European Union The European Union (EU), created under the Maastricht agreement of Dec.

11, 1991, is an intergovernmental organization of 1 !estern European nations "ith its o"n institutional structures and decision#ma$ing frame"or$, created "ith the aim of %uilding &an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe.& The Treat' on European Union formall' "ent into effect on (ov. 1, 199), follo"ing its ratification %' *erman', the last of the 1 component nations to ratif'. The organization "as previousl' $no"n as the European +ommunit' (E+), and earlier as the European Economic +ommunit' (EE+). The EE+, moreover, "as sometimes called the +ommon Mar$et. The aim of the organization,s founders "as to construct a united Europe through peaceful means and create conditions for economic gro"th, social cohesion among the European peoples, and for greater political integration and cooperation among governments. The mem%er nations at present are -elgium, Denmar$, .rance, *erman', *reece, /reland, /tal', 0u1em%ourg, the (etherlands, 2ortugal, 3pain, and the United 4ingdom. 5/3T678 9 plan for a united Europe "as first put for"ard %' the .rench statesman :ean M6((ET after !orld !ar //. /n 19;<, .rench foreign minister 7o%ert 3+5UM9( proposed a plan that resulted in the creation of the European +oal and 3teel +ommunit' (E+3+) in 19; . The first of the organizations that eventuall' constituted the European Union, the E+3+ pooled resources and harmonized industrial policies and activities in the coal, iron ore, and steel sectors of .rance, !est *erman', /tal', -elgium, the (etherlands, and 0u1em%ourg. 9 single economic mar$et (a customs union and a free#trade area) "as esta%lished for these limited economic sectors and operated "ithout %eing su%=ected to national regulations or restrictions (tariffs or >uotas). The E+3+ "as managed %' a supranational institution $no"n as the 5igh 9uthorit'. The Defining Treaties 9s an intergovernmental organization the EU,s current legal foundations are a series of international treaties. The first of these "as the Treat' of 2aris (9pr. 1?, 19;1@ effective :an. 1, 19; ), "hich created the E+3+. -' the treaties of 7ome, signed on Mar. ;, 19;A, and entering into force on :an. 1, 19;?, the si1 E+3+ nations esta%lished the European 9tomic Energ' +ommunit' (EU79T6M) and the European Economic +ommunit' (EE+ or +ommon Mar$et). EU79T6M ena%led greater cooperation and harmonization in the field of atomic energ' and nuclear research@ the EE+ e1tended the concept of the E+3+,s common mar$et and free trade to most of the other sectors of the countries, economies. The Merger Treat', signed on 9pr. ?, 19B;, and entering into force on :ul' 1, 19BA, esta%lished common institutions for the three communitiesC the +ouncil of Ministers, the European +ommission, the European 2arliament, the +ourt of :ustice, and the European +ouncil. The European 3ingle 9ct (E39), signed on .e%. B, 19?B, and entering into force on :ul' 1, 19?A, increased the po"ers of the European 2arliament and set the stage for the E+,s 199 2rogram##an am%itious plan designed to eliminate all remaining %arriers to the completion of a +ommunit'#"ide unified mar$et %' the end of 199 . The Maastricht Treat' (Decem%er 1991), provided for the gradual creation of a single currenc', a European +entral -an$, and +ommunit'#"ide citizenship. The integration process "as stalled, ho"ever, "hen Danish voters re=ected the treat' in a :une 199 referendum. The Danes reversed themselves the follo"ing 'ear, after "inning concessions that e1empted them from some of the treat',s provisions. -ritain, the other holdout, also eventuall' approved the Maastricht accord in 9ugust 199), %ut the "hole process had mean"hile %een thro"n off schedule. 2rogress to"ard a single currenc' "as hindered %' a disparit' %et"een the &strong& *erman mar$ and the "ea$er currencies of some of *erman',s EU partners. 9t present, creation of a common currenc'##for most of the nations##is scheduled for 1999. *ro"th of Mem%ership During the 19B<s, -ritish participation "as opposed %' .rench president +harles DE *9U00E and others "ho felt that -ritain,s ties to the +ommon"ealth and its close relationship "ith the United 3tates "ould conflict "ith mem%ership in the communit'. 9fter de *aulle,s departure from the scene -ritain did =oin the E+ along "ith /reland and Denmar$ in 19A), increasing the mem%ership to nine nations. *reece %ecame

