi8lied 6it3 8roduct of 9oltage & current gi9e2 true 8o6er dra6n ?5 a load i.e. $ E !I co2 $o6er factor i2 e;8re22ed a2 ratio of real 8o6er to a88arent 8o6er i.e. H, > H!A. $o6er factor term i2 al6a52 a22ociated 6it3 83a2e angle leading7 lagging or in 83a2e e.g. 8f E ..* <lagging= tell2 t3at co2ine of angle ?et6een current & 9oltage of a circuit i2 ..* & current i2 lagging t3e 9oltage. ,3en 8o6er factor i2 lagging7 t3e load i2 inducti9e. If it2 9alue i2 more t3an Dero7 t3e connected load i2 8artiall5 inducti9e & 8artiall5 re2i2ti9e. ,3en t3e load i2 8urel5 inducti9e 8.f. 9alue ?ecome2 Dero & t3ere i2 no 8o6er con2um8tion in t3e circuit. E;am8le2 of lagging 8.f. load2 are induction motor27 2odium > mercur5 lam82. ,3en 8o6er factor i2 unit57 t3e load i2 8urel5 re2i2ti9e. In t3i2 ca2e 9oltage & current are in 83a2e. E;am8le2 of 2uc3 load2 are 3eater7 GL lam82 etc. ,3en 8o6er factor i2 leading7 t3e load i2 ca8aciti9e. If it2 9alue i2 more t3an Dero7 t3e connected load i2 8artiall5 ca8aciti9e & 8artiall5 re2i2ti9e. ,3en t3e load i2 8urel5 ca8aciti9e 8.f. 9alue ?ecome2 Dero & t3ere i2 no 8o6er con2um8tion in t3e circuit. E;am8le2 of ca8aciti9e load2 are o9er/e;cited 25nc3ronou2 motor7 ca8acitor ?an@2.

NEED FOR POWER FACTOR I+PROVE+ENT A2 6e @no6 t3at mo2t of our indu2trial load2 are induction motor27 63ic3 ma@e t3e 8o6er factor le22 t3an one & lagging in nature. Di2ad9antage2 a22ociated 6it3 lo6 8o6er factor i2 under utiliDation of generating ca8acitie2 of 8o6er 2tation27 increa2ing conductor 2iDe2 of electrical net6or@ & more line lo22e22 due to IOR lo22. If 6e im8ro9e 8.f. 6e can dra6 more real 8o6er from generating 2tation2 & reduce line lo22e2 <i.e. IOR lo22e2=. A2 indu2trial load2 are of lagging 8o6er factor7 t3i2 can ?e com8en2ated ?5 connecting leading 8o6er factor de9ice2 near load centre2 . Electricit5 ?oard2 offer re?ate to indu2trie2 63o im8ro9e2 t3eir 8.f.

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.1#

CAPICITOR 2AN,S Ca8acitor2 are leading 8.f. load2 & can im8ro9e o9erall 8.f. of indu2trie2 63ere 8lant load i2 lagging 8.f. nature. SYNCHRONOUS +OTORS $o6er factor2 can ?e im8ro9ed if 2ome of t3e 8lant load i2 25nc3ronou2 motor2 and t3e ot3er inducti9e. ,3en an 25nc3ronou2 motor i2 run under o9er/e;cited condition it gi9e2 leading 8o6er factor & im8ro9e2 o9erall 8lant 8.f.

POWER SINGLE PHASE > THREE PHASE T3e mo2t common term2 u2ed are P 1= Curre&% T3e current flo6ing at an5 8oint in a circuit i2 t3e rate at 63ic3 c3arge i2 8a22ing acro22 a cro22/2ection of t3e conductor 7 at t3at 8oint Current i2 denoted ?5 25m?ol FiG electric c3arge ?5 F4G. o t3e current i E d4 > dt t3e unit of current i2 Am8ere <A= 2= P$%e&%i"' Di))ere&:e At eac3 unit of c3arge 8a22e2 t3roug3 a load7 it i2 2aid t3e fall in 8otential and 2o gi9e out energ5. Unit of 8otential i2 F!oltG F9G. #= E&erg* T3e unit of energ5 i2 FQoule G and i2 defined a2 if one 9olt 8otential difference e;i2t2 ?et6een t6o 8oint2 and one coulom? current 8a22e27 t3e energ5 deli9ered i2 one Roule. T3u2 energ5 deli9ered in time t 2ec i2 t E . %= P$?er T3e 8o6er i2 defined a2 rate of doing 6or@

