Knowledge

Representation
and Reasoning
University Politehnica of Bucharest
Department of Computer Science
Fall 2013
Adina Magda Florea
Master of Science in Artificial Intelligence, 2013-2015
2
Lecture 1
Lecture outline

Course goals

Grading

Textbooks and readings

Syllabus

Why KR?

KR&R Challenges

What is KR&R?

Formal logic: why and how

Links for the young researcher
3
Course goals

Provide an overview of existing representational
frameworks developed within AI, their key
concepts and inference methods.

Acquiring skills in representing knowledge

Understanding the principles behind different
knowledge representation techniques

Being able to read and understand research
literature in the area of KR&R

Being able to complete a project in this research
area
4
Grading

Course grades
Mid-term exam 20%
Final exam 30%
Projects 30%
Laboratory 20%
Class participation Bonus points

Requirements: min 7 lab attendances, min 50% of term
activity (mid-term ex, projects, lab)

Academic Honesty Policy
It will be considered an honor code violation to give or
use someone else's code or written answers, either for
the assignments or exam tests. If such a case occurs,
we will take action accordingly.
5
Textbooks and Readings

Textbooks
Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (3
rd
Edition) by Stuart
Russell and Peter Norvig Prentice Hall, 2010
http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/
Knowledge Representation and Reasoning by Ronald Brachman
and Hector Levesque, Morgan Kaufman, 2004
Artificial Intelligence: Foundations of Computational Agents by
David Poole, Alain Mackworth, Cambridge University Press, 2010
http://artint.info/index.html - available online
Computational Intelligence: a Logical Approach by David Poole,
Alain Mackworth, and Randy Goebel, Oxford University Press,
1998

Readings
Reading materials will be assigned to you.
You are expected to do the readings before the class
6
Syllabus
1. General knowledge representation issues
Readings:
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ai/
2. Logical agents Logical knowledge representation and
reasoning
First order predicate logic revisited, ATP
Readings:
AIMA Chapter 7 http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/newchap07.pdf
Nonmonotonic logics and reasoning
Readings:
Non-monotonic Logic, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-nonmonotonic/
Nonmonotonic Reasoning, G. Brewka, I. Niemela, M. Truszczynski
http://www.informatik.uni-leipzig.de/~brewka/papers/NMchapter.pdf
Nonmonotonic Reasoning With WebBased Social Networks
http://www.mindswap.org/~katz/papers/socialnet-defaults.pdf
7
Syllabus
Modal logic, logics of knowledge and beliefs
Readings: Modal logic on Wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modal_logic
+ to be announced
Semantic networks and description logics,
reasoning services
Readings: to be announced
Knowledge representation for the Semantic
Web
Readings:
Ontology knowledge representation - from description logic to
OWL Description Logics as Ontology Languages for the
Semantic Web
http://lat.inf.tu-dresden.de/research/papers/2005/BaSaJ S60.pdf
8
Syllabus
3. Rule based agents
Rete: Efficient unification
Readings:
The RETE algorithm
http://www.cis.temple.edu/~ingargio/cis587/readings/rete.html
The Soar model, universal subgoaling and chunking
Readings:
A gentle introduction to Soar, an architecture for human cognition
http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/soar/sitemaker/docs/misc/GentleIntroduction-2006.pdf
Modern rule based systems
Readings: to be announced
9
Syllabus
4. Probabilistic agents
Markov decision processes
Bayesian networks
Hidden Markov models
Dynamic Bayesian networks
Readings: to be announced
5. Reasoning with actions
Planning
Introduction to robotics
Readings: to be announced
10
Syllabus
6. Knowledge representation in learning
Inductive logic programming
Readings: to be announced
7. Intelligence without representation and reasoning
vs. Strong AI
Calls Debate
Readings: to be announced
11
Links for the young researcher

AI-MAS Links of interest
http://aimas.cs.pub.ro/links

Academic publishing
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_publishing

Writing a Scientific Paper
http://www.oup.com/us/samplechapters/0841234620/?view=usa

ISI Web of Knowledge
http://isiwebofknowledge.com/

Master J ournal List
http://science.thomsonreuters.com/mjl/

Conference Proceedings Citation Index
http://wokinfo.com/products_tools/multidisciplinary/webofscience/cpci/

TED Ideas worth spreading
http://www.ted.com/
12
Lecture 1
Readings for Lecture 1:
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ai/
Readings for Lecture 2
AIMA Chapter 7
http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/newchap07.pdf
13
1. Why KR?
What is knowledge?

We understand by "knowledge" all kinds of
facts about the world.

Knowledge is necessary for intelligent
behavior (human beings, robots).

In this course we consider representation of
knowledge and how we can use it in making
intelligent artifacts(based on software,
hardware or both).
14
2. KR&R Challenges

Challenges of KR&R:
representation of commonsense knowledge
the ability of a knowledge-based system to
achieve computational efficiency for
different types of inferences
the ability to represent and manipulate
uncertain knowledge and information.
15
3. What is KR?
Randall Davis, Howard Shrobe, Peter Szolovits, MIT

A knowledge representation is most
fundamentally a surrogate, a substitute
for the thing itself, used to enable an entity
to determine consequences by reasoning
about the world.

It is a set of ontological commitments,
i.e., an answer to the question: In what
terms should I think about the world?
16
What is KR?

It is a theory of intelligent reasoning
comprising:
the representation's fundamental
conception of intelligent reasoning;
the set of inferences the representation
suppor

It is a medium of human
expression, i.e., a language in which
we say things about the world.
17
What is KR?

If A represents B, then A stands for B and
is usually more easily accessible than B.

Symbolic representations

Non-symbolic representations

Examples?
18
4. What is Reasoning?

Reasoning is the use of symbolic
representations of some statements in
order to derive new ones.

