FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY UNIT I INTRODUCTION Definition of Stress

Consider a small area A on the surface of a body (Fig. 1.1). The force acting on this area is F This force can be resolved into two perpendicul r co!ponents The component of force acting normal to the area called nor! l force and is denoted by Fn The component of force acting along the plane of area is called t n"enti l force and is denoted by Ft

Fi" #$# Nor! l nd T n"enti l Forces on

surf ce

When they are expressed as force per unit area they are called as nor! l stress and t n"enti l stress respectively$ The tangential stress is also called shear stress The normal stress

(1.1)

And shear stress

Definition of Fluid

A fluid is a substance that defor!s continuousl% in the face of tangential or shear stress irrespecti&e of t'e ! "nitude of s'e r stress .This continuous deformation under the application of shear stress constitutes a flo!. "n this connection fluid can also be defined as the st te of ! tter t' t c nnot sust in s'e r stress$ n%

Example : Consider Fig 1.#

Fi" #$( S'e r stress on

fluid )od%

"f a shear stress is applied at any location in a fluid the element $11% !hich is initially at rest !ill move to $##% then to $&&%. Further it moves to $''% and continues to move in a similar fashion. "n other !ords the t n"enti l stress in fluid )od% depends on &elocit% of defor! tion nd & nis'es s t'is &elocit% ppro c'es *ero$ A "ood e+ !ple is (e!ton%s parallel plate experiment w'ere dependence of s'e r force on t'e &elocit% of defor! tion w s est )lis'ed$

Distinction ,etween Solid nd Fluid

Solid
)ore Compact *tructure Attractive Forces bet!een the molecules are larger therefore more closely pac+ed *olids can resist tangential stresses in static condition Whenever a solid is sub,ected to shear stress

Fluid
-ess Compact *tructure Attractive Forces bet!een the molecules are smaller therefore more loosely pac+ed Fluids cannot resist tangential stresses in static condition. Whenever a fluid is sub,ected to shear stress

a. "t

undergoes

definite

deformation. or brea+s

a. (o fixed deformation b. Continious deformation ta+es place until the shear stress is applied A fluid can never regain its original shape once it has been distorded by the shear stress

b. . is proportional to shear stress

upto some limiting condition *olid may regain partly or fully its original shape !hen the tangential stress is removed

Fi" #$- Defor! tion of

Solid ,od%

Concept of Continuu!
The concept of continuum is a +ind of ideali/ation of the continuous description of matter !here the properties of the matter are considered as continuous functions of space variables. Although any matter is composed of several molecules the concept of continuum assumes a continuous distribution of mass !ithin the matter or system !ith no empty space instead of the actual conglomeration of separate molecules.

Fluid .roperties /
Characteristics of a continuous fluid !hich are independent of the motion of the fluid are called basic properties of the fluid. *ome of the basic properties are as discussed belo!.

.ropert% S%!)ol

Definition

Unit

The density p of a fluid is its mass per unit volume . "f a fluid element enclosing a pointP has a volume and mass m (Fig. 1.') then density ( )at point P is !ritten as

0o!ever in a medium !here continuum model is valid one can !rite 1 (1.&)

Densit%

+g2m&

Fi" #$0 A fluid ele!ent enclosin" point .

The specific wei"'t is the !eight of fluid per unit volume. The specific !eight is given

Specific 1ei"'t

by

= g

(1.' )

(2m&

Where g is the gravitational acceleration. 3ust as !eight must be clearly distinguished from mass so must the specific !eight be distinguished from density.

Specific 2olu!e

The specific &olu!e of a fluid is the volume occupied by unit mass of fluid. Thus

m&2+g

(1.4) For li5uids it is the ratio of density of a li5uid at actual conditions to the density of pure !ater at 1$1 +(2m# and at '6C.

Specific 3r &it%

The specific gravity of a gas is the ratio of its density to that of either hydrogen or air at some specified temperature or pressure. Howe&er4 t'ere is no "ener l st nd rd5 so t'e conditions !ust )e st ted w'ile referrin" to t'e specific "r &it% of " s$

2iscosit% 6 7 /
7iscosity is a fluid property !hose effect is understood !hen the fluid is in motion. "n a flo! of fluid !hen the fluid elements move !ith different velocities each element !ill feel some resistance due to fluid friction !ithin the elements. Therefore shear stresses can be identified bet!een the fluid elements !ith different velocities. The relationship bet!een the shear stress and the velocity field !as given by *ir "saac (e!ton.

Consider a flo! (Fig. 1.4) in !hich all fluid particles are moving in the same direction in such a !ay that the fluid layers move parallel !ith different velocities.