9.i. dt

Unit i2 6att I 2ec < Roule2 =

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.1%

$ E d6 > dt E 9i unit i2 6att2 F6G

&=

Si&u;$i("' Curre&% An alternating current i2 one 63ic3 9arie2 in t3e circuit 6it3 time7 t3e mo2t common 6a9e form u2ed i2 2inu2oidall5 6it3 time7 3ence called 2inu2oidal current. T3e non 2inu2oidal current entail2 increa2ed energ5 lo22e27 induced o9er 9oltage2 and e;ce22i9e interfere2 6it3 communication2 circuit2 due to t3e 8re2ence of 3armonic2. Ima; I i/ in2tantaneou2 9alue of current Fi1 2

< <1> T= Figure/ 12 (= C*:'e +ne com8lete 2et of 8o2iti9e & negati9e 9alue2 of 2inu2oidal current i2 @no6n a2 c5cle. +ne com8lete c5cle i2 28read o9er #(. or 2 radian2. )= Ti=e Peri$( T3e time ta@en ?5 alternating current to com8lete one c5cle i2 called t3e time 8eriod and i2 denoted ?5 FTG. A &. 1D <c5cle>2ec= alternating current 3a2 a time 8eriod of 1>&. 2ec. ,a9e form of a 2inu2oid current FG term u2ed i2 angular 9elocit5 FG E 2>T E 2f. *= Fre@ue&:* T3e num?er of c5cle 8er 2econd2 i2 called t3e fre4uenc5 of 2inu2oidal current and i2 denoted ?5 FfG. T3e fre4uenc5 i2 reci8rocal to time 8eriod f E 1> T -= I&;%"&%"&e$u; Curre&% T3e 9alue of current at an5 gi9en in2tant of time i2 called in2tantaneou2 current FiG for t3e 2inu2oidal current 6a9e form t3i2 ma5 ?e e;8re22ed a2 0

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.1&

I E Im in t E 2in <2ft= Im E ma;imum 9alue of current 170 Re;i;%"&:e Re2i2tance i2 t3at 8ro8ert5 of circuit 63ic3 determine2 t3e 3eating effect of t3e current. T3e re2i2tance 9arie2 6it3 tem8erature . If Fi G i2 t3e current flo6ing in a circuit of re2i2tance FRG t3e 9oltage dro8 9 E ir ! 9olt2. T3e 8o6er lo22 in circuit 8 E 9i E iOR 6att And t3e energ5 con9erted into 3eat in t3e time 8eriod o/t i2 gi9en ?5 t E
2

i R dt
2

Unit i2 6att I 2ec < Roule2 =

. EI Rt 110 I&(u:%"&:e

Roule2

T3e flu; lin@age FG in an5 magnetic circuit i2 8ro8ortional to t3e current FiG 7 t3e factor2 of 8ro8ortionalit5 ?et6een FG & FiG i2 @no6n a2 inductance FLG ELi 120 F"r"("*; '"? $) e':%r$="g%i: i&(u:%i$& 63en a conductor rotate2 in t3e magnetic field7 t3e rate of c3ange of flu; lin@age i2 8ro8ortional to induced 9oltage <emf= FeG . e E d > dt E L di>dt if re2i2tance of circuit i2 negligi?le 7 e E 9 E L di>dt POWER IN SINGLE PHASE CIRCUITS T3e 8o6er in 6att2 ?eing a?2or?ed ?5 a load at an5 in2tant i2 t3e 8roduct of in2tantaneou2 9oltage dro8 acro22 t3e load in 9olt2 and t3e in2tantaneou2 current into t3e load in am8ere2. If 9 i2 t3e in2tantaneou2 9oltage at t3e terminal2 of load and FiG i2 t3e in2tantaneou2 current flo6ing t3roug3 t3e load are e;8re22ed a20 9 i E !m 2in t E 2 ! 2int E Im 2in <t/= E 2 I2in <t/=