Inference a form of reasoning

Use of inferences (rules of inference)
19
5. Models of KRR

Symbolic logic and ATP

Probabilistic

Rules

Structured
20
6. Formal logic

Formal logic is the field of study of entailment
relations, formal languages, truth conditions,
semantics, and inference.

All propositions/statements are represented as
formulae which have a semantics according to
the logic in question.

Logical system = Formal language +
semantics

Formal logics gives us a framework to discuss
different kinds of reasoning.
21
6.1 Logical consequence (entailment)

Proof centered approach to logical
consequence: the validity of a reasoning
process (argument) amounts to there
being a proof of the conclusions from the
premises.
22
Logical consequence (entailment)

Model centered approach to logical
consequence

Models are abstract mathematical structures that
provide possible interpretations for each of the
objects in a formal language.

Given a model for a language - define what it is
for a sentence in that language to be true
(according to that model) or not.

In any model in which the premises are true the
conclusion is true too. (Tarski's definition of logical
consequence from 1936.)
23
6.2 Model centered approach

Interpretation of a formula

Model of a formula

Entailment or logical consequence

A formula F is a logical consequence of a set of
formulas P
1
,P
n
iff F is true in all interpretations in
which P
1
,P
n
are true.

P
1
, P
n
|=
L
F

T Formula F is a logical consequence of a set of
formulas P
1
,P
n
iff P
1
,P
n
F is valid.

T Formula F is a logical consequence of a set of
formulas P
1
,P
n
iff P
1
. .

P
n
.

~F is inconsistent.
24
6.3 Proof centered approach

Theorem, deduction

Formal system

Inference rule

Premise set

Consequence of I
R e9
R , y = y ,...,y x, x,y i =1,n
n
1 n
R
i
_ ( ) e F F F ,
S =<A , , , > F A 9
I ={y ,..., y
1 n
} E =
0
I A
E =E x| y E , y x}
1 0 0
n
n 1
{ - e 9
>
U
E =E x| y E , y x}
2 1 1
n
n 1
{ - e 9
>
U
E (i 0)
i
>
25
Proof centered approach

If then is deductible from I
I

|
S
x

Theorems - the elements of E
i
if

Demonstration |
R
x
E = ( = )
0
A I |
x E
i
e
E =
0
I A
x E
i
e
26
6.4 Properties of logical systems
Important properties of logical systems:

Consistency - no theorem of the system contradicts
another.

Soundness - the system's rules of proof will never
allow a false inference from a true premise. If a system
is sound and its axioms are true then its theorems are also guaranteed to
be true.

Completeness - there are no true sentences in the
system that cannot, at least in principle, be proved
in the system.

Some logical systems do not have all three properties. Kurt Godel's
incompleteness theorems show that no standard formal system of
arithmetic can be consistent and complete.
27
Properties of logical systems

A logical system L is complete iff
I

|=
L
|

implies I

| |
(i.e., all valid formulas are provable)

A logical system L is sound iff
I

| | implies I

|=
L
|
(i.e., no invalid formula is provable)

FOPL

Second order logics
28
7. Logic based representations
2 possible aims
to make the system function according to the logic
to specify and validate the design

Conceptualization of the world / problem

Syntax - wffs

Semantics - significance, model

Model - the domain interpretation for which a formula is true

Model - linear or structured

M |=
S

- "

is true or satisfied in component S of the structure M"
Model theory Model theory

Generate new wffs that are necessarily true, given that the old wffs
are true - entailment KB |=
L

Proof theory Proof theory

Derive new wffs based on axioms and inference rules
KB |-
i

29
PrL, FOPL
Extend PrL, PL
Sentential logic
of beliefs
Uses beliefs atoms B
A
()
Index PL with agents
Modal logic
Modal operators
Logics of knowledge
and belief
Modal operators B and K
Dynamic logic
Modal operators
for actions
Temporal logic
Modal operators for time
Linear time
Branching time
CTL logic
Branching time
and action
BDI logic
Adds agents, B, D, I
Linear model
Structured models
Situation calculus
Adds states, actions
Symbol level Symbol level
Knowledge level Knowledge level
Description Logics
Subsumption relationships
30
knowledge propositional first-order
Paul is a man a man(Paul)
Bill is a man b man(Bill)
men are mortal c
(x) (man(x)
mortal(x))
knowledge firs t-order s econd-order
smal l er i s
transi ti ve
( x) (( y) (( z)
((<(x,y) . <(y,z)
<(x,z)))))
transi ti ve(<)
part-of i s
transi ti ve
( x) (( y) (( z)
((part-of(x,y) .
part-of(y,z)
part-of(x,z)))))
transi ti ve(part-of)
R i s transi ti ve i ff
whenever R(x,y) and
R(y,z) hol d, R(x,z)
hol ds too
not expressi bl e
(see however pseudo-
second order)
( R) ((transi ti ve(R)
( x) (( y) (( z)
((R (x,y) . R(y,z)
R(x,z)))))))
Higher order logic
First order logic
31
8. Automated Reasoning
32
33
A logical puzzle
Someone who lives in Dreadbury Mansion killed Aunt
Agatha.
Agatha, the butler, and Charles live in Dreadbury
Mansion, and are the only people who live therein.
A killer always hates his victim, and is never richer than
his victim.
Charles hates no one that Aunt Agatha hates.
Agatha hates everyone except the butler.
The butler hates everyone not richer than Aunt Agatha.
The butler hates everyone Aunt Agatha hates.
No one hates everyone.
Agatha is not the butler.
Who killed Aunt Agatha?
34
35
36
37
38

Slides 35-38 are from the slides
First-Order Theorem Proving
Peter Baumgartner
NICTA, Logic and Computation Program, Canberra
Peter.Baumgartner@nicta.com.au