Fi" #$8 . r llel flow of

fluid

Fi" #$9 Two d: cent l %ers of fluid$

!o&in"

The upper layer !hich is moving faster tries to dra! the lo!er slo!ly moving layer along !ith it by means of a force F along the direction of flo! on this layer. *imilarly the lo!er layer tries to retard the upper one according to (e!ton%s third la! !ith an e5ual and opposite force F on it (Figure 1.8).

*uch a fluid flo! !here x1direction velocities for example change !ith y1coordinate is called s'e r flow of the fluid. Thus the dragging effect of one layer on the other is experienced by a tangential force F on the respective layers. "f F acts over an area of contact A, then the shear stress is defined as

= F/A
2iscosit% 6 7 /
(e!ton postulated that is proportional to the 5uantity u/ y !here y is the distance of separation of the t!o layers and u is the difference in their velocities. "n the limiting case of u / y e5uals du2dy the velocity gradient at a point in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the layer. According to (e!ton and du2dy bears the relation (1.9) !here the constant of proportionality is +no!n as the coefficient of &iscosit% or simply viscosity !hich is a property of the fluid and depends on its state. *ign of depends upon the sign of du2dy. For the profile sho!n in Fig. 1.4 du2dy is positive every!here and hence is positive. :oth the velocity and stress are considered positive in the positive direction of the coordinate parallel to them. ;5uation

defining the viscosity of a fluid is +no!n as (e!ton%s la! of viscosity. Common fluids vi/. !ater air mercury obey (e!ton%s la! of viscosity and are +no!n as(e!tonian fluids. <ther classes of fluids vi/. paints different polymer solution blood do not obey the typical linear relationship of and du2dy and are +no!n as non;Newtoni n fluids. "n non1ne!tonian fluids viscosity itself may be a function of deformation rate as you !ill study in the next lecture.

C uses of 2iscosit%
The causes of viscosity in a fluid are possibly attributed to t!o factors= force of cohesion

(i) intermolecular (ii) molecular momentum exchange

>ue to strong cohesive forces bet!een the molecules any layer in a moving fluid tries to drag the ad,acent layer to move !ith an e5ual speed and thus produces the effect of viscosity as discussed earlier. *ince cohesion decreases !ith temperature the li5uid viscosity does li+e!ise.

Fi" #$< Mo&e!ent of fluid !olecules )etween two d: cent !o&in" l %ers

)olecules from layer aa in course of continous thermal agitation migrate into layer bb )omentum from the migrant molecules from layer aa is stored by molecules of layer bb by !ay of collision Thus layer bb as a !hole is speeded up )olecules from the lo!er layer bb arrive at aa and tend to retard the layer aa ;very such migration of molecules causes forces of acceleration or deceleration to drag the layers so as to oppose the differences in velocity bet!een the layers and produce the effect of viscosity.

C uses of 2iscosit% ; contd fro! pre&ious slide$$$

As the random molecular motion increases !ith a rise in temperature the viscosity also increases accordingly. ;xcept for very special cases (e.g. at very high pressure) the viscosity of both li5uids and gases ceases to be a function of pressure. For (e!tonian fluids the coefficient of viscosity depends strongly on temperature but varies very little !ith pressure. For li5uids molecular motion is less significant than the forces of cohesion thus &iscosit% of li=uids decre se wit' incre se in te!per ture$ For gases molecular motion is more significant than the cohesive forces thus &iscosit% of " ses incre se wit' incre se in te!per ture$

Fi" #$>/ C' n"e of 2iscosit% of 1 ter nd Air under # t!

No;slip Condition of 2iscous Fluids

"t has been established through experimental observations that the relative velocity bet!een the solid surface and the ad,acent fluid particles is /ero !henever a viscous fluid flo!s over a solid surface. This is +no!n as no1slip condition. This behavior of no1slip at the solid surface is not same as the !etting of surfaces by the fluids. For example mercury flo!ing in a stationary glass tube !ill not !et the surface but !ill have /ero velocity at the !all of the tube. The !etting property results from surface tension !hereas the no1slip condition is a conse5uence of fluid viscosity.

Ide l Fluid
Consider a hypothetical fluid having a /ero viscosity ( ? $). *uch a fluid is called an ideal fluid and the resulting motion is called as ide l or in&iscid flow. In n ide l flow4 t'ere is no e+istence of s'e r force )ec use of & nis'in" &iscosit%$

All the fluids in re lit% ' &e &iscosit% ( @ $) and hence they are termed