The transformation of data, information and knowledge is represented in diagram above.

Worth thinking about

ONE PERSON'S KNOWLEDGE IS ANOTHER'S RAW DATA Anthony G. Oettinger, who founded Harvard University's Program on Information Resources Policy, makes these interesting comments about the often futile attempts of people to distinguish between terms such as 'data' , 'information' and 'knowledge' etc: "The term 'information' appears to cover too much that seems distinctive: knowledge, data, information in a narrow sense that some treat as synonymous with data, news, intelligence, and numerous other colloquial and specialized denotations and connotations. However, the distinctions implied by oppositions such as observations/theories, data/knowledge, raw intelligence/finished intelligence, accounting details/management are secondary, not fundamental, in characterizing information resources. They reflect only relative judgments. For instance, one person's knowledge is often another's raw data. What a vice president for marketing, production, or finance thinks he knows is just data to the chief executive officer's staff. What a scientist thinks he knows about the merits of a flu vaccine or the safety of a nuclear reactor is just data for presidential policy and politics. Data or knowledge are just types of information content -- of greater or lesser value, of greater or lesser cost." Quoted from Anthony Oettinger. Resource: Anthony Oettinger's Introduction to the new book "The Information Resources Policy Handbook" (ed., Benjamin M. Compaine & Wm. H. Read)

Tacit versus Explicit Knowledge

Michael Polanyi(1966) mentioned, "We can know more that we can tell". According to him, knowledge that can be expressed in words and numbers only represents the tip of the iceberg of the entire body of possible knowledge. Polanyi classified human knowledge into two categories. 1. Tacit Knowledge

It is highly personal and hard to formalize, making it difficult to communicate of share with others. Subjective insights, intuitions and hunches fall into this category of knowledge. It is deeply rooted in and individuals actions and experience as well a s in the ideals, values, or emotions he or she embraces. Personal quality which makes it hard to formalize and communicate. It indwells in a comprehensive cognizance of the human mind and body. Japanese view knowledge as being primarily tacit, something not easily visible and expressible. There are two dimensions to tacit knowledge: Technical dimension, which encompasses the kind of informal personal skills of crafts often referred to as know-how. Cognitive dimension. It consists of beliefs, ideals, values, schemata and mental models which are deeply ingrained in us and which we often take for granted. While difficult to articulate, this cognitive dimension of tacit knowledge shapes the way we perceive the world.

2.

Explicit Knowledge

Codified knowledge that can be transmitted in formal, systematic language. It is discrete or digital. It is captured in records of the past such as libraries, archives and databases and is assessed on a sequential basis. It can be expressed in words and numbers and shared in the form of data, scientific formulate, specifications, manuals and the like. This kind of knowledge can be readily transmitted between individuals formally and systematically. In the west, in general, this form of knowledge has been emphasized.

Resource: Polanyi, M. (1966), "The Tacit Dimension, London :Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Nonaka's Knowledge Creation Framework

According to Professor Ikujiro Nonaka, knowledge creation is a spiraling process of interactions between explicit and tacitknowledge. The interactions between the explicit and tacitknowledge lead to the creation of new knowledge. The combination of the two categories makes it possible to conceptualize four conversion patterns. Nonaka also suggests different 'Ba's which facilitate the knowledge conversion for his SECI Knowledge creation model. The four conversion patterns of knowledge are illustrated in diagram below:

Nonaka's SECI Model

Tacit K Tacit K

Socialization (Originating Ba)

Externalization (Interacting Ba)

Internalization (Exercising Ba) Explicit K

Combination (Cyber Ba) Explicit K

Above content quoted from: Ikujiro Nonaka, Noboru Konno, The concept of "Ba: Building foundation for Knowledge Creation. California Management Review Vol 40, No.3 Spring 1998.

Socialization
This mode enables the conversion of tacit knowledge throughinteraction between individuals. One important point to note here is that an individual can acquire tacit knowledge without language. Apprentices work with their mentors and learn craftsmanship not through language but by observation, imitation and practice. In a business setting, on job training (OJT) uses the same principle. The key to acquiring tacit knowledge is experience. Without some form of shared experience, it is extremely difficult for people to share each other thinking process. The tacit knowledge is exchanged through join activities such as being together, spending time, living in the same environment rather than through written or verbal instructions. In practice, socialization involves capturing knowledge through physical proximity. The process of acquiring knowledge is largely supported through direct interaction with people. Resource: Ikujiro Nonaka, Noboru Konno, The concept of "Ba: Building foundation for Knowledge Creation. California Management Review Vol 40, No.3 Spring 1998

Originating Ba
It is the world where individuals share feelings, emotions, experiences and mental model. An individual sympathises or further empathises with others, removing the barriers between the self and others. It is the primary ba from which the knowledge creation process begins and represents thesocialization phase. Physical and face to face experiences are the key to conversion and transfer of tacit knowledge. Professor Ikujiro Nonaka emphasizes that the physical contact is important in originating Ba to facilitate knowledge creation through Socialization. It is the beginning of the knowledge creation process in SECI model. Resource: Ikujiro Nonaka, Noboru Konno, The concept of "Ba: Building foundation for Knowledge Creation. California Management Review Vol 40, No.3 Spring 1998.

Willingness of sharing from individual facilitates the knowledge sharing in this ba. However, without physical contact or any socialization, knowledge still can be created by using the advanced technology nowadays. For example, the virtual world like Internet with email facilities, people can exchange information, knowledge using email, online chatting, phone call, etc. The advanced technology nowadays aids to provide easier communication and real time communication. Hence, Originating Ba should not be the source of the knowledge creation in certain situation.

