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History of books
The history of the book is an academic discipline that studies the production, transmission, circulation and dissemination of text from antiquity to the present day. The scope of the history of the book, or book history as it is also known, includes the history of ideas, history of religion, bibliography as well as practices of conservation and curation.
The book is also linked to the desire of humans to create lasting records. Stones could be the most ancient form of writing, but wood would be the first medium to take the guise of a book. The words biblos and liber first meant "fibre inside of a tree". In Chinese, the character that means book is an image of a tablet of bamboo. Wooden tablets (Rongorongo) were also made on Easter Island. Silk, in China, was also a base for writing. Writing was done with brushes. Many other materials were used as bases: bone, bronze, pottery, shell, etc. In India, for example, dried palm tree leaves were used; in Mesoamerica another type of plant, Amate. Any material which will hold and transmit text is a candidate for use in bookmaking.
Clay tablets
Clay tablets were used in Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium BC. The calamus, an instrument in the form of a triangle, was used to make characters in moist clay. The tablets were fired to dry them out. At Nineveh, 22,000 tablets were found, dating from the 7th century BC; this was the archive and library of the kings of Assyria, who had workshops of copyists and conservationists at their disposal. This presupposes a degree of organization with respect to books, consideration given to conservation, classification, etc. Tablets were used right up until the 19th century in various parts of the world, including Germany, Chile, and the Saharan Desert.
History of books
Papyrus
After extracting the marrow from the stems, a series of steps (humidification, pressing, drying, gluing, and cutting), produced media of variable quality, the best being used for sacred writing. In Ancient Egypt, papyrus was used for writing maybe as early as from First Dynasty, but first evidence is from the account books of King Neferirkare Kakai of the Fifth Dynasty (about 2400 BC).[1] A calamus, the stem of a reed sharpened to a point, or bird feathers were used for writing. The script of Egyptian scribes was called hieratic, or sacredotal writing; it is not hieroglyphic, but a simplified form more adapted to manuscript writing (hieroglyphs usually being engraved or painted).
Egyptian Papyrus
Papyrus books were in the form of a scroll of several sheets pasted together, for a total length of up to 10 meters or even more. Some books, such as the history of the reign of Ramses III, were over 40 meters long. Books rolled out horizontally; the text occupied one side, and was divided into columns. The title was indicated by a label attached to the cylinder containing the book. Many papyrus texts come from tombs, where prayers and sacred texts were deposited (such as the Book of the Dead, from the early 2nd millennium BC). These examples demonstrate that the development of the book, in its material makeup and external appearance, depended on a content dictated by political (the histories of pharaohs) and religious (belief in an afterlife) values. The particular influence afforded to writing and word perhaps motivated research into ways of conserving texts.
East Asia
Writing on bone, shells, wood and silk existed in China long before the 2nd century BC. Paper was invented in China around the 1st century AD. The discovery of the process using the bark of the blackberry bush is attributed to Ts'ai Louen, but it may be older. Texts were reproduced by woodblock printing; the diffusion of Buddhist texts was a main impetus to large-scale production. The format of the book evolved with intermediate stages of scrolls folded concertina-style, scrolls bound at one edge ("butterfly books") and so on. The first printing of books started in China and was during the Tang Dynasty (618907), but exactly when is not known. The oldest extant printed book is a Tang Dynasty work of the Diamond Sutra and dates back to 868. When the Italian Catholic missionary Matteo Ricci visited Ming China, he wrote that there were "exceedingly large numbers of books in circulation" and noted that they were sold at very low prices.
History of books
Wax tablets
Romans used wax-coated wooden tablets (pugillares) upon which they could write and erase by using a stylus. One end of the stylus was pointed, and the other was spherical. Usually these tablets were used for everyday purposes (accounting, notes) and for teaching writing to children, according to the methods discussed by Quintilian in his Institutio Oratoria X Chapter 3. Several of these tablets could be assembled in a form similar to a codex. Also the etymology of the word codex (block of wood) suggest that it may have developed from wooden wax tablets.[2]
Parchment
Parchment progressively replaced papyrus. Legend attributes its Woman holding wax tablets in the form of the codex. Wall painting from Pompeii, before 79 invention to Eumenes II, the king of Pergamon, from which comes the AD. name "pergamineum," which became "parchment." Its production began around the 3rd century BC. Made using the skins of animals (sheep, cattle, donkey, antelope, etc.), parchment proved easier to conserve over time; it was more solid, and allowed one to erase text. It was a very expensive medium because of the rarity of material and the time required to produce a document. Vellum is the finest quality of parchment.
