Example 1. All the following statements are propositions. 1. Washington, D.C., is the capital of the United States of America.

2. Toronto is the capital of Canada. 3. 1 + 1 = 2. 4. 2 + 2 = 3. Propositions 1 and 3 are true, whereas 2 and 4 are false.

Example 2. Consider the following sentences. 1. What time is it? 2. Read this carefully. 3. x + 1 = 2. 4. x + y = z. Sentences 1 and 2 are not propositions because they are not statements. Sentences 3 and 4 are not propositions because they are neither true nor false, since the variable in these sentences have not been assigned values.

Definition 1. Let p be propositions. The statement It is not the case that p. is another proposition, called the negation of p. The negation of p is donated by p. The propositions p is read not p.

Example 3. Find the negation of proposition Today is Friday and express this in sample English. Solution: The negation is It is not case that today is Friday. This negation can be more simply expressed by Today is not Friday.

Table 1 The Truth Table for the Negation of a Propositions p T F p F T

Table 2 The Truth Table for the Conjunction of Two Propositions p q T T T F F T F F pq T F F F

Table 3 The Truth Table for the Disjunction of Two Propositions p q T T T F F T F F pq T T T F

Table 4 The Truth Table for the Exclusive Or of Two Propositions p q T T T F F T F F pq F T T F

Table 5 The Truth Table for the Implication p q p q T T T F F T F F pq T F T T

Table 6 The Truth Table for the Biconditional p q p q T T T F F T F F pq T F F T

There are some relate implications that can be formed from p q. The proposition q p is called the converse of p q. The contrapositive of p q is the proposition q p. Example 7. Find the converse and the contrapositive of the implication If today is Thursday, then I have a test today. Solution: The converse is If I have a test today, then today is Thursday. And the contrapositive of the implication is If I do not have a test today, then today is not Thursday.

Example 8. You can access the internet from campus only if you are computer science major or you are not a freshman Logic Expression is a (c f ) Where a = You can access the internet from campus, c = You are computer science major, f = You are freshman

Example 9. You cannot ride the roller coaster if you are under 4 feet tall unless you are older than 16 years old. Logic Expression is (r s) q. Where q = You can ride roller coaster, r = You are under 4 feet tall, s = You are older than 16 years old,

Example 10. Let p and q the propositions p : It is below freezing. q : It is snowing Write the following propositions using p and q and logical connectives. a) It is below freezing and snowing. pq b) It is below freezing and not snowing. p q c) It is not below freezing and it is not snowing. p q d) It is either snowing. Or below freezing (or both). pq e) If it is below freezing, it is also snowing. pq f) It is either below freezing or it is snowing, but it is not snowing if it is below freezing. (p q) (p q)

g) That is below freezing is necessary and sufficient for it to be snowing. q p

Table 7 Truth Table for ( p q) and p q p q T T T F F T F F pq T T T F (p q) F F F T p F F T T q F T F T p q F F F T

Table 8 Truth Table for p q and p q p q T T T F F T F F p F F T T p q T F T T pq T F T T

Table 9 A Demonstration That p (q r) and (p q) (p r) Are Logical Equivalent. p q r T T T T T F T F T T F F F T T F T F F F T F F F qr T F F F T F F F p (q r) T T T T T F F F pq T T T T T T F F pr T T T T T F T F (p q) (p r) T T T T T F F F

Table 10 Logical Equivalences. Equivalence pTp pFp pTT pF F ppp ppp (p) p pqqp pqqp (p q) r p (q r) (p q) r p (q r) p (q r) (p q) (p r) p (q r) (p q) (p r) (p q) p q (p q) p q De Morgans laws Distributive laws Associative laws Double negation laws Commutative laws Idempotent laws Domination laws Name Identity laws