Introduction

Christian ideas about contraception come from church teachings rather than scripture, as the Bible has little to say about the subject. As a result, their teachings on birth control are often based on different Christian interpretations of the meaning of marriage, sex and the family. Christian acceptance of contraception is relatively new; all churches disapproved of artificial contraception until the start of the 2 th century. !n modern times different Christian churches hold different views about the rightness and wrongness of using birth control. "iberal #rotestant churches often teach that it is acceptable to use birth control, as long as it is not used to encourage or permit promiscuous behaviour. "ess liberal churches only approve the use of contraception for people who are married to each other. $ince these churches regard sex outside marriage as morally wrong %or if not wrong, as less than good&, they believe that abstaining from sex would be morally better than having sex and using birth control. 'ore conservative churches suggest that contraception should be limited to married couples who are using it to regulate the si(e and spacing of their family. )hey often teach that using contraception to prevent children altogether is not desirable. )he *oman Catholic Church only allows +natural+ birth control, by which it means only having sex during the infertile period of a woman+s monthly cycle. Artificial methods of contraception are banned. )hus the only way for a Catholic couple to be faithful to the Church+s teachings on human sexuality and to avoid having children is to use +natural+ family planning. 'any Catholics have decided to disobey church teaching in this part of their lives, causing a substantial breach between laity and the Church establishment.

History of Christian attitudes

,or most of the last 2 years all Christian churches have been against artificial birth control. !n the first centuries of Christianity, contraception %and abortion& were regarded as wrong because they were associated with paganism or with heretics such as the -nostics, the 'anichees and, in the middle ages, the Cathars. #rotestant attitudes to birth control began to change in the ./th century as theologians became more willing to accept that morality should come from the conscience of each individual rather than from outside teachings. Another influence was the churches+ changing attitude to sex. !nstead of seeing sex as something rather dangerous, many Christians began to regard sex as one of -od+s great gifts. $ex was a force that could preserve the institution of marriage if couples didn+t feel threatened by the possibility of having children they could not support. !nfluenced by this, the #rotestant churches concluded that as the use of birth control often led to stronger families and better marriages, churches should let believers use birth control as their own consciences dictated. )his change came slowly 0 as late as ./ 1 the "ambeth Conference of the Anglican Church stated that birth control 2cannot be spo3en of without repugnance,2 and denounced it as 2demoralising to character and hostile to national welfare.2 But the Anglicans were the first church to issue a statement in favour of contraception, which they did at the "ambeth Conference in ./4 by a majority of ./4 to 56. A group of American #rotestants followed in ./4.. 7owadays most #rotestant denominations permit artificial birth control to some extent. )he history of modern *oman Catholic thin3ing on the subject is dealt with in the *oman Catholic pages.

The Bible and contraception

)wo parts of the Bible are often 8uoted to show -od+s disapproval of birth control9

First, God commanded his people to "Be fruitful and multiply," and contraception is seen as specifically flouting this instruction. Second, Onan was killed by God for "spilling his seed," which is often taken as divine condemnation of coitus interruptus.

)he first of these examples is normally rebutted by demonstrating that contraception has not prevented human beings from being fruitful and multiplying. )here are at least two interpretations of the second example9

God may have been angry with Onan for having se for a purpose other than having children o this interpretation supports the idea that contraception is morally wrong
o

it also supports the idea that there is only one kind of morally good se ual act! se between a man and a woman who are married and who are having se to produce children

God may not have been angry with Onan for preventing conception but for failing to honour a commandment to produce a child with his dead brother"s wife
o o

but this interpretation has no application to modern cultures or morality the act that #ewish law re$uired Onan to perform would nowadays be regarded as rape, since the widow"s consent was not re$uired % and this makes the story a very dubious foundation for moral argument

Scripture in favour of contraception

)he Bible never explicitly approves of contraception. :owever, there are a number of passages where the Bible appears to accept that sex should be enjoyed for other reasons than the production of children, and some people argue that this implies that no wrong is done if a couple have sex with the intention of not having children.

Church of England
)he Church of ;ngland approves the use of contraception. !t wasn+t always so 0 as late as ./ 1 the "ambeth Conference stated9 the Conference records with alarm the growing practice of the artificial restriction of the family and earnestly calls upon all Christian people to discountenance the use of all artificial means of restriction as demoralising to character and hostile to national welfare. Lambeth Conference, 1908 By ./4 the "ambeth Conference had changed its mind and declared that if there was an ethically acceptable reason not to have children and to continue to have sex then9 the Conference agrees that other methods may be used, provided that this is done in the light of Christian principles. Lambeth Conference, 1930 By ./<1 the Anglicans had concluded that -od wanted the responsibility for deciding upon the number and fre8uency of children to be something for the consciences of the potential parents, and that they could manage their family and fertility 2in such ways as are acceptable to husband and wife2.