History of books
A codex is composed of many books (librorum); a book is of one scroll (voluminis). It is called codex by way of metaphor from the trunks (caudex) of trees or vines, as if it were a wooden stock, because it contains in itself a multitude of books, as it were of branches.
Description
The scroll is rolled around two vertical wooden axes. This design allows only sequential usage; one is obliged to read the text in the order in which it is written, and it is impossible to place a marker in order to directly access a precise point in the text. It is comparable to modern video cassettes. Moreover, the reader must use both hands to hold on to the vertical wooden rolls and therefore cannot read and write at the same time. The only volumen in common usage today is the Jewish Torah.
Book culture
The authors of Antiquity had no rights concerning their published works; there were neither authors' nor publishing rights. Anyone could have a text recopied, and even alter its contents. Scribes earned money and authors earned mostly glory, unless a patron provided cash; a book made its author famous. This followed the traditional conception of the culture: an author stuck to several models, which he imitated and attempted to improve. The status of the author was not regarded as absolutely personal. From a political and religious point of view, books were censored very early: the works of Protagoras were burned because he was a proponent of agnosticism and argued that one could not know whether or not the gods existed. Generally, cultural conflicts led to important periods of book destruction: in 303, the emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of Christian texts. Some Christians later burned libraries, and especially heretical or non-canonical Christian texts. These practices are found throughout human history but have ended in many nations today. A few nations today still greatly censor and even burn books. But there also exists a less visible but nonetheless effective form of censorship when books are reserved for the elite; the book was not originally a medium for expressive liberty. It may serve to confirm the values of a political system, as during the reign of the emperor Augustus, who skillfully surrounded himself with great authors. This is a good ancient example of the control of the media by a political power. More importantly, private censorship of books has occurred and continues today. What books one chooses to privately read, to destroy, to throw away, to not sell, and what to pass along to one's children involves choosing some books over others. Private individuals can and do censor themselves and others, with little or no support and approval from the governing bodies of their time.
History of books All books in the luggage of visitors to Egypt were inspected, and could be held for copying. The Museion was partially destroyed in 47 BC. The Library at Pergamon, founded by Attalus I; it contained 200,000 volumes which were moved to the Serapeion by Mark Antony and Cleopatra, after the destruction of the Museion. The Serapeion was partially destroyed in 391, and the last books disappeared in 641 CE following the Arab conquest. The Library at Athens, the Ptolemaion, which gained importance following the destruction of the Library at Alexandria ; the Library of Pantainos, around 100 CE; the library of Hadrian, in 132 CE. The Library at Rhodes, a library that rivaled the Library of Alexandria. The Library at Antioch, a public library of which Euphorion of Chalcis was the director near the end of the 3rd century.
The libraries had copyist workshops, and the general organisation of books allowed for the following: Conservation of an example of each text Translation (the Septuagint Bible, for example) Literary criticisms in order to establish reference texts for the copy (example : The Iliad and The Odyssey) A catalog of books The copy itself, which allowed books to be disseminated
Paper
Papermaking has traditionally been traced to China about AD 105, when Cai Lun, an official attached to the Imperial court during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD), created a sheet of paper using mulberry and other bast fibres along with fishnets, old rags, and hemp waste. While paper used for wrapping and padding was used in China since the 2nd century BC,[] paper used as a writing medium only became widespread by the 3rd century.[3] By the 6th century in China, sheets of paper were beginning to be used for toilet paper as well.[4] During the Tang Dynasty (618907 AD) paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavor of tea. The Song Dynasty (9601279) that followed was the first government to issue paper currency. An important development was the mechanization of paper manufacture by medieval papermakers. The introduction of water-powered paper mills, the first certain evidence of which dates to the 11th century in Crdoba, Spain,[5] allowed for a massive expansion of production and replaced the laborious handcraft characteristic of both Chinese[6][7] and Muslim[8] papermaking. Papermaking centres began to multiply in the late 13th century in Italy, reducing the price of paper to one sixth of parchment and then falling further.[9]
History of books
Middle Ages
By the end of antiquity, between the 2nd and 4th centuries, the codex had replaced the scroll. The book was no longer a continuous roll, but a collection of sheets attached at the back. It became possible to access a precise point in the text directly. The codex is equally easy to rest on a table, which permits the reader to take notes while he or she is reading. The codex form improved with the separation of words, capital letters, and punctuation, which permitted silent reading. Tables of contents and indices facilitated direct access to information. This form was so effective that it is still the standard book form, over 1500 years after its appearance. Paper would progressively replace parchment. Cheaper to produce, it allowed a greater diffusion of books.