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.1(

Con2idering current i2 lagging ?5 angle ?5 9oltage. 8 E 9i E 2 !I 2int 2in <t/= E !I co2/!I co2<2t/= E !I co2<1/co22t= / !I 2in2in2t T3u2 ?5 e;8re22ion t3e in2tantaneou2 8o6er ma5 ?e di9ided in t6o com8onent2. Acti9e $o6er $ E !I co2 Reacti9e $o6er C E !I 2in 8 E $<1/co22t= I C 2in2t From e;8re22ion 8 E $<1/co2 2t= I C 2in 2t7 t3e fir2t com8onent $<1/co2 2t= ne9er goe2 to Dero and 8ul2ate2 around t3e a9erage 8o6er F$G. T3e real or acti9e 8o6er F$G i2 t3e u2eful 8o6er ?eing tran2mitted from t3e 2ource to load. T3e unit of real 8o6er i2 6att2 F6G. T3e ot3er com8onent C2in2t of in2tantaneou2 8o6er called reacti9e 8o6er FCG. T3e reacti9e 8o6er e;8re22 neit3er t3e u2eful 6or@ done nor energ5 tran2mitted. An5 magnetic circuit dra62 reacti9e 8o6er to e2ta?li23 t3e magnetic field and to o9ercome t3e lo22e2 of magnetic circuit or ot3er2. Unit of Reacti9e $o6er i2 9olt am8ere reacti9e F!ARG. POWER FACTOR T3e ratio of acti9e 8o6er to total or a88arent 8o6er i2 @no6n a2 8o6er factor 0 $o6er factor E !I co2 > !I E Co2 Angle i2 t3e angular di28lacement ?et6een 9oltage and current 6a9eform. POWER IN THREE PHASE CIRCUITS

iao
a a

9an
# $3a2e Generator 2tar connected n

9ao
# $3a2e ?alanced load o

ico
? c c ?

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.1)

i?o
Figure/ 1# A t3ree 83a2e generator 6it3 neutral mar@ed n 2u8l5ing a ?alanced load 6it3 neutral mar@ed F+G i2 23o6n a?o9e 2ince load i2 ?alanced t3ere 6ill not ?e an5 8o6er flo6 i2 neutral line7 T3u2 node n & o are at 2ame 8otential . Let con2ider at t3e generator terminal all t3e t3ree 83a2e 9oltage2 are / !ao E !an E ! 2in 6t !?o E !?n E ! 2in <6t/12.S= !co E !cn E ! 2in<6t:12.S= Con2idering 9oltage dro8 in ?et6een generator terminal and load i2 negligi?le. T3e 9oltage at generator and load terminal are 2ame. T3en t3e t3ree 83a2e current 6ill ?e iao E 2 I 2in t/ i?o E 2 I 2in <t /12./ = ico E 2 I 2in <t :12./ = I 7 re8re2ent2 t3e 83a2e current magnitude. In 2tar connected load t3e 83a2e current are e4ual to line current 2ince t3e connected load i2 ?alanced 2o Ian E Icn E I8 E IL E I < Line current e4ual to 83a2e current = imilarl5 !an E !?n E !cn E !8 E ! <$3a2e 9oltage = Total 8o6er in t3ree 83a2e2 2u88lied to load $# E !ao iao:!?o i?o : !co ico From t3e a?o9e e4uation2 $# E # !83 I83 co2 <1/co22t= I # !83 I83 2in 2in2t Acti9e 8o6er i2 # 83a2e circuit $# E # !83 I83 co2 E # !L IL Co2 6att2 Reacti9e 8o6r in # 83a2e circuit $# E # !83 I83 2in E # !L IL 2in !olt Am8. Reacti9e Total $o6er E # !LIL

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.1*

ELECTRICAL ENERGY Electricit5 doe2 not occur naturall5 in u2a?le form and al2o can not ?e 2tored in u2efull5 large 4uantitie2. T3erefore7 it mu2t ?e generated continuou2l5 to meet t3e demand of 8o6er at all time2. An efficient and con9enient 6a5 to generate electric 8o6er i2 ?5 con9er2ion of mec3anical 8o6er into electrical form ?5 a rotating de9ice called generator. In t3i2 8roce22 2mall 8art of 8o6er i2 lo2t into generator <efficiencie2 of large generator2 are a?o9e -.T= . T3e mec3anical 8o6er i2 it2elf o?tained from 3eat 8o6er ?5 t3ermo/d5namic mean2 in a 2team tur?ine <T3e u88er limit of tur?ine efficiencie2 are %./&.T= or ?5 con9er2ion of 8otential energ5 of 6ater in a 35draulic tur?ine 6it3 9er5 little lo22. T3e ?a2ic 2ource of mec3anical 8o6er/ 2team >35draulic tur?ine 2ource of mec3anical 8o6er 2team > 35draulic tur?ine i2 called 8rime mo9er. Electricit5 can al2o ?e generated directl5 from 3ot ga2e2 in 8la2ma form7 o?9iating t3e need of con9erting 3eat 8o6er into intermediate mec3anical 8o6er. T3i2 8roce22 i2 2till in e;8erimental 2tage. T3e electromec3anical 8roce22 of electric 8o6er generation i2 23o6n ?elo6 0 3aft
$RI'E $RI'E