the tenth mem%er in 19?1, and the entrance of 3pain and 2ortugal in 19?B raised the total to t"elve. 6n Mar. 9, 199D, agreements "ere finalized to admit four ne" mem%ersC 9ustria, .inland, (or"a', and 3"eden. The target date for formal mem%ership for the four is :an. 1, 199;, %ut each is su%=ect to approval %' national referendums. 7ussia signed an agreement "ith the EU summit meeting in :une 199D to facilitate the flo" of trade %et"een that nation and the EU. EU 260/+/E3 The 199 2rogram calls for the creation of a functioning common mar$et in "hich national %orders "ill present no more of a %arrier to trade and free movement of people among the mem%er states than do the %orders "ithin the United 3tates. The mem%er nations have esta%lished common policies in foreign trade, agriculture, fisheries, transportation, and fiscal monetar' activities. +ommon rules and =oint programs are %eing developed and applied in sectors such as antitrust measures and competition, energ', environmental protection, education and training, research and development, technolog', and currenc'. The EU promotes the economic advancement of its poorer regions, and the European /nvestment -an$ (E/-) provides financing for multipurpose economic development around the "orld. .inances The EU has its o"n %udget and sources of revenue, consisting of a part of the value#added ta1 (E9T) collected %' the national governments, import duties, and contri%utions %' each mem%er state %ased on its annual gross national product. The European Monetar' 3'stem (EM3) "as esta%lished in 19A9 to create an area of monetar' sta%ilit' in !estern Europe and maintain sta%le e1change rates among the mem%er states. /n the a%sence of a common currenc', the European +urrenc' Unit (E+U), a denominator for the "eighted average of currencies lin$ed in the EM3, "as created as a unit of e1change for E+ transactions. 6riginall', EM3 currencies "ere onl' allo"ed to fluctuate %' a%out percentage points on either side of a central value. /n 199 , ho"ever, -ritain and /tal' dropped out of the s'stem "hen it %ecame impossi%le for them to sta' "ithin this range. The rules "ere then ad=usted to allo" for a 1; percent fluctuation. E1ternal 7elations More than 1)< countries maintain diplomatic relations "ith the EU, and the organization represents its mem%ers at the *E(E790 9*7EEME(T 6( T97/..3 9(D T79DE (*9TT) tal$s, participates in !est Economic 3ummits, and has o%server status at the United (ations and other international organizations. /t also maintains a close relationship "ith the mem%ers of the EU762E9( .7EE T79DE 9336+/9T/6( (E.T9). /n 6cto%er 1991, after length' negotiations, the communit' and E.T9 agreed to esta%lish a European Economic 9rea (EE9) in "hich people, goods, services, capital, and information "ill circulate freel' among mem%er states in %oth groups. The EU also coordinates economic aid efforts from the *roup of D (the EU, E.T9, United 3tates, +anada, :apan, (e" Fealand, 9ustralia, and Tur$e') to the countries of Eastern Europe and has signed cooperation agreements "ith 7ussia and other former 3oviet repu%lics. 9lthough 8ugoslavia "as not a mem%er of the communit', the organization too$ an active role in tr'ing to mediate an end to the "ar that erupted follo"ing the %rea$up of that countr' in the earl' 199<s. The European Union has special trade and aid relationships "ith man' developing countries in the Third !orld. Under a series of agreements $no"n collectivel' as the 0ome +onvention, negotiated %et"een 19A; and 19?9, practicall' all products originating in B9 9frican, +ari%%ean, and 2acific (9+2) countries receive tariff#free access to the EU mar$et. The 9+2 nations also participate in a sta%le E1port Earnings 2rogram (3T9-EG) "ith the E+ and receive considera%le amounts of financial aid. 3imilar agreements e1ist "ith most of the countries of the Mediterranean %asin, and other developing countries receive special treatment for their e1ports through the EU,s *eneralized 3'stem of 2references (*32). 9lthough trade disputes occur occasionall', the United 3tates and the European Union have maintained a cooperative partnership since the earl' 19;<s. The United 3tates and the EU are economicall' interdependent@ a%out D< percent of U.3. investment a%road and appro1imatel' ; percent of all U.3. e1ports go to the EU nations. 9 permanent dialogue is carried on %et"een the United 3tates and the EU on

