6.

003: Signals and Systems

Modulation

December 6, 2011
1

Communications Systems
Signals are not always well matched to the media through which we wish to transmit them. signal audio video internet applications telephone, radio, phonograph, CD, cell phone, MP3 television, cinema, HDTV, DVD coax, twisted pair, cable TV, DSL, optical ber, E/M

Modulation can improve match based on frequency.

Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude modulation can be used to match audio frequencies to radio frequencies. It allows parallel transmission of multiple channels.

x1(t)

z1(t)

cos w1t
x2(t) z2(t) z(t)

LPF

y(t)

cos w2t
x3(t) z3(t)

cos wct

cos w3t

Superheterodyne Receiver
Edwin Howard Armstrong invented the superheterodyne receiver, which made broadcast AM practical.

Edwin Howard Armstrong also invented and patented the regenerative (positive feedback) circuit for amplifying radio signals (while he was a junior at Columbia University). He also invented wide-band FM.
4

Amplitude, Phase, and Frequency Modulation

There are many ways to embed a message in a carrier. Amplitude Modulation (AM) + carrier: y1 (t) = x(t) + C cos(c t) Phase Modulation (PM): Frequency Modulation (FM): y2 (t) = cos(c t + kx(t)) y3 (t) = cos c t + k x( )d
t

PM: signal modulates instantaneous phase of the carrier. y2 (t) = cos(c t + kx(t)) FM: signal modulates instantaneous frequency of carrier.
t

y3 (t) = cos c t + k x( )d ' v "

(t)

d i (t) = c + (t) = c + kx(t) dt

Frequency Modulation
Compare AM to FM for x(t) = cos(m t). AM: y1 (t) = x(t) + C cos(c t) = (cos(m t) + 1.1) cos(c t)

t FM: y3 (t) = cos c t + k x( )d = cos(c t + k sin(m t)) m

Advantages of FM: constant power no need to transmit carrier (unless DC important) bandwidth?
6

Frequency Modulation
Early investigators thought that narrowband FM could have arbitrarily narrow bandwidth, allowing more channels than AM.
t

y3 (t) = cos c t + k x( )d ' v "

(t)

d i (t) = c + (t) = c + kx(t) dt Small k small bandwidth. Right?

Frequency Modulation
Early investigators thought that narrowband FM could have arbitrarily narrow bandwidth, allowing more channels than AM. Wrong! 0 t y3 (t) = cos c t + k x( )d 0 0 t t = cos(c t) cos k x( )d sin(c t) sin k x( )d

If k 0 0 then t cos k x( )d 0 t sin k x( )d

1
t

x( )d 0 t y3 (t) cos(c t) sin(c t) k x( )d

Bandwidth of narrowband FM is the same as that of AM! (integration does not change the highest frequency in the signal)
8

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

1 sin(m t) 1 0 1 cos(1 sin(m t)) 1 0 1

9

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

2 sin(m t) 2 0 2 cos(2 sin(m t)) 1 0 1

10

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

3 sin(m t) 3 0 3 cos(3 sin(m t)) 1 0 1

11

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

4 sin(m t) 4 0 4 cos(4 sin(m t)) 1 0 1

12

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

5 sin(m t) 5 0 5 cos(5 sin(m t)) 1 0 1

13

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

6 sin(m t) 6 0 6 cos(6 sin(m t)) 1 0 1

14

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

7 sin(m t) 7 0 7 cos(7 sin(m t)) 1 0 1

15

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

8 sin(m t) 8 0 8 cos(8 sin(m t)) 1 0 1

16

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

9 sin(m t) 9 0 9 cos(9 sin(m t)) 1 0 1

17

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

10 sin(m t) 10 0 10 cos(10 sin(m t)) 1 0 1

18

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

20 sin(m t) 20 0 20 cos(20 sin(m t)) 1 0 1

19

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

50 sin(m t) 50 0 50 cos(50 sin(m t)) 1 0 1

20

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

m sin(m t) m 0 m cos(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1

21

t increasing m

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

cos(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1 m=0 |ak | 0 10 20

22

30

40

50

60

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

cos(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1 m=1 |ak | 0 10 20

23

30

40

50

60

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

cos(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1 m=2 |ak | 0 10 20

24

30

40

50

60

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

cos(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1 m=5 |ak | 0 10 20

25

30

40

50

60

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

cos(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1 m = 10 |ak | 0 10 20

26

30

40

50

60

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

cos(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1 m = 20 |ak | 0 10 20

27

30

40

50

60

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

cos(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1 m = 30 |ak | 0 10 20

28

30

40

50

60

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

cos(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1 m = 40 |ak | 0 10 20

29

30

40

50

60

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore cos(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