Externalization
Externalization requires the expression of tacit knowledge and its translation into comprehensible forms that can be understood by others. In philosophical terms, the individual transcends the inner and outer boundaries of the self. During the externalizetion stage of the knowledge-creation process, and individual commits to the group and thus becomes one with the group. The sum of the individuals' intentions and ideas fuse and become integrated with the group's mental world. In practice, externalization is supported by two key factors. First, the articulation of tacit knowledgethat is, the conversion of tacit into explicit knowledge involves techniques that help to express ones ideas or images as words, concepts, figurative language (such as metaphors, analogies or narratives) and visuals. Dialogues, "listening and contributing to the benefit of all participants," strongly support externalization. The second factor involves translating the tacit knowledge of people into readily understandable forms. This may require deductive/inductive reasoning or creative inference (abduction).

Resource: Ikujiro Nonaka, Noboru Konno, The concept of "Ba: Building foundation for Knowledge Creation. California Management Review Vol 40, No.3 Spring 1998.

Interacting Ba
The interacting ba is more consciously constructed, as compared to originating ba. Selecting people with the right mix of specific knowledge and capabilities for a project team, taskforce, or cross-functional team is critical. Through dialogue, individuals mental models and skills are converted into common terms and concepts. Two processes operate in concert: individuals share the mental model of others, but also reflect and analyze their own. This is the place where tacit knowledge is made explicit, thus it represents the externalization process. Dialogue is key for such conversions; and the extensive use of metaphors is one of the conversion skills required. The importance of sensitivity for meaning and the will to make tacit knowledge explicit is recognised. Here, interacting ba for collective reflection is institutionalised in the company culture. Initiators (conceptual leaders) are challenged to pursue their ideas. Interacting ba provide a place for dialogue where people engage jointly in the creation of meaning and value. Resource: Ikujiro Nonaka, Noboru Konno, The concept of "Ba: Building foundation for Knowledge Creation. California Management Review Vol 40, No.3 Spring 1998. Interacting ba is constructed consciously to have right mix of the person to interact with each other to create more knowledge as mentioned by Prof. Nonak. However, hypertext does not confine nor classify the readers or writers. Yet, the knowledge can be created through diffusions between expert to novice. It is interesting how the diffusions between novice and expert lead to knowledge creation.Consider an example, novice may request or have some new thought which the expert never think about since the expert is involved in the field for long period.

Combination
Combination involves the conversion of explicit knowledge into more complex sets of explicit knowledge. In this stage, the key issues are communication and diffusion processes and the systemization of knowledge. Here, new knowledge generate in the externalization stage transcends the ground in analogues or digital signals. In practice, the combination phase relies on three processes. Capturing and integrating new explicit knowledge is essential. This might involve collecting externalized knowledge (e.g. public data) from inside or outside the company and the combining such data. Second, the dissemination of explicit knowledge is based on the process of transferring this form of knowledge directly by using presentations or meeting. Here new knowledge is spread among the organizational members. Third, the editing or processing of explicit knowledge makes it more usable (e.g. documents such as plans, report, market data).

In the combination process, justification the basis for agreement takes place and allows the organization to take practical concrete steps. The knowledge conversion involves the process of social processes to combine different bodies of explicit knowledge held by individuals. The reconfiguring of existing information through the sorting, adding, recategorizing and recontextualizing of explicit knowledge can lead to new knowledge. This process of creating explicit knowledge from explicit knowledge is referred to as combination. Resource: Ikujiro Nonaka, Noboru Konno, The concept of "Ba: Building foundation for Knowledge Creation. California Management Review Vol 40, No.3 Spring 1998.

Cyber Ba
It is a place of interaction in a virtual world instead of real space and time. It represents the combination phase. Here, the combiningg of new explicit knowledge with existing information and knowledge generates and systematises explicit knowledge throughout the organisation. The combination of explicit knowledge is most efficiently supported in collaborative environments utilising information technology. The use of online networks, group-ware, documentation and database has been growing rapidly over the last decade, enhancing this conversion process.

Resource: Ikujiro Nonaka, Noboru Konno, The concept of "Ba: Buildi ng foundation for Knowledge Creation. California Management Review Vol 40, No.3 Spring 1998.

Internalization
The internalization of newly created knowledge is theconversion of explicit knowledge into the organization'stacit knowledge. This requires the individual to identify the knowledge relevant for ones self within the organizational knowledge. That again requires finding ones self in a larger entity. Learning by doing, training and exercises allow the individual to access the knowledge realm of the group and the entire organization. In practice, internalization relies on two dimensions: First, explicit knowledge has to be embodied in action and practice. Thus, the process of internalizing explicit knowledge actualizes concepts or methods about strategy, tactics, innovation or improvement. For example, training programs in larger organizations help the trainees to understand the organization and themselves in the whole. Second, there is a process of embodying the explicit knowledge by using simulations or experiments to trigger learning by doing processes. New concepts or methods can thus be learned in virtual situation.

Resource: Ikujiro Nonaka, Noboru Konno, The concept of "Ba: Building foundation for Knowledge Creation. California Management Review Vol 40, No.3 Spring 1998.

Exercising Ba
Exercising ba supports the internalisation phase. Exercising ba facilitate the conversion of explicit knowledge to tacit knowledge. Focused training with senior mentors and colleagues consists primarily of continued exercises that stress certain patterns and working out of such pattern. Rather than teaching based on analysis, learning by continuous self-refinement through on job training or peripheral and active participation is stressed. Thus the internalisation of knowledge is continuously enhanced by the use of formal knowledge (explicit) in real life or simulated applications. The SECI model that correspond to Exercising Ba isInternalization. Resource: Ikujiro Nonaka, Noboru Konno, The concept of "Ba: Building foundation for Knowledge Creation. California Management Review Vol 40, No.3 Spring 1998.

This ba is more of learning process in each individual. Thus, it is important from the knowledge creation in own individual.