matters of mutual concern through regular and institutionalized meetings and consultations at all levels of government. 67*9(/F9T/6( 9(D /(3T/TUT/6(3 The European +ommission The +ommission of the European Union proposes policies and legislation, is responsi%le for the administration of the EU, and ensures that the provisions of the EU treaties and the decisions of the other institutions are properl' implemented. The +ommission has 1A mem%ers##t"o from each of the five larger countries (.rance, *erman', /tal', 3pain, and the United 4ingdom) and one from each of the seven remaining smaller countries. The commissioners are nominated %' the national governments and appointed %' the EU,s +ouncil of Ministers for a rene"a%le four#'ear term. Each commissioner is in charge of a specific area of EU activit', and their decisions are made %' a simple ma=orit' vote. The +ommission is supposed to represent, protect, and further the &European& interest or the Union,s interest, and thus its mem%ers are not supposed to represent or ta$e orders from their national governments. The +ommission chooses its o"n president for a t"o#'ear rene"a%le term. :ac>ues DE0673 of .rance %ecame president of the +ommission in 19?; and "as reelected in 19?A, 19?9, and 1991. The +ommission performs most of its activities at its head>uarters in -russels. The +ouncil of Ministers The +ouncil of Ministers has one representative from each of the mem%er states. The ministers are usuall' the foreign ministers of the mem%er states, %ut other ministers ma' also %e present, depending on the matter %eing discussed. The +ouncil of Ministers represents the national governments and is supposed to argue for the national interest as a counter%alance to the +ommission. The +ouncil de%ates and votes on various proposals put to it %' the +ommission. 3ome decisions of the +ouncil##such as the admission of ne" EU mem%ers or the appointment of =udges to the European +ourt of :ustice##must %e unanimous@ others, such as those dealing "ith the 199 2rogram, can %e ta$en %' ma=orit' vote. The mem%ers of the +ouncil hold their positions as long as the' remain foreign ministers of their respective governments. The +ouncil conducts most of its %usiness at its head>uarters in -russels and is assisted %' the +ommittee of 2ermanent 7epresentatives (+27 or +67E2E7), "hich is composed of the am%assadors to the EU from each of the mem%er states. The presidenc' of the +ouncil is a si1#month position that rotates among the mem%er states. The European 2arliament The European 2arliament (E2) has ;1? mem%ers, directl' elected %' universal suffrage across the Union for five#'ear terms. 7epresentation of each mem%er state is roughl' %ased on population, "ith the four largest countries (.rance, *erman', /tal', and the United 4ingdom) each having the same num%er of representatives. Mem%ers of the 2arliament (ME2s) do not sit and vote as national groups, %ut in political groupings@ several transnational European political parties are represented in the E2. The E2 acts as the Union,s pu%lic forum, de%ating issues and >uestioning the +ommission and the +ouncil of Ministers. /t has the po"er to force the +ommission to resign as a %od' and to amend or re=ect the EU,s annual %udget. The 2arliament splits its plenar' sessions %et"een -russels and the .rench#9lsatian cit' of 3tras%ourg. The European +ourt of :ustice The +ourt of :ustice, located in 0u1em%ourg, is the onl' EU#"ide =udicial %od'. /t has 1) =udgesC one from each of the mem%er nations, and an additional one ta$en from each mem%er on a rotating %asis, in order to ma$e an odd num%er. The' are nominated %' the national governments and approved %' the +ouncil of Ministers for a rene"a%le si1#'ear term. The +ourt,s dut' is to interpret and appl' the defining EU treaties and other +ommunit' te1ts, legislation, and decisions. /t is assisted %' si1 advocates#general. 9 +ourt of 9uditors revie"s the Union,s spending, and a +ourt of .irst /nstance has =urisdiction over cases in certain specific areas. The' also sit in 0u1em%ourg. 7elated /nstitutions