Catholic - introduction
)he Church forbids sex outside marriage, so its teachings about birth control should be understood in the context of husband and wife. )he *oman Catholic Church believes that using contraception is 2intrinsically evil2 in itself, regardless of the conse8uences. Catholics are only permitted to use natural methods of birth control. But the Church does not condemn things li3e the pill or condoms in themselves. =hat is morally wrong is using such things with the intention of preventing conception. >sing them for other purposes is fine 0 for example, using the pill to regulate the periods of a woman who is not in a sexual relationship is not wrong. )he Church teaches that using artificial contraception is wrong because9

it is against "natural law" it breaks the natural connection between the procreative and the unitive purposes of se it turns se into a non%marital act it gives human beings the power to decide when a new life should begin % that power belongs to God it leads to widespread immorality it damages the institution of marriage it reduces male respect for women it gives human beings the idea that they can have complete power over the body it allows the implementation of eugenic programmes

Commentary

)his is one of the most controversial areas of the Church+s moral teachings; partly because birth control is now accepted in most of the =est, but also because the philosophical and theological ideas behind the ban are hard to understand. As a result, many *oman Catholics see the ban as arbitrary and unreasonable, but in fact the ban is based on a thorough analysis of the issues involved.

Catholic objections to artificial contraception are partly based on +natural law+ and partly on the bad conse8uences that will result if contraception is widely used. But Catholic policy on birth control is also derived from the way the Church views the nature of marital sexuality and responsible parenthood. )he Church teaches that the physical expression of love between husband and wife in sexual intercourse can+t be separated from the reproductive implications of both the act and marriage. $ex is seen as intimately involved in -od+s design for the universe, and as something profoundly important that involves a person+s mind and spirit as well as their body. )he Catholic Church does not see any point in putting forward the various arguments that show the benefits of contraception to individuals or to the world. #ope #aul ?! put it li3e this9 2!t is never lawful, even for the gravest reasons, to do evil that good may come of it.2
The Tablet survey

A 2 1 study suggests that most practising Catholics are ignoring the Church+s teachings on contraception and sex. )he )ablet maga(ine surveyed .,< 'ass0goers in ;ngland and =ales; @ years after #ope #aul ?! forbade birth control use in his encyclical :umanae ?itae %Af :uman "ife&. 12B of people are familiar with the Church+s moral teachings but more than half of .10@< year olds still cohabited before marriage. )he contraceptive pill is used by <@.<B and nearly 5/B had used or would consider using condoms. )he survey also found that more than half thin3 that the teaching should be revised.

Catholic - modern teachings

1930

)he modern attitude of the Catholic Church to contraception was laid down in the ./4 s when #ope #ius C! issued Casti Connubii %which translates as +Af Chaste 'arriage+&. )his document said that artificial birth control was a violation of the 2law of -od and nature2 and that those who used it committed 2a deed which is shameful and intrinsically vicious.2
1951

!n ./<. #ope #ius C!! said that it was acceptable to use the rhythm method if a couple had a good reason to limit the si(e of their family.
1958

!n ./<1 #ius C!! stated that it was legitimate for women to ta3e the birth control pill for medical reasons other than contraception. :e said that the contraceptive side effect would not be wrong because of the doctrine of double effect.
1968

!n ./51 #ope #aul ?! issued Humanae Vitae, which banned all artificial methods of birth control. :is uncompromising position on birth control led to protests around the Catholic world and *oman Catholic hierarchies in some countries openly modified the policy. )he document surprised many Catholics, who had hoped for a relaxation of the traditional attitude after ?atican !!, and it rejected the views of the commission appointed to consider birth control, which had recommended that the ban on contraception be ended.

Pope John Paul

#ope Dohn #aul !! thought birth control was profoundly important; while still Cardinal =ojtyla he wrote that the issue of contraception was a 2struggle for the value and meaning of humanity itself2 %./61&. =hen he became #ope he confirmed the Church+s position, 2the natural regulation of fertility is morally correct; contraception is not morally correct.2

Catholic - natural family planning

+7atural family planning+ involves using self0control to regulate sexual activities in harmony with nature. )he natural methods of family planning are9

&bstention! not having se o this method is '(() reliable *hythm method! having se at times of the woman"s menstrual cycle when she is unable to conceive
o o

this method is calendar based its reliability is around +,)

Body function methods! these use other functions of the woman"s body, such as mucous patterns and temperature patterns, to determine when the chance of conception is low. -he couple only have se ual intercourse during the period of low fertility.
o

these methods are up to .+) reliable

7atural family planning methods are 8uite hard wor3. )he couple must measure and chart certain physical symptoms with accuracy, and then interpret the charts properly, 3eeping in mind other events that may interfere with the woman+s normal bodily rhythm. )hey also need the self0 discipline to regulate their sex life accordingly.
!hy is natural family plannin" #$%