$electrical
ELECTRICAL GENERAT+R

In8ut Energ5

'+!ER

$mec3

T8m

TG Lo22e2 Figure/ 1%

Under 2tead5 con9er2ion condition T8m <$rime mo9er= E T G <generator= and t3e tur?ine & generator run at 2tead5 28eed. T3e maRor u2e of electrical energ5 i2 in lig3ting7 3eating <electric o9en= and con9erting it ?ac@ to t3e mec3anical form to run t3e 63eel of indu2tr5. T3e electric 8o6er 8ermit2 t3e u2e of large efficient central generating 2tation27 63ile it i2 ea2il5 tran28orting to t3e m5riad of u2e 8oint. T3e electromec3anical energ5 con9er2ion 8roce22 i2 re9er2i?le7 one and 2im8le adRu2tment of mec3anical 23aft and electric condition2 re9er2e2 t3e flo6 of 8o6er. In t3i2 mode of o8eration electrical mac3ine i2 called motoring mode. Electrical mac3ine2 are em8lo5ed in almo2t e9er5 indu2tr5 and manufacturing 8roce22. ince la2t 3undred 5ear27 63en T3oma2 Al9a Edi2ion de9elo8ed an electric generator7 engineer2 3a9e continuou2l5 2tri9e and 2ucce22full5 reduced t3e 2iDe and re9i2ed u86ard2 and efficiencie2 of electric mac3ine ?5 t3e u2e of im8ro9ed material and o8timum de2ign 2trategie2. ENERGY RESOURCES

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.1-

T3e maRor re2ource2 of 8rimar5 energ5 are 0 1. 2. #. %. &. (. ). Fo22il Fuel2<Coal7 natural ga2 and oil=/ T3ermal $o6er $lant ,ater / 15droelectric 8o6er 2tation Nuclear $o6er / Nuclear 8o6er 2tation <Fi22ion & Fu2ion= olar Energ5 / 1eat radiation from 2un Geo T3ermal Energ5 / T3ermal 8ring2 due to inner/2trata of t3e eart3 at a 9er5 3ig3 tem8. ,ind $o6er / 1ig3 9elocit5 of 6ind dri9e2 t3e 6ind mill2. Tidal $o6er / Tremendou2 energ5 2tored in tide2 of ocean

T!er="' P$?er P'"&% T3i2 generating 8lant u2e2 coal or fuel oil a2 8rime 2ource of energ5. T3e 3eat of com?u2tion of coal i2 utili2ed to 8roduce 2team7 63ic3 dri9e2 2team tur?ine and t3e later dri9ing t3e electric generator. H*(r$ E'e:%ri: P$?er P'"&% T3e2e generating 8lant o?tain energ5 from 6ater. $otential energ5 of 6ater i2 con9erted into mec3anical energ5 in a 35dro/tur?ine 63ic3 dri9e2 t3e electric generator. Nu:'e"r $r A%$=i: P$?er P'"&% T3e2e generating 8lant2 o?tain energ5 ?5 nuclear fi22ion. T3e material 63ic3 undergoe2 fi22ion are Uranium <U2#&=7 T3orium <T32#2= and $lutonium <$u2#-=. ,3en 1@g of U2#& i2 fi22ioned 2& ; 1.H,1 of 3eat energ5 can ?e 8roduced. 1 @g of atomic material i2 e4ui9alent to #(... tonne2 of coal. Die;e' P$?er P'"&% Die2el engine i2 a 8rime mo9er 63ic3 o?tain2 it2 energ5 from die2el oil and con9ert t3i2 energ5 into mec3anical energ5. An alternator or DC generator7 mec3anicall5 cou8led to it con9ert2 t3e mec3anical energ5 de9elo8ed into electrical energ5. An electric 8o6er 252tem con2i2t2 of an energ5 2ource <coal7 ga27 oil7 uranium7 6ater etc.=7 a 8rime mo9er <2team tur?ine7 35draulic tur?ine7 internal com?u2tion engine etc.= a generator <alternator or DC generator=7 t3e tran2mi22ion line <t3e2e are connecting line ?et6een t3e generating 8lant and t3e di2tri?ution 252tem=. T3e di2tri?ution 252tem <connect2 all t3e indi9idual load2 in a gi9en localit5= and load2 <t3e electric load ma5 ?e lig3t27 3eater27 electric motor27 rectifier27 in9erter2 etc.=.
Recei9ing tation/1 $rime 'o9er

te8/u8 Tran2former Recei9ing tation/2

Di2tri?ution Net6or@

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering 2.2.

Generator Figure/ 1&

Di2tri?ution Net6or@