The Economic and 3ocial +ommittee (E3+) is a 1?9#mem%er consultative %od' representing the various categories of economic and social activit', such as la%or, emplo'ers, agriculture, consumer and environmental groups, and professional societies. The E3+ advises the +ommission and the +ouncil on EU policies and helps draft proposals for legislation. /ts head>uarters are in -russels. T"o other decision#ma$ing organizational processes in the Union structure##the European 2olitical +ooperation (E2+) process and the European +ouncil##are not part of the EU in legal terms, %ut are parallel structures to the EU frame"or$. The European 2olitical +ooperation process, formalized %' the European 3ingle 9ct, is a means for the mem%er states to coordinate their foreign policies and positions in international relations. -ecause the E2+ process is not a formal part of the EU, its decisions are not %inding on an' mem%er state that does not =oin the ma=orit' consensus. The E2+ process has had some success in coordinating the foreign policies of the EU nations, most nota%l' in relation to Eastern Europe, the former 3oviet Union, and the +6(.E7E(+E 6( 3E+U7/T8 9(D +662E79T/6( /( EU762E (+3+E). The European +ouncil %rings together the heads of state or government of the mem%er states and the president of the +ommission for at least t"o meetings a 'ear. /t discusses >uestions relating %oth to the European Union and to European 2olitical +ooperation. The meetings are held in different cities across the +ommunit'. 0eon 5ur"itz -i%liograph'C D,E1aerde, *eorge, 9 5uman .ace for Europe (199<)@ 5ur"itz, 0eon, The European +ommunit' and the Management of /nternational +ooperation (19?A)@ Miller, 3teven, ed., European Unification (1991)@ (ugent, (eill, The *overnment and 2olitics of the European +ommunit' (19?9)@ Ean 5am, 2eter, The European +ommunit' and +entral Europe (199)). -ritish Empire The -ritish Empire "as the product of man' forces operating over a period of almost D<< 'ears. The o%=ectives %ehind *reat -ritain,s ac>uisition of territories "ere variedC settlement, resources, mar$ets, defense, trade, religion, and diplomac'. *overnment of these areas differed greatl'. 3ome parts "ere ruled directl' from -ritain@ some gained limited self#government, and others, virtual independence. 9t its pea$, a%out 191D, the empire covered a%out one#fifth of the land surface of the glo%e and included one#>uarter of the "orld,s population. /ts gro"th and decline encompass ma=or themes in the histor' of !estern civilization, from the pro%lem of race relations to the reconciliation of authorit' "ith democratic institutions. The empire %egan "ith the Eliza%ethan sea vo'ages of the 1Bth centur', %ut its real foundations "ere laid in the ne1t centur'. (orth 9merica, from 5udson -a' to the +ari%%ean, "as the principal focus of -ritish e1pansion. 3ettlements "ere esta%lished in the central area, from (e" England to the +arolinas, and the fur trade and cultivation of sugar dominated the margins. E1pansion e1tended also to the /ndian 6cean and 3outheast 9sia, the attractions of the 32/+E T79DE dra"ing -ritain into competition "ith the 2ortuguese and the Dutch. This thrust led the -ritish to /ndia, "here the -ritish E93T /(D/9 +6M29(8 soon supplemented commerce "ith the profita%le occupations of ta1 collection and administration. 9lthough the (orth 9merican colonies possessed virtual self#government in domestic affairs, the empire "as tightl' regulated in its trade and shipping %' the (9E/*9T/6( 9+T3 after 1B;1. The glo%al struggle "ith .rance in the 1?th centur' roc$ed the empire. 9t the end (1AB)) of the 3EEE( 8E973, !ar, ho"ever, the .rench "ere forced to "ithdra" from (orth 9merica and /ndia. The removal of the .rench threat in (orth 9merica contri%uted to the confidence of the 9merican colonies in challenging -ritain,s authorit'. The 9ME7/+9( 7EE60UT/6( essentiall' ended the first -ritish Empire.