Books in monasteries
A number of Christian books were destroyed at the order of Diocletian in 304 AD. During the turbulent periods of the invasions, it was the monasteries that conserved religious texts and certain works of Antiquity for the West. But there would also be important copying centers in Byzantium.
The role of monasteries in the conservation of books is not without some ambiguity: Reading was an important activity in the lives of monks, which can be divided into prayer, intellectual work, and manual labor (in the Benedictine order, for example). It was therefore necessary to make copies of certain works. Accordingly, there existed scriptoria (the plural of scriptorium) in many monasteries, where monks copied and decorated manuscripts that had been preserved. However, the conservation of books was not exclusively in order to preserve ancient culture; it was especially relevant to understanding religious texts with the aid of ancient knowledge. Some works were never recopied, having been judged too dangerous for the monks. Morever, in need of blank media, the monks scraped off manuscripts, thereby destroying ancient works. The transmission of knowledge was centered primarily on sacred texts.
An author portrait of Jean Milot writing his compilation of the Miracles of Our Lady, one of his many popular works.
History of books
The scriptorium
The scriptorium was the workroom of monk copyists; here, books were copied, decorated, rebound, and conserved. The armarius directed the work and played the role of librarian. The role of the copyist was multifaceted: for example, thanks to their work, texts circulated from one monastery to another. Copies also allowed monks to learn texts and to perfect their religious education. The relationship with the book thus defined itself according to an intellectual relationship with God. But if these copies were sometimes made for the monks themselves, there were also copies made on demand. The task of copying itself had several phases: the preparation of the manuscript in the form of notebooks once the work was complete, the presentation of pages, the copying itself, revision, correction of errors, decoration, and binding. The book therefore required a variety of competencies, which often made a manuscript a collective effort.
Printing press
The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg around 1440 marks the entry of the book into the industrial age. The Western book was no longer a single object, written or reproduced by request. The publication of a book became an enterprise, requiring capital for its realization and a market for its distribution. The cost of each individual book (in a large edition) was lowered enormously, which in turn increased the distribution of books. The book in codex form and printed on paper, as we know it today, dates from the 15th century. Books printed before January 1, 1501, are called incunables. The spreading of book printing all over Europe occurred relatively quickly, but most books were still printed in Latin. The spreading of the concept of printing books in the vernacular was a somewhat slower process.
History of books
Handwritten notes by Christopher Columbus on the Latin edition of Marco Polo's Le livre des merveilles.
1501: Harmonice Musices Odhecaton, printed by Ottaviano Petrucci, is the first book of sheet music printed from movable type. 1501: "Aldus Manutius" printed the first portable Octavos, also inventing and using italic type. 1511: Hieromonk Makarije printed the first books in Wallachia (in Slavonic) 1512: Hakob Meghapart printed the first book in Armenian - Urbatagirk. 1513: Hortulus Animae, polonice believed to be the first book printed in the Polish language. 1516: A reprint of the Lisbon edition of the Sefer Aburdraham is printed in Morocco, the first book printed in Africa.[10] 1517: Psalter, first book printed in the Old Belarusian language by Francysk Skaryna on 6 August 1517 1539: La escala espiritual de San Juan Clmaco, first book printed in North America - Mexico 1541: Bovo-Bukh was the first non-religious book to be printed in Yiddish 1544: Rucouskiria by Mikael Agricola, the first book printed in the Finnish language.