cos(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1 m = 50 |ak | 0 10 20

30

30

40

50

60

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Fourier transform of rst part. x(t) = sin(m t) y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t))) ' v "
ya (t)

|Ya (j )|

m = 50

c c 100m

31

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore sin(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

m sin(m t) m 0 m sin(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1

32

increasing m t increasing m

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore sin(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

sin(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1 m=0 |bk | 0 10 20

33

30

40

50

60

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore sin(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

sin(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1 m=1 |bk | 0 10 20

34

30

40

50

60

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore sin(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

sin(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1 m=2 |bk | 0 10 20

35

30

40

50

60

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore sin(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

sin(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1 m=5 |bk | 0 10 20

36

30

40

50

60

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore sin(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

sin(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1 m = 10 |bk | 0 10 20

37

30

40

50

60

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore sin(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

sin(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1 m = 20 |bk | 0 10 20

38

30

40

50

60

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore sin(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

sin(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1 m = 30 |bk | 0 10 20

39

30

40

50

60

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore sin(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

sin(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1 m = 40 |bk | 0 10 20

40

30

40

50

60

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Find the Fourier transform of a PM/FM signal. y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t)))
2 , therefore sin(m sin( t)) is periodic in T . x(t) is periodic in T = m m

sin(m sin(m t)) 1 0 1 m = 50 |bk | 0 10 20

41

30

40

50

60

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Fourier transform of second part. x(t) = sin(m t) y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t))) ' v " ' v "
ya (t) yb (t)

|Yb (j )|

m = 50

c c 100m

42

Phase/Frequency Modulation
Fourier transform. x(t) = sin(m t) y (t) = cos(c t + mx(t)) = cos(c t + m sin(m t)) = cos(c t) cos(m sin(m t))) sin(c t) sin(m sin(m t))) ' v " ' v "
ya (t) yb (t)

|Y (j )|

m = 50

c c 100m

43

Frequency Modulation
Wideband FM is useful because it is robust to noise. AM: y1 (t) = (cos(m t) + 1.1) cos(c t)

FM: y3 (t) = cos(c t + m sin(m t))

FM generates a redundant signal that is resilient to additive noise.

44

Summary
Modulation is useful for matching signals to media. Examples: commercial radio (AM and FM)

Close with unconventional application of modulation in microscopy.

45

6.003 Microscopy

Dennis M. Freeman Stanley S. Hong Jekwan Ryu Michael S. Mermelstein Berthold K. P. Horn
Courtesy of Stanley Hong, Jekwan Ryu, Michael Mermelstein, and Berthold K. P. Horn. Used with permission.
46

6.003 Model of a Microscope

microscope

Microscope = low-pass filter

Courtesy of Stanley Hong, Jekwan Ryu, Michael Mermelstein, and Berthold K. P. Horn. Used with permission.
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Phase-Modulated Microscopy

microscope

Courtesy of Stanley Hong, Jekwan Ryu, Michael Mermelstein, and Berthold K. P. Horn. Used with permission.

48

Courtesy of Stanley Hong, Jekwan Ryu, Michael Mermelstein, and Berthold K. P. Horn. Used with permission.
49

Courtesy of Stanley Hong, Jekwan Ryu, Michael Mermelstein, and Berthold K. P. Horn. Used with permission.
50

Courtesy of Stanley Hong, Jekwan Ryu, Michael Mermelstein, and Berthold K. P. Horn. Used with permission.
51

Courtesy of Stanley Hong, Jekwan Ryu, Michael Mermelstein, and Berthold K. P. Horn. Used with permission.
52

Courtesy of Stanley Hong, Jekwan Ryu, Michael Mermelstein, and Berthold K. P. Horn. Used with permission.
53

Courtesy of Stanley Hong, Jekwan Ryu, Michael Mermelstein, and Berthold K. P. Horn. Used with permission.

54

Courtesy of Stanley Hong, Jekwan Ryu, Michael Mermelstein, and Berthold K. P. Horn. Used with permission.

55

Courtesy of Stanley Hong, Jekwan Ryu, Michael Mermelstein, and Berthold K. P. Horn. Used with permission.
56

Courtesy of Stanley Hong, Jekwan Ryu, Michael Mermelstein, and Berthold K. P. Horn. Used with permission.
57

Courtesy of Stanley Hong, Jekwan Ryu, Michael Mermelstein, and Berthold K. P. Horn. Used with permission.
58

Courtesy of Stanley Hong, Jekwan Ryu, Michael Mermelstein, and Berthold K. P. Horn. Used with permission.

59

Courtesy of Stanley Hong, Jekwan Ryu, Michael Mermelstein, and Berthold K. P. Horn. Used with permission.
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MIT OpenCourseWare http://ocw.mit.edu

6.003 Signals and Systems

Fall 2011

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