The second -ritish Empire gre" from the ruins of the first. The 06890/3T refugees from the 9merican states %uilt ne" settlements in +anada, and territories such as the +ape of *ood 5ope (3outh 9frica), +e'lon, and Trinidad "ere secured in the (9260E6(/+ !973. Motives for ac>uisition "ere often strategic, although the settlements in 9ustralia (%egun in 1A??) "ere intended originall' to receive convicts. /n central /ndia -ritish control "as steadil' e1tended, "hile farther east the creation (1?19) of 3/(*9267E supplied a %ase for a net"or$ of -ritish trading contacts in 3outh 9sia and along the +hina coast. The long 'ears of peace after 1?1; allo"ed the stead' gro"th of European settlement in the +anadian and 9ustralian colonies, together "ith the development of an orderl' overseas administration directed from the +olonial 6ffice in 0ondon. The settlement colonies moved steadil' to"ard greater self# government, a phase follo"ed %' the consolidation of these colonies into federal unions. +anada led the "a' in 1?BA, follo"ed %' 9ustralia in 19<1 and 3outh 9frica, "hich %ecame a unitar' state in 191<. Mean"hile -ritish traders, missionaries, and soldiers "ere penetrating the continent of 9frica, carr'ing European values to primitive societies and sta$ing out large areas for -ritish suzeraint'. -' the end of the centur', 9frica had %een partitioned among European po"ers through a rivalr' that "as as much related to national prestige as it "as to economic factors. !670D !97 / called forth a vast flo" of men and materials from the empire to aid -ritain and gave the senior colonies (no" called dominions) participation in the direction of the empire,s "ar effort. This association "as continued at the 297/3 2E9+E +6(.E7E(+E, "here the dominions advanced their position internationall' through charter mem%ership in the 0eague of (ations. The process of achieving e>ualit' of status "ith -ritain "as completed %' the 3tatute of !estminster (19)1), "hich, %' granting full legislative authorit' to the dominions, provided a %asis for their association in a novel "orld communit', the +6MM6(!E90T5 6. (9T/6(3. Through these developments the second -ritish Empire ran its course. The final phase occurred after !orld !ar //, "hen virtuall' all the colonies that "ere still dependent "on political freedom. Most then affiliated themselves "ith the +ommon"ealth. D. M. 0. .arr -i%liograph'C +arrington, +harles E., The -ritish 6verseasC E1ploits of a (ation of 3hop$eepers, d ed. (19B?)@ +la'ton, 9nthon', The -ritish Empire as a 3uperpo"erC 1919#19)9 (19?B)@ Eldridge, +olin +., -ritish /mperialism in the (ineteenth +entur' (19?D)@ 0apping, -rian, End of Empire (19?;)@ Mc/nt're, !. David, The +ommon"ealth of (ations, 6rigins and /mpact, 1?B9#19A1 (19AA)@ Mansergh, (icholas, The +ommon"ealth E1perience, vols., rev. ed. (19? )@ 2orter, -ernard, The 0ion,s 3hare, 9 3hort 5istor' of -ritish /mperialism, 1?;<#19A< (19A;). 3ee alsoC 9.7/+9, 5/3T678 6.@ 9U3T790/9, 5/3T678 6.@ +9(9D9, 5/3T678 6.@ +606(/90/3M@ *7E9T -7/T9/(, 5/3T678 6.@ /(D/9, 5/3T678 6.@ (E! FE909(D, 5/3T678 6.@ U(/TED 3T9TE3, 5/3T678 6. T5E. +onservative parties 2olitical parties classified as conservative e1ist in several countries. Traditionall' supported %' %usinesspersons, the' have also appealed to "or$ers and other segments of the population. /n the United 3tates, conservatives usuall' =oin one of the t"o ma=or parties@ (e" 8or$ 3tate has a small +onservative part', ho"ever. -ritish +onservative 2art' The +onservative part' of *reat -ritain developed as a result of the 7eform -ill of 1?) , "hich gave more parliamentar' seats to industrial areas and lo"ered the propert' re>uirements for voting. /n order to appeal to a "ider electorate, the leader of the T678 297T8, 3ir 7o%ert 2EE0, adopted the name +onservative and set out to %roaden the Tor' program. 5is a%olition of the +67( 09!3 in 1?DB enraged traditional Tories, "hose primar' polic'##after support of the cro"n and the esta%lished church##"as the protection of agriculture. 9s a result, 2eel,s follo"ers gravitated to"ard the emerging 0i%eral part'. -en=amin D/379E0/, "ho assumed leadership of the +onservatives in the mid#centur', ho"ever, gave ne"

