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Structure
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 Introduction
Objectives
Types of Cross-drainage Structures and their Adoption Criteria Guidelines for Selection of Site Components of a Bridge Fixation of Waterway
7.5.1 7.5.2 7.5.3 7.5.4 7.5.5 7.5.6 7.5.7 Estimation of Discharge Alluvial Streams Streams not Wholly Alluvial Streams with Rigid Banks Steams which Overflow the Banks Span Arrangement Clearance
Foundation Depth and Arrangement Bridge Loadings Types of Culverts Types of Bridges and their Suitability
7.10 Causeways 7.11 Over-bridges, Flyovers and Underpasses 7.12 Summary 7.13 Key Words 7.14 Answers to SAQs
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Roads have to cross several natural streams like rivers and canals. They also have to cross railway lines and cross-roads. The structures needed for this purpose are culverts, bridges, causeways, over-bridges, flyovers and underpasses.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand what are the various types of structures encountered in a road, understand their suitability to site conditions, and know how their span and foundation details are worked out.
Transportation Engineering
(d) (e)
Major Bridges, having waterway greater than 100 m. Paved dips and Causeway which allow water to flow over the roadway.
To prevent scour of foundations To prevent scour of foundations To support the earthwork in approaches behind the abutment To define the end of the bridge and prevent vehicles falling into the streams To distribute the wheel loads on the slab and protect the slab To withstand the effect of live loads behind abutment To guide the flow of large alluvial streams into the waterway provided To provide for pedestrian movement A vertical or nearly vertical member at the two ends of the carriageway to protect the vehicle from hitting the railing
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BEARINGS
CLEARANCE
HFL GL
FOUNDATION
HFL GL
1 8
SECTION OF A PIER
IN 12
H = 11'-4"
FRONT BATTE R1
4'-0"
FRONT ELEVATION
OFFSET FOUNDATION OFFSET
SECTION ON X X'
FOUNDATION OFFSET
LEVEL OFFSET
REAR BATTER
X'
SLOPE
22 45
ET FS OF ET ON F S TI OF DA L UN VE FO LE
4'-0"
Y'
FS ET
SECTION ON Y Y'
LEVEL PORTION
4'-0"
Y
FOUNDATION PLAN
1 IN 12
R REA
BAT
TER
1 IN
3.6
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Transportation Engineering
There are several empirical formula for estimation of discharge. Dickens formula, given below is commonly adopted. Q = CM3/4 where Q = Discharge in cu m/sec, M = Catchment area in sq. km, C = A constant with the following values : C = 11-14 where the annual rainfall is 60-120cm = 14-19 in Madhya Pradesh = 22 in Western Ghats. The rational formula, given below, requires the intensity of rainfall. Q = 0.028 PAIC where Q = Discharge in cum per sec., P = Coefficient of run-off for the catchment, having values of 0.10-0.90 depending upon porosity of the surface, A = Catchment area in hectares, and Ic = Critical intensity of rainfall in cm per hour.
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7.5.7 Clearance
Clearance is provided above the high flood level upto the levels where bearings are fixed for accommodating any trees floating along the river. The clearance depends upon the discharge, and varies from 0.15 m for small discharge (upto 0.3 cu m per sec) to 1.5 m for discharge over 3000 cu m per sec.
SAQ 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) What are culverts, minor bridges, medium size bridges, major bridges, paved dips and causeways? What are the guidelines for selecting the site of a bridge? What are the main components of a bridge and their function? Give the Dickens formula for estimating discharge. If the catchment area is 1000 sq km and the stream is located in Madhya Pradesh, what is the maximum estimated discharge? Give the Laceys formula for fixing the waterway of a bridge across a river with alluvial bed.
Slab culverts and small bridges are generally provided with shallow foundations. Even for large bridges, if good rocky strata is met with at shallow depths, open foundations are adequate. If the strata is erodible, open foundations can be protected by providing impermeable flooring protected by cut-off walls (Figure 7.3).
FLOOR DEPRESSED BY 0.5m BELOW DEEPEST BED LEVEL 6m 3m LENGTH OF PIER 1.5m 3m
0.8m 1.2m DRY RUBBLE TALUS D/S CURTAIN WALL 2.75m IMPERVIOUS APRON 0.5m THICK C.C. (M-15) BED 0.15m THICK
Deep foundations are generally made of wells for rivers. For land structures, pile foundations are adopted. For erodible beds (such as alluvial streams), the foundations should be taken to a depth below the maximum high flood level equal to 1.33 times the maximum scour depth. The scour depth is calculated from the Laceys formula :
1
D=
0.473 Q 3 f
1 3
where D = Scour depth in m, Q = Discharge in cu m per sec, and f = silt factor, equal to 1.76 m , where m is the mean diameter of the particles in mm.
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Transportation Engineering
For example, if the maximum discharge of a river is 1000 cu m per sec, and the silt factor is 0.60, the maximum scour depth is : D= 0.473
1 (1000) 3 1
f3
1
2.5m R.C.C WELL CAP 0.3m TH. C.C TOP PLUG IN CONCRETE 2.5m DIA. WELL STEINING IN CONCRETE 4.0m DIA. SAND FILLING
1.5m 1.2m
0.75m
2.5m 100mm x 100mm x 10mm ANGLE 200mm x 12.5mm M.S PLATE 1.5m DETAILS OF WELL CURB AND CUTTING EDGE
4.0m
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IRC Class 70 R
IRC Class 70 R
IRC Class 70 R
Bridges and culverts on National Highways are designed for one lane of Class 70 R or two lanes of Class A loading, whichever produces more severe stresses. IRC Class AA loading is to be adopted within certain municipal limits, in certain contemplated or existing industrial areas, in other specified areas, or a long specified highways. IRC Class A load is to be normally adopted on all roads on which permanent bridges and culverts are constructed. IRC Class B loading is to be normally adopted for temporary structures (for example timber structures) and for bridges in specified areas.