1545: Linguae Vasconum Primitiae was the first book printed in Basque 1547: Martynas Mavydas compiled and published the first printed Lithuanian book The Simple Words of Catechism
History of books 1550: Abecedarium was the first printed book in the Slovene language, printed by Primo Trubar. 1561: The first printed books in the Romanian language, Tetraevanghelul and ntrebare cretineasc (also known as Catehismul) are printed by Coresi in Braov. 1564: the first book in Irish was printed in Edinburgh, a translation of John Knox's 'Liturgy' by John Carswell, Bishop of the Hebrides. 1564: the first dated Russian book, Apostol, printed by Ivan Fyodorov 1568: the first book in Irish to be printed in Ireland was a Protestant catechism, containing a guide to spelling and sounds in Irish. 1577: Lekah Tov, a commentary on the Book of Esther, was the first book printed in the land of Israel 1581: Ostrog Bible, first complete printed edition of the Bible in Old Church Slavonic 1584: first book printed in South America - Lima, Peru 1593: Doctrina Christiana was the first book printed in the Philippines 1629: Nikoloz Cholokashvili helped to publish a Georgian dictionary, the first printed book in Georgian 1640: The Bay Psalm Book, the first book printed in British North America 1651: Abagar - Filip Stanislavov, first printed book in modern Bulgarian 1678-1703: Hortus Malabaricus included the first instance of Malayalam types being used for printing 1798: The first printed book in Ossetic 1802: New South Wales General Standing Orders was the first book printed in Australia, comprising Government and General Orders issued between 1791 and 1802 1909: Nisthananda Bajracharya authored and printed the first printed book in Nepal Bhasa called Ek Binshati Pragyaparmita.[11] Aurora Australis, the first book published in Antarctica. See also Editio princeps, Spread of the printing press
Contemporary era
The demands of the British and Foreign Bible Society (founded 1804), the American Bible Society (founded 1816), and other non-denominational publishers for enormously large and impossibly inexpensive runs of texts led to numerous innovations. The introduction of steam printing presses a little before 1820, closely followed by new steam paper mills, constituted the two most major innovations. Together, they caused book prices to drop and the number of books to increase considerably. Numerous bibliographic features, like the positioning and formulation of titles and subtitles, were also affected by this new production method. New types of documents appeared later in the 19th century: photography, sound recording and film. Typewriters and eventually computer based word processors and printers let people print and put together their own documents. Among a series of developments that occurred in the 1990s, the spread of digital multimedia, which encodes texts, images, animations, and sounds in a unique and simple form was notable for the book publishing industry. Hypertext further improved access to information. Finally, the internet lowered production and distribution costs.
History of books
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E-Resources
It is difficult to predict the future of the book.[12] A good deal of reference material, designed for direct access instead of sequential reading, as for example encyclopedias, exists less and less in for the form of books and increasingly on the web. Leisure reading materials are increasingly published in e-reader formats. Although electronic books, or e-books, had limited success in the early years, and readers were resistant at the outset, the demand for books in this format has grown dramatically, primarily because of the popularity of e-reader devices and as the number of available titles in this format has increased. Another important factor in the increasing popularity of the e-reader is its continuous diversification. Many e-readers now support basic operating systems, which facilitate email and other simple functions. The iPad is the most obvious example of this trend, but even mobile phones can host e-reading software. E-book readers such as the Sony Reader, Barnes & Noble's Nook, and the Amazon Kindle have increased in popularity each time a new upgraded version is released. The Kindle in particular has captured public attention not only for the quality of the reading experience but also because users can access books (as well as periodicals and newspapers) wirelessly online (a feature now available in all other e-reader devices). Apple has also entered this arena with applications for the iPhone and iPad which enable e-book reading.
Gallery
Academic programs
Drew University, Department of Modern History and Literature [13] MA, PhD in one of three streams including Book History. Mainz Gutenberg University [14] Mainzer Institut fur Buchwissenschaft Texas Tech University, Department of English [15]. MA, PhD emphasis in History of the Book University of Edinburgh [16] Postgraduate Degree (MA) in The History of the Book School of Book Science [17] at University of Erlangen-Nuremberg. BA and MA program with specialisation in the history of the Book University of London, Institute of English Studies [18] Postgraduate MA in the History of the Book. University of Mnster, Germany [19] MA Program Book Studies University of Toronto [20]. MA, PhD Program in Book History / Print Culture. University of Amsterdam, Department of cultural studies [21]. BA and MA program with specialisation in the history of the Book Curtin University [22]. Master of Information Management - Librarianship stream.