formulation to the part',s principlesC to preserve the nation,s institutions, especiall' the cro"n@ to maintain the empire@ to secure peace "ith honor@ and to ameliorate the condition of the people. +onservative reform measures attracted the votes of man' middle#class people, and in 1??B the part' "as strengthened %' the accession to its ran$s of the 0i%eral Unionists, those 0i%erals "ho opposed home rule for /reland. .rom 1??B to 19<;, the +onservatives "ere in office for all %ut ) 'ears. The' "ere returned to office in 191; as part of a "artime coalition, and from 19 to 19D; the' "ere in po"er almost continuousl'. 0ater the' held office from 19;1 to 19BD and from 19A< to 19AD and "ere returned again in 19A9. Their devotion to the principles of Disraeli has %een reasserted %' such <th#centur' leaders as 3ir !inston +5U7+5/00, 9nthon' EDE(, and 5arold M9+M/009(. Under the leadership of Ed"ard 5E9T5 and Margaret T59T+5E7 from the 19B<s through the 19?<s, the part' negotiated (19A)) -ritish entr' into the European Economic +ommunit' and advanced strong antiunion measures to fight inflation. Thatcher, "ho "as prime minister for over 11 'ears (19A9#9<), "as succeeded %' :ohn M9:67. +anadian +onservative 2art' The +onservative part' in +anada, first $no"n as the 0i%eral#+onservative part', has modeled itself on the +onservative part' of *reat -ritain. The +anadian part' came to po"er in 1?;D and held s"a' throughout most of the period from 1?;D to 1?9D under the leadership of 3ir :ohn 9. M9+D6(90D. 9fter confederation in 1?BA, it set out to %e the part' of national reconciliation and construction. /ts later leaders have included 7o%ert -67DE(, "ho led it to po"er in 1911@ 7ichard -edford -E((ETT, in the 19)<s@ :ohn -79+4E(, under "hom it reached out to attract the populist prairie vote and changed its name to 2rogressive +onservative in 19D @ :ohn D/E.E(-94E7, prime minister from 19;A to 19B)@ :oseph +0974, prime minister for 9 months in 19A9#?<@ -rian MU076(E8, prime minister from 19?D to 199)@ and 4im +9M2-E00, prime minister for D months in 199). :ohn 5. .enton -i%liograph'C -ehrens, 7o%ert, The +onservative 2art' from 5eath to Thatcher (19?<)@ -ercuson, David, 3acred TrustC -rian Mulrone' and the +onservative 2art' in 2o"er (19?A)@ +oleman, -. /., +onservatism and the +onservative 2art' in 19th#+entur' -ritain (19??). 0a%our part' The 0a%our part', one of *reat -ritain,s t"o ma=or political parties, came into %eing in 19<< as the offspring of the -ritish trade union and socialist movements of the late 19th centur'. The 7eform 9cts of 1?BA and 1??D, "hich enfranchised the "or$ers, the founding (1?B?) of the T79DE3 U(/6( +6(*7E33 (TU+) to coordinate the %urgeoning la%or movement, and the forming of the socialist .9-/9( 36+/ET8 (1??)) and of the /ndependent 0a%our part' (/02, 1?9)) laid the ground"or$ for a via%le 0a%our part'. /n 19<< the TU+ and the /02##at the urging of the .a%ian 3ociet' and of 4eir 597D/E, "ho had founded (1???) the 3cottish 0a%our part'##merged to form the 0a%our 7epresentation +ommittee. /n 19<B this organization "as renamed the 0a%our part'. /ts earl' development "as hampered %' poor organization and "idel' divergent political vie"s. /n !orld !ar / the pacifist stand of the 0a%our part',s leader 7amsa' M9+D6(90D led to his replacement (191D) %' 9rthur 5E(DE736(. The part' =oined in the coalition governments during the "ar %ut "ithdre" in 191?. -' 19 , gro"ing post"ar economic and social pro%lems, a split in the 0i%eral part', and the