7atural family planning is not unethical or disobedient to -od because9

it uses a mechanism God designed it is natural because it is based on the natural human property of self%control

o o

self%mastery is a power which God gave only to human beings they should use self%mastery rather than methods which work against nature

it does not completely prevent conception % the se ual act remains "open" to the creation of a new life it does not add anything artificial to the se ual act to change it

&atural family plannin" is not al'ays "oo(

7atural family planning alone does not satisfy Catholic teaching about birth control; motivation and purpose are also important. ,amily planning must be used responsibly and not for trivial reasons. $o while it would be good to use family planning to space out a family+s children, it would be wrong to use family planning because a couple would rather spend their money on a new car than caring for a child.

Catholic arguments against

Catholic ar"uments a"ainst contraception in (etail

A lot of *oman Catholic moral reasoning is based on the idea of natural law 0 not just sexual ethics. 7atural law is a way of describing the basic moral code that comes to mind when human beings thin3 seriously about ethical issues. )o Catholics, natural law amounts to the way -od wants the universe to wor3. Eon+t get confused and thin3 there is a direct connection between +natural law+ and +natural family planning+ or between +natural law+ and +unnatural sexual practices+. 7atural law is a technical theological and philosophical doctrine. #ope #ius C! objected to contraception as brea3ing natural law9 7o reason, however grave, may be put forward by which anything which is intrinsically against nature may become comformable with nature and morally good. $ince, therefore, the conjugal act is designed primarily by nature for the begetting of children, those who in exercising it deliberately frustrate its natural power and purposely sin against nature and commit a deed which is shameful and intrinsically vicious. Pope Pius XI, Casti Connubii

#aul ?! also used the natural law argument, emphasising the9 inseparable connection, established by -od, which man on his own initiative may not brea3, between the unitive significance and the procreative significance which are both inherent to the marriage act. Pope Paul VI Closely related to the 7atural "aw argument, but not 8uite the same, is the argument that procreation is 2a fundamental human good,2 and any voluntary action that frustrates its intent is intrinsically evil.
Se) shoul( not be separate( from repro(uction

)he Catholic Church teaches that there is an inseparable connection between sexual intercourse and conceiving children, and that it is wrong for human beings to use artificial methods to brea3 this connection. Church documents spea3 of the connection between the 2unitive significance2 and the 2procreative significance2 of sexual intercourse.
*re se) an( procreation inseparable%

)here has been much argument about this in the Church. :ere are some of the points that have been made9

-he two elements are not always linked, since for much of the monthly cycle it is not possible for a woman to conceive o But they are always linked in possibility, since one can never be certain that a particular period of time is definitely infertile. /f se must always be open to conception it should be unethical for people to "take advantage of the infertile period" since this would break the connection between se and conception
o

But artificial contraception changes the nature of the se ual act, taking advantage of the infertile period does not

/f the connection is inseparable it would be unethical for couples to have se hoping that they will not conceive
o

0any theologians say that this is true! if a couple has se with the intention of not having a child, that se ual act is morally flawed

-he possibility of conception may seriously damage the unitive significance of the se ual act by causing the couple to be distracted from full union by the worry of having a child

But many theologians argue that such a couple need to think more deeply about themselves and their family, so that they do not see the possibility of a child as something distressing

+oes every se)ual act have to be open to repro(uction%

)his 8uestion was as3ed by members of the commission which investigated birth control at the re8uest of #opes Dohn CC!!! and #aul ?!. )he majority of that commission thought that though marriage as a whole should be open to new life, every single sexual act did not need to be. )hey thought that it would be better for sexual acts using contraception to be ethically assessed in the light of the state of the marriage as a whole, and the motivation and approach of the couple concerned. "oo3ing at it that way, the union in one flesh of husband and wife is formed over the whole period of the marriage, and so only if the partners of a marriage intended ne er to have children would they be failing to connect the procreative and unitive significance of sex.
&atural la' an( artificial contraception

)he meaning of 2artificial contraception2 in #apal condemnations is not 8uite what it seems, and does not just refer to the method of birth control. )he basic idea is that everything in the universe has been created by -od with a particular end in mind. :uman beings follow natural law when their actions are in line with this +natural+ end. -od is said to have created sexual intercourse for two purposes; both of which must be fulfilled if the act is to achieve -od+s intention9

1rocreation! 2hen a man and a woman have se ual intercourse the natural end % the end God had in mind % is that a child is conceived if the timing is right. 3niting! 2hen a man and a woman have se ual intercourse they unify themselves as one flesh 45espite the use of the word "flesh" this means a mental and spiritual union as well as a physical union.6

!f a couple have sex with artificial birth control they do two wrong things9

they artificially prevent the se ual act achieving one of its natural ends they deliberately choose to prevent the se ual act achieving its natural end 4/n the 7hurch"s view, this deliberate choice is morally worse than the use of artificial contraception.6

)heir action is therefore unethical and against -od+s plan. !n contrast, natural family planning is not unethical or disobedient to -od.