History of books
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Selected Resources
Books
The Cambridge history of the book in Britain. Cambridge UK ; New York: Cambridge University Press. 1998-2002. ISBN0-521-57346-7 (v. 3), ISBN 0-521-66182-X (v. 4) Check |isbn= value (help). Contents: v. 1 ed. Richard Gameson (publication forthcoming 2008), v. 2 eds. Nigel Morgan and Rod Thomson (publication forthcoming 2007), v. 3 1400-1557 eds. Lotte Hellinga and J.B. Trapp, v. 4 1557-1695 eds. John Barnard and D.F. McKenzie, with the assistance of Maureen Bell. Histoire de l'dition franaise. Paris: Fayard : Cercle de la Librairie. 1989-. ISBN2-213-02399-9 (v. 1) Check |isbn= value (help). v. 1-4 ; eds. Roger Chartier and Henri-Jean Martin. Histoire des bibliothques franaises. Paris: Promodis-d. du Cercle de la Librairie. 1988-. ISBN2-903181-72-1 (v. 1) Check |isbn= value (help). v. 1-4 ; eds. Andr Vernet, Claude Jolly, Dominique Varry, Martine Poulain. Blair, Ann (2010). Too Much to Know: Managing Scholarly Information before the Modern Age. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300165395. Chartier, Roger (c. 2005). Inscrire et effacer : culture crite et littrature (XIe-XVIIIe sicle). Paris: Gallimard : Le Seuil. ISBN2-02-081580-X. Chow, Kai-Wing (2004). Publishing, Culture, and Power in Early Modern China. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN0-8047-3368-6. Craughwell, Thomas J., and Damon Smith (2004). Q.P.B. Short History of the Paperback, and Other Milestones in Publishing. New and updated ed. New York: Quality Paperback Book Club. ISBN 1-58288-104-9 Dane, Joseph (2003). The Myth of Print Culture: Essays on Evidence, Textuality, and Bibliographical Method. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN0-8020-8775-2 9780802087751 Check |isbn= value (help). Darnton, Robert (1985, c1984). The great cat massacre and other episodes in French cultural history. Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN0-14-055089-5. Diringer, David (1982). The book before printing : ancient, medieval, and oriental. New York: Dover. ISBN0-486-24243-9. Eisenstein, Elizabeth (2005). The printing revolution in early modern Europe. Cambridge UK ; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-84543-2, ISBN 0-521-60774-4 Check |isbn= value (help). Febvre, Lucien; and Henri-Jean Martin (1997). The coming of the book : the impact of printing 1450-1800. London: Verso. ISBN1-85984-108-2. tr. by David Gerard ; ed. by Geoffrey Nowell-Smith and David Wootton ; Note : reprint, other reprints by this publisher 1990 & 1984, originally published (London : N.L.B., 1976) ; Translation of L'apparition du livre. Finkelstein, David (2005). An introduction to book history. New York: Routledge. ISBN0-415-31442-9, ISBN 0-415-31443-7 Check |isbn= value (help). Hall, David (1996). Cultures of Print: Essays in the History of the Book. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN0585142076 9780585142074 Check |isbn= value (help). History of the book in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 2004-2007. ISBN0-8020-8943-7 (v. 1), ISBN 0-8020-8012-X (v. 2), ISBN 978-0-8020-9047-8 (v. 3) Check |isbn= value (help). Contents: v. 1 eds. Patricia Fleming and Fiona Black (2004), v. 2 eds. Patricia Fleming, Yvan Lamonde, and Fiona Black (2005), v. 3 eds. Carole Gerson and Jacques Michon (2007). Howsam, Leslie (2006). Old Books and New Histories: An orientation to studies in book and print culture. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN978-0-8020-9438-4. Johns, Adrian (1998). The Nature of the Book: Print and Knowledge in the Making. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-40122-5.
History of books Katz, Bill (1998). Cuneiform to computer : a history of reference sources. Lanham Md.: Scarecrow Press. ISBN0-8108-3290-9. Series : History of the book, no. 4. Martin, Henri-Jean (c. 2004). Les mtamorphoses du livre. Paris: Albin Michel. ISBN2-226-14237-1. Series : Itinraires du savoir. McKitterick, David (2003). Print, Manuscript and the Search for Order, 1450-1830. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-82690-X. Price, Leah (2012). How to Do Things with Books in Victorian Britain. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691114170. Thiollet, Jean-Pierre (2005). Je m'appelle Byblos, H & D, Paris. ISBN 2-914266-04-9 Warner, Michael (1990). The Letters of the Republic: Publication and the Public Sphere in Eighteenth-Century America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN0-674-52785-2.