resolution of man' of the differences %et"een the trade union and the socialist factions resulted in 0a%our %ecoming the second strongest part' in *reat -ritain. The MacDonald *overnments /n 19 D, "ith 0i%eral support, the first 0a%our government "as formed, led %' 7amsa' MacDonald. MacDonald encountered political difficulties over the >uestion of relations "ith the U337, and the government fell %efore the 'ear "as out. 0a%our returned to po"er in 19 9#)1 "ith another minorit' government. .aced "ith the "orld economic crisis, MacDonald turned to conservative policies that "ere

re=ected %' his o"n ca%inet@ he formed (19)1) a ne" coalition "ith 0i%erals and +onservatives. 9lthough the 0a%our part' e1pelled him from its ran$s, he continued as prime minister "ith support from other parties until 19);. 0a%our did not return to po"er until 19D<, "hen it =oined !inston +hurchill,s "artime coalition government. The 9ttlee Era -' the 19D<s the part' had developed a %road program of social reform involving nationalization of $e' industries. /n :ul' 19D; it "on a decisive victor' at the polls, and +lement 9TT0EE %ecame prime minister in 0a%our,s first ma=orit' government. 9ttlee,s a%le ca%inet included Ernest -EE/( as foreign secretar', 3ir 3tafford +7/223 as chancellor of the e1che>uer, and 9neurin -EE9( as minister of health. The government passed a comprehensive national health %ill and nationalized the -an$ of England and ma=or industries. -' 19;1 nationalization e1tended to one#fifth of the econom'. 0a%our also oversa" the granting of independence to /ndia in 19DA and supported the formation of (9T6. The 19;< elections severel' reduced 0a%our,s parliamentar' ma=orit', and in 19;1 the +onservatives returned to po"er for 1) 'ears. Ensuing 'ears "ere mar$ed %' ideological conflict "ithin 0a%our,s ran$s. 0eft#"ingers, led %' 9neurin -evan, advocated further nationalization of industr' and a reduced dependence on the United 3tates. The' lost to those led %' 5ugh *9/T34E00, "ho "anted a less doctrinaire program. 9 change also too$ place in part' mem%ership, "ith su%ur%an and middle#class people =oining in greater num%ers. The 19B<s and 9fter The 0a%our part' "as in po"er again from 19BD to 19A< under 5arold !/036( and returned once more in 19AD. The countr',s economic difficulties "ere a continuing %urden. *reat -ritain,s participation in the European Economic +ommunit' trou%led man' mem%ers, and inflationar' "age demands %' unions that form the core of the part' caused considera%le friction. 9n energ' crisis, lo" productivit', and the huge costs of the "elfare state compounded its difficulties. :ames +9009*59(, "ho succeeded 5arold !ilson in 19AB, had some success in fighting inflation, %ut a series of stri$es and rene"ed economic pro%lems in the "inter of 19A?#A9 led to 0a%our,s losing a vote of confidence in the 5ouse of +ommons (March 19A9) and then to the part',s crushing defeat %' the +onservatives in Ma' 19A9. The split %et"een the left# and right#"ing factions of the part' "idened decisivel' in 19?< over issues of part' organization. /n (ovem%er +allaghan "as succeeded %' Michael .66T, a left#"ing moderate. /n 19?1, amid great controvers', the part' voted to adopt a s'stem of choosing a leader in "hich representatives of the unions and local organizations participated as "ell as mem%ers of 2arliament ("ho had previousl' %een the sole electors). This left#"ing victor' caused four former ca%inet mem%ers to leave the part' and form the ne" 3ocial Democratic part'. (The 3ocial Democrats su%se>uentl' allied "ith the 0i%eral part', eventuall' as the 0i%eral Democrats.) !ea$ened %' this defection, 0a%our "as again defeated at the polls in the general elections of 19?) and 19?A. /n 19?), (eil 4/((6+4 replaced .oot as part' leader. :ohn 3M/T5 %ecame leader after another electoral defeat in 199 . :ohn 5. .enton -i%liograph'C .oote, *eoffre', The 0a%our 2art',s 2olitical Thought, d ed. (19?B)@ *oss, 3ue, 0ocal 0a%our and 0ocal *overnment (199<)@ 5inton, :ames, 0a%our and 3ocialism (19?))@ :ones, -arr', and 4eating, Michael, 0a%our and the -ritish 3tate (19?;)@ 0a'%ourn, 4eith, The 7ise of 0a%ourC The -ritish 0a%our 2art', 1?9<#19A9 (19??)@ 2elling, 5enr', 9 3hort 5istor' of the 0a%our 2art', 9th ed. (1991)@ 2helps#-ro"n, 5enr', The 6rigins of Trade Union 2o"er (19?)). /rish 7epu%lican 9rm' The /rish 7epu%lican 9rm' (/79) is a paramilitar' force that opposes the connection of (orthern /reland to *reat -ritain and refuses to recognize the /rish government in Du%lin. The name /79 "as first applied to veterans of the 191B E93TE7 7/3/(* "ho fought a guerrilla "ar against -ritish forces in support of /rish

independence during 1919# 1. /n 19 1, -ritish and /rish political leaders negotiated a treat' that constituted B of /reland,s ) counties as the /rish .ree 3tates, a self# governing dominion "ithin the -ritish +ommon"ealth@ (orthern /reland, "ith its pro#-ritish ma=orit', remained part of the United 4ingdom. Elements of the /79 "ho supported the treat' "ere organized into the arm' of the /rish .ree 3tate. Those units that, "ith Eamon DE E90E79, opposed the treat' and "ere defeated in the ensuing civil "ar of 19 # ) no" came to %e $no"n as the /79. 5o"ever, "hen de Ealera reentered political life and %ecame prime minister, most repu%licans =oined him in supporting the state, and the /79 "as reduced to a tin' dissident element. The' "ere cast in a leftist role against the fascist#oriented /rish -lueshirts in the 19)<s, %ut national goals al"a's out"eighed class interests, and "hen -ritain "ent to "ar "ith (azi *erman' the /79 lent assistance to *erman agents operating from neutral southern /reland. During the 19)<s and 19D<s the /79 "as often in conflict "ith the southern /rish state, "hich, even under de Ealera, too$ stern measures against it. /n the 19;<s it turned its attention more to (orthern /reland, "here it tried "ithout much success to "in support among the oppressed 7oman +atholic minorit'. -' the earl' 19B<s the /79 seemed militaril' a spent force and %ecame involved in agitation for radical social reforms. The (orthern /reland crisis, precipitated in 19B9 not %' the /79 %ut %' civil rights demonstrations, ena%led the /79 to ma$e a dramatic come%ac$. 9 ne" &2rovisional& leadership that emphasized militar' confrontation rather than social amelioration seceded from the Mar1ist#oriented &6fficial& /79. The 2rovisional /79 (&2rovos&) launched a campaign of terror and of direct attac$s upon securit' forces that led to the collapse of the (orthern /reland government in 19A . Throughout the 19A<s, 19?<s, and into the 9<s, the 2rovos continued their campaign of terror and assassination against -ritish targets in (orthern /reland, -ritain, and else"here. /n .e%ruar' 1991 the' staged an a%ortive mortar attac$ on the -ritish prime minister,s residence and office in 0ondon. 9 fe" da's later an /79 %om% $illed one person and in=ured D< in 0ondon,s Eictoria 3tation. -ritish prime minister :ohn Ma=or and /rish prime minister 9l%ert 7e'nolds, in the Do"ning 3treet Declaration of Decem%er 199), agreed on a frame"or$ of proposals to end sectarian violence. Ma=or had declared earlier that 3inn .ein, the political "ing of the outla"ed 2rovisional /79, "ould %e invited to attend tal$s on the future of (orthern /reland three months after a permanent cease#fire "as in place. The 2rovos unilaterall' declared a three#da' cease fire in earl' 9pril 199D, %ut ended it after that time interval had passed. David !. Miller -i%liograph'C -ell, :. -o"'er, The 3ecret 9rm', The /79, 191B# 19A9, rev. ed. (199<)@ 4elle', 4evin, The 0ongest !arC (orthern /reland and the /79, d ed. (19??). 3ee alsoC /7E09(D, 5/3T678 6.@ 3/(( .E/(.