,o' contraception chan"es the se)ual act

Catholic teaching says that using artificial contraception changes the nature of the sexual act. At first sight this seems odd, but to Catholic theologians the effect is 8uite clear. Compare a couple who have sex when the wife is on the pill, and a couple who have sex during the infertile period. )here seems to be no difference whatsoever between the acts performed by each couple. And there doesn+t seem to be any difference in the mental bac3ground either 0 both couples are having sex with the intention of not getting pregnant. But theologians say that there really is a difference9

2hen a couple have se during the infertile period, their intention not to have a child doesn"t actually change the act itself at all % it"s still the same act that can transmit life, but because of timing, it doesn"t 2hen a couple have se using the birth control pill, their intention is the same as above, but in this case they have taken action to convert a potentially fertile act into an infertile act % it"s now a different kind of act altogether

And according to Church teaching that different 3ind of act is a wrong act 0 it+s often described as a non0marital act, and as such it undermines the whole idea of Christian marriage.
-irth control an( the unity of the couple

$exual intercourse using contraception is said not to satisfy the uniting purpose of sex. )he physical or chemical barrier of contraception is said to create a spiritual barrier between the partners. )his sounds odd and needs a step0by0step explanation9

-he unifying function of se ual intercourse depends on each partner giving themselves completely to the other -wo people who intend to prevent the conception of a child are holding back part of the gift contained in the se ual act
o

either they give everything e cept their fertility, or they only accept the other if their fertility has been prevented

-herefore they cannot be said to be giving themselves completely to each other -herefore they cannot be said to have fully become "one flesh"

!hy is this so ba(%

Because the Church believes that a human being can 2only find himself by ma3ing a sincere gift of himself2 %from !au"ium et #pes&, and a couple using artificial contraception are not giving each other the sincere gift of themselves. )o Catholic theologians there is a clear analogy with Christ+s giving his life on the Cross to save humanity, which is regarded as the ultimate and full gift. As Christ held nothing bac3, nor should a married couple hold anything bac3.
-a( conse.uences of contraception

#ope #aul ?! pointed out four bad conse8uences for humanity that would result if artificial contraception were permitted.

/mmorality! &rtificial contraception would encourage "con8ugal infidelity and the general lowering of morality." o 0any people, 7atholic and non%7atholic alike, now accept that the 1ope was right and that the wide use of artificial contraception has weakened se ual morality in 2estern society
o

But this could be seen as the result of the abuse rather than the use of artificial contraception, and that if human beings had limited contraception to the conte t of loving relationships no harm would have been done

5isrespect for women! /t would lead a man to lose respect for his partner! "a man who grows accustomed to the use of contraceptive methods may forget the reverence due to a woman, and, disregarding her physical and emotional e$uilibrium, reduce her to being a mere instrument for the satisfaction of his own desires."
o

Some people have criticised this argument and pointed out that if a couple can only have se during the infertile period, this too may disregard the se ual needs of a woman and so actually be bad for her physical and emotional e$uilibrium

9ugenics! &rtificial contraception could be used by governments to implement eugenic policies % i.e. as a weapon of social engineering to remove elements of society
o o o

-his is true But once again could be regarded as a misuse of contraception, and not an inevitable conse$uence One e ample is the way developed countries have sent contraceptives to the third world to limit their population

5isrespect for the body! 3sing artificial contraception could mislead human beings into thinking they were entitled to unlimited power over their own bodies
o

But most people do now believe that they have the right to do what they want with their bodies, and that they are not wrong to believe they have this right.

o o

But although contraception may have contributed to this view, so have many other medical developments that the 7hurch does not ob8ect to. -he commission that reported to 1ope 1aul :/ on contraception remarked that "it is natural to man to use his skill in order to put under human control what is given by physical nature."

Catholic arguments in favour

$ome Catholics thin3 the Church+s stand on contraception should be changed. Among their reasons are9

!t is not based on sufficiently firm authority to be unchangeable o )here is little scripture forbidding contraception
o

)here are few ancient Christian writings forbidding contraception; most of the writings 8uoted are actually about abortion or infanticide

other ancient writings were inspired by hostility to heretical groups such as the 'anichees rather than moral objections to birth control it is actually only supported by papal encyclicals and Church practice over a few hundred years

there are strong reasons why the Church should change its mind
o o o o

new medical developments new attitudes to women a new interpretation of the nature of sex within marriage the danger of overpopulation

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