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Periodicals
The Library: Transactions of The Bibliographical Society. London: Bibliographical Society. 1889-. ISSN 0024-2160. The Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America. New York: Bibliographical Society of America. 1899-. ISSN 0006-128X. The Papers of the Bibliographical Society of Canada. Toronto, Canada: The Bibliographical Society of Canada. 1962-. ISSN 0067-6896. Studies in Bibliography. Charlottesville, VA: The Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia. 1948-. ISSN 0081-7600. Archiv fr Geschichte des Buchwesens. Frankfurt am Main: Buchhndler-Vereinigung. 1956-. ISSN 0066-6327. Annual bibliography of the history of the printed book and libraries. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. 1970-. ISSN 0303-5964. Script & Print. Australia: Bibliographical Society of Australia and New Zealand. 1970-. ISSN 1834-9013. Note: previously Bulletin of the Bibliographical Society of Australia and New Zealand. Quaerendo. Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum Ltd. 1971-. ISSN 0014-9527. Note "A quarterly journal from the low countries devoted to manuscripts and printed books." Revue franaise d'histoire du livre. Bordeaux: Socit des bibliophiles de Guyenne. 1971-. ISSN 0037-92120048-8070. Book History. United States of America: Society for the History of Authorship, Reading & Printing. 1998-. ISSN 1098-7371.
References
[1] Leila Avrin. Scribes, Script and Books. The Book Arts from Antiquity to the Renaissance. American Library Association / The British Library 1991, p. 83. [2] Bernhard Bischoff. Latin Palaeography: Antiquity and the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press 2003 [reprint], p. 11. [3] Needham, V 1 [4] Needham, V 1, p.123 [5] Burns, Robert I.: "Paper comes to the West, 8001400", in: Lindgren, Uta: Europische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation, 4th ed., Gebr. Mann Verlag, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-7861-1748-9, pp.413422 (418) [6] Thompson, Susan: "Paper Manufacturing and Early Books", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 314 (1978), pp. 167176 (169) [7] Lucas, Adam Robert: "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds. A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture, Vol. 46, No. 1 (2005), pp. 130 (28, fn. 70)
History of books
[8] Burns, Robert I.: "Paper comes to the West, 8001400", in: Lindgren, Uta: Europische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation, 4th ed., Gebr. Mann Verlag, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-7861-1748-9, pp.413422 (414417) [9] Burns, Robert I.: "Paper comes to the West, 8001400", in: Lindgren, Uta: Europische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation, 4th ed., Gebr. Mann Verlag, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-7861-1748-9, pp.413422 (417) [10] Judaic Treasures of the Library of Congress: First Book in Africa (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ loc/ Africa. html) [11] Nepal Bhasa Manka Khala (http:/ / guthi. net/ mankakhala/ learn_famouswriter. html) [12] Robert Darnton, The Case for Books: Past, Present and Future, New York, Public Affairs, 2009. ISBN 978-1-58648-826-0. [13] http:/ / www. drew. edu/ grad-content. aspx?id=2352 [14] http:/ / www. buchwissenschaft. uni-mainz. de [15] http:/ / www. english. ttu. edu/ grad_degrees/ BH_default. asp [16] http:/ / www. hss. ed. ac. uk/ chb/ postgraduatestudy. htm [17] http:/ / www. buchwiss. uni-erlangen. de/ [18] http:/ / ies. sas. ac. uk/ study/ MAHOB/ index. htm [19] http:/ / www. uni-muenster. de/ Buchwiss/ Studieren/ master_of_arts. html [20] http:/ / bookhistory. fis. utoronto. ca/ [21] http:/ / www. uva. nl [22] http:/ / handbook. curtin. edu. au/ units/ 31/ 312761. html
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External links
Society for the History of Authorship, Reading and Publishing (http://www.sharpweb.org/) History of the Book at the American Antiquarian Society (http://www.americanantiquarian.org/hob.htm) Toronto Centre for the Book (http://bookhistory.fis.utoronto.ca/TCB.html) Development of the Printed Page (http://www.sc.edu/library/digital/collections/printedpage.html) at the University of South Carolina Library's Digital Collections Page Consortium of European Research Libraries (http://www.cerl.org) 12 - 17th century manuscripts, including Vulgates, Books of Hours, Wills, Legal Contracts and Medicinal Texts, Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Libraries (http://cdi.uvm.edu/collections/getCollection. xql?pid=manuscripts&title=Medieval and Renaissance Manuscripts) Fischer, Ernst: The Book Market (http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-20100921223), European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2010, retrieved: June 14, 2012. The Atlas of Early Printing (http://atlas.lib.uiowa.edu/) The European Society for Textual Scholarship. (http://www.textualscholarship.eu/index.html) Society for Textual Scholarship. (http://textualsociety.org/)
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License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/