Transportation Engineering
The disadvantages with pipes are that they cannot be used for large openings. A minimum cover of at least half the diameter of the pipe is to be ensured over the pipes. In India, RCC pipes of the NP 3 class are suitable for highway loadings. For rural roads (Village Roads and Other District Roads), NP 2 pipes are suitable. Two conditions of bedding are followed :
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(a)
Granular bedding (Figure 7.6), which consists of forming and grading the bed with sand or any granular material passing 4.75 mm sieve. The thickness of the bedding layer should be minimum 75 mm. Such a bedding is suitable for fills upto 4 m height.
1000
(b)
Concrete cradle bedding (Figure 7.7), which consists of a concrete bed of M-15 grade concrete. The thickness of the bedding layer should be minimum 250 mm. Such a bedding is used for height of fills above 4 m.
1000
Single pipe or a row of pipes can be used. The distance between pipes should be at least half the diameter of the pipe subject to a minimum of 450 mm. the pipes are kept sufficiently below the floor of the deepest bed. Pipe culverts are generally designed to flow full. Suitable head-walls are needed to protect the embankment fills. The slope of the floor is kept to a minimum of 1 : 1000.
SAQ 2
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) If the maximum discharge of a river with alluvial bed is 1000 cu m per sec, what is the waterway required? What is the thumb rule for fixing the span length of a bridge? Why is clearance provided in bridges across streams? Give a sketch of floor protection for open foundations. What is the formula for determining the maximum scour depth? For a river is alluvial bed with a silt factor of f = 0.60, and having a discharge of 1500 cu m per sec, what is the depth of foundation? 99
Transportation Engineering
A simple rule in determining the length of span of the super-structure of bridges is that the cost of the foundations and sub-structure should equal the cost of the superstructure. This is generally achieved by making the span length 1 to 2 times the height of foundations plus the sub-structure.
SAQ 3
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Give a sketch of a well foundation showing all the components. What are the various IRC bridge loadings? A National Highway bridge is to be designed. What IRC bridge loading shall be considered? What are the various types of culverts? What are the advantages and disadvantages of pipe culverts? What are the various types of bridges and what is the suitability of each?
7.10 CAUSEWAYS
7.10.1 Paved Dips
Paved dips, also known as bed level causeways, are structures consisting of gentle and shallow depressions in the road where the water is allowed to flow over the road. The full road width is paved with a cement concrete bed, and curtain walls are provided on the upstream and downstream sides to prevent scour (Figure 7.8).
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0.5m HIGH STREAMLINED GUIDE POST @ 2m C/C U/S ROADWAY UNIDIRECTIONAL CAMBER 1 IN 60 D/S
0.6-1.0m
0.45m
0.45m 2.0m 0.15-0.22m THICK RUBBLE SOLING OR OVERSIZE METAL BASE IN 2 LAYERS 0.15m THICK CC PAVEMENT OR HAMMER DRESSED STONE FLOORING
0.6m
0.55m 0.75m
(a) Cross-section
ROAD TOP PROFILE TO BE IN SMOOTH CURVE
6.0m
R C C PIPE 0.75m
5.0m
ROAD LEVEL
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
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Transportation Engineering
7.11.2 Fly-overs
Where one road crosses another road, and it is desired that they should not cross at the same level on the ground, a fly-over is constructed. One of the roads goes above the road it crosses, with sufficient clearance (about 5.0-5.5 m).
7.11.3 Underpasses
Underpasses are structures constructed to enable light vehicles, animals and pedestrians cross underneath a high speed facility. A clearance of 2.5-3.5 m is provided.
SAQ 4
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 102 (f) What are paved dips? Give a sketch. What are vented causeways? Give a sketch. What is a railway Overbridge? What is a fly-over? What is an underpass? What is a Reinforced Earth Wall? Give a sketch.
7.12 SUMMARY
In this unit you have understood the various types of culverts, causeways and bridges encountered in a road. You have been told how the waterway, span and foundations of the bridges are determined.
Refer to Sections 7.2.1 and 7.10 Refer to Section 7.3 Refer to Section 7.4 Refer to Section 7.5.1 Using Dickens formula,
3
Q = CM 4
Q = 19 1000 4
(a)
= 4.8
= 4.8 31.6 = 151.68 m (b) (c) (d) (e) Refer to Section 7.5.6 Refer to Section 7.5.7 Figure 7.3 Refer to Section 7.6 103
Transportation Engineering
(f)
f3 = 0.473
1 (1500) 3 1
(0.6) 3
Figure 7.4 Refer to Section 7.7 Refer to Section 7.7 Refer to Section 7.8.1 Refer to Section 7.8.6 Refer to Section 7.9.1.
Refer to Section 7.10.1 and Figure 7.8 Refer to Section 7.10.2 and Figure 7.9 Refer to Section 7.11.1 Refer to Section 7.11.2 Refer to Section 7.11.3 Refer to Section 7.11.4 and Figure 7.10.
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