01 Electromagnetic Radiation

Hon Tat Hui Electromagnetic Radiation
NUS/ECE EE4101
1
Electromagnetic Radiation
1. Radiation Mechanism
When electric charges undergo acceleration or
deceleration, electromagnetic radiation will be
produced. Hence it is the motion of charges (i.e.,
currents) that is the source of radiation.
Yet not all current distributions will produce a strong
enough radiation for communication. We will first
study some typical current distributions and the
radiation fields that they produce.
NUS/ECE EE4101
2
2. Vector and Scalar Potentials
From Maxwells fourth equation:
0 = V
( ) 0 = V V A
For any vector function A,
A B V =
So we can write:
NUS/ECE EE4101
3
( ) A
B E
V =
= V
e
e
j
j
From Maxwells first equation:
Then,
( ) 0 = + V A E e j
For any scalar function |,
0 | VV =
So we can write:
je | + = V E A
That is,
j | e = V E A
NUS/ECE EE4101
4
From Maxwells second equation:
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2 2
1
j
j j
j
k j
c | e
c | c
c|
V = +
VV = + V
V V V = V +
V + = +V V +
H J D
A J A
A A J A
A A J A
We can further specify the divergence of A according to
Lorentzs gauge as:
jc| V = A
2 2
k c =
NUS/ECE EE4101
5
Using Lorentzs gauge, we have:
2 2
k V + = A A J
Now, the first, the second, and the last Maxwells
equations have been satisfied. To satisfy the third one,
put into the third equation, j | e = V E A
( )
2 2
j
k
| e
c
| |
c
V =
V =
V V =
V + =
D
E
A
NUS/ECE EE4101
6
A and | are called vector and scalar potentials and they
satisfy the following inhomogeneous Helmholtz equations:
2 2
2 2
2 2

k
k
k
| |
c
e c
V + =
V + =
=
A A J
Note that each component of A is governed by the same
scalar equation as that for |. Hence it suffices to solve
only one scalar equation, namely, the inhomogeneous
Helmholtz equation.
NUS/ECE EE4101
7
3. Solutions to the Vector and Scalar Potentials
Solutions to the vector and scalar potentials are (see
Supplementary Notes):
( ) ( )
( )
'
'
1
'
4
( ) '
4
jkR
v
jkR
v
e
' dv
R
e
' dv
R
|
tc
=
=
}}}
}}}
R R
A R J R
R'
R
R
R = field point
R = source point
R = |R-R|
NUS/ECE EE4101
8
1
1
j
ec
= V
= V
H A
E H
Once the potentials are known, the electric and magnetic
fields can be found from:
NUS/ECE EE4101
9
4. Hertzian Dipole (length << )
z
x
y
d/2
R
Field point
(r,u,|)
u
Source point
varies along
the dipole.
|
R
The source is represented in
(x,y,z) while the field is in (r,u,|).
NUS/ECE EE4101
10
( ) ' ' '
4
2
2
dz dy dx
R
e
A
I
x,y,z
d
d
jkR
A
} }}
z A
( ) ( ) ( )
r
z y x
z z y y x x ' R
=
+ + ~
'
+
'
+
'
= =
2 2 2
2 2 2
R R
Here x = y = 0 & z 0
(source at origin)
Very short dipole
Independent of primed coordinate!
( ) ( ) constant
/ = =
'
=
'
A I A z z z I J
Current density:
NUS/ECE EE4101
11
A has only the z component. Convert A
z
to spherical (A
r
,
A
u
, A
|
) components first.
0
sin
4
sin
cos
4
cos
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
|
u
u
t
u
u
t
u
A
r
e Id
A A
r
e Id
A A
jkr
z
jkr
z r
Therefore:
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
'
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

}
r
e
Id
z d
r
e
I
x,y,z
jkr
d
d
jkr
4
2
2
z z A
NUS/ECE EE4101
12
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
+ =
= = =
r
e
kr
jkr
kId
j E
r
e
jkr r
Id
E
r
e
jkr
jkId
H
E H H
jkr
jkr
r
jkr
r
2
2
1 1
1
4
sin
1 1
2
cos
1
1
4
sin
0
|
|
E and H fields can now calculated and expressed in
spherical coordinates as:
1
1
j
ec
= V
= V
H A
E H
q
c
=
NUS/ECE EE4101
13
Near fields:
When kr << 1,
2
3
3
sin
4
cos
2
sin
4
r
Id
H
r
Id
E j
kr
Id
E j
kr
|
~
~
~
1 & 0 ~ ~
jkr
e kr
See animation Near Field Electric 2D
See animation Near Field Electric 3D
NUS/ECE EE4101
14
Far fields:
(important case)
When kr >> 1, all terms vary with the
factors 1/r
2
and 1/r
3
vanish.
r
e kId
j H
r
e kId
j E
jkr
jkr
sin
4
sin
4
|
|
.
|
\
|
~
|
|
.
|
\
|
~
t
t
q
|

Note that for far fields:

1. E
r
= H
r
= E
|
= 0.
2. E
u
H
|
and transverse to the r direction, a TEM wave.
3. Both E
u
and H
|
are in phase.
.
4. In free space, the wave impedance q= E
u
/ H
|
is equal
to q
0
, i.e., q= q
0
= 120t O = 377O.
NUS/ECE EE4101
15
Electric field lines surrounding a Hertzian dipole at a given instant
See animation Far Field Electric 2D See animation Far Field Electric 3D
NUS/ECE EE4101
16
5. Half-Wave Dipole (length = 0.5 )
R
u
Dipole
R= r - zcosu
R
r
( )
( )
( )
< +
>
= =
0 for sin
0 for sin
sin ) (
z' z' h k I
z' z' h k I
z' h k I z' I
m
m
m
Assumption:
z I
) (z' I =
h = /4
Far Field point R
(r,u,|)
y
x
z
z
See Supplementary Notes
for the exact derivation of R.
NUS/ECE EE4101
17
That is, the current distribution is a sinusoidal function as
shown below:
I(z)
z
I
m
( ) z' h k I z' I
m
= sin ) (
0
NUS/ECE EE4101
18
For a half-wave dipole, the exact field solutions are too
complicated. Hence only the far fields will be
determined. The half-wave dipole can be considered as
an assembly of many Hertzian dipoles joined together.
The far fields of the half-wave dipole are then the
summations of the far fields of the Hertizan dipoles.
r
e
d z I k
j dE
jkr
z
sin
4
) ' (
0 '
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

=
t
q
Far-zone electric field of a Hertzian dipole at the origin:
NUS/ECE EE4101
19
Far-zone electric field of a Hertzian dipole at an arbitrary
position R:
R
e d z kI
j dE
jkR
sin
4
) ' (
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

t
q
Far-zone electric field of a half-wave dipole:
}
} }
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
h
h
jkR
h
h
jkR

d
R
e
z I
k
j
d
R
e z kI j
dE E
) ' (
4
sin

sin
4
) ' (
t
q
t
q
NUS/ECE EE4101
20
Now put in the current expression for I(z) and use the
following substitutions for R (far-field approximation):
u cos '
1 1
jkz jkr jkR
e e e
r R

=
~
Note: R = r - zcosu
}
}
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
h
jkz
jkr
m
h
h
jkz
jkr
m
dz e z h k
r
e kI
j
dz e z h k
r
e kI
j E
0
cos '
cos '
' ) ' ( sin 2
4
sin

' ) ' ( sin
4
sin
u
u
t
q
t
q
We have,
NUS/ECE EE4101
21
The integration can be performed to yield the following
result:
( )
60
jkr
m
e
E j I F
r
E
H
|
u
q
| |
=
|
\ .
=
( ) | |
u
u t
u
sin
cos 2 cos
) ( = F
where
NUS/ECE EE4101
22
6. Quarter-Wave Monopole
Equivalent to
(image theorem)
h = /4
h = /2
Large conducting plane
NUS/ECE EE4101
23
6.1 Image Theorem
For antennas mounted over or near a ground plane (a
very large perfectly conducting plane), virtual
sources (images) can be place below the ground
plane to account for reflections from the ground
plane. After introducing the image sources, the
electromagnetic field above the ground plane can be
considered as a sum of the electromagnetic fields
due to the real sources (above the ground plane) and
the image sources (below the ground plane), with the
ground plane removed. This is the image theory.
NUS/ECE EE4101
24
Note that the image theory can only be applied to find
the fields above the ground plane but not below the
ground plane. Below the ground plane, the
electromagnetic field is strictly zero.
6.2 Method to place the image currents
1. The image currents are at the same perpendicular
distances (for example along the z axis) from the
ground plane as the real currents.
2. The image currents have the same parallel
coordinates (for example the x and y coordinates)
as the real currents.
NUS/ECE EE4101
25
3. For vertical real currents, the image currents have
the same direction as the real currents. But for
horizontal real currents, the image currents have
the opposite directions as the real currents.
z
z
z
z
real current
real current
image currrent
image current
NUS/ECE EE4101
26
Using the image theorem, a /4 monopole antenna fed by
a source at its base radiates the same far fields in the
region above the ground plane as a /2 dipole antenna.
But there is no radiation below the ground plane. This
situation applies to other vertical wire antennas placed
above a large conducting pane, such as a Hertzian dipole.
NUS/ECE EE4101
27
Example 1
Find the maximum electric field intensity E of a half-wave
dipole at a distance of 10 km from the dipole. What is the
direction for maximum field intensity? Assume that the
dipole carries a current whose maximum value is I
m
at the
middle point of the dipole and the current varies at a
frequency of 3 GHz.
Solution
For a half-wave dipole, the electric field intensity in the far
field region is:
NUS/ECE EE4101
28
( ) | |
u
u t
sin
cos 2 cos
60
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

r
e
I j E
jkr
m
It has only the u component.
This field is maximum when u = t/2.
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

=
r
e
I j E
jkr
m
60
2 / t u
At 3 GHz, = 0.1 m, k = 2t/= 20t. Therefore at r = 10
km,
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

=
10000
60
200000
2 /
t
t u
j
m
e
I j E
NUS/ECE EE4101
29
The variation of E
u
with time at r = 10 km is:
( )
( ) t t
e
t
t u
200000 10 3 2 sin
10000
60

10000
60 Re km 10 ,
9
200000
2 /
=
)
`
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =

=
t
I
e
e
I j r t E
m
t j
j
m
NUS/ECE EE4101
30
References:
1. David K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetic, Addison-
Wesley Pub. Co., New York, 1989.
2. John D. Kraus, Antennas, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988.
3. C. A. Balanis, Antenna Theory, Analysis and Design, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New Jersey, 2005.
4. W. L. Stutzman and G. A. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design,
Wiley, New York, 1998.
5. Fawwaz T. Ulaby, Applied Electromagnetics, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
New Jersey, 2007.
6. Joseph A. Edminister, Schaums Outline of Theory and Problems
of Electromagnetics, McGraw-Hill, Singapore, 1993.
7. Yung-kuo Lim (Editor), Problems and solutions on
electromagnetism, World Scientific, Singapore, 1993.

01 Electromagnetic Radiation

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

01 Electromagnetic Radiation

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Hon Tat Hui Electromagnetic Radiation

Note that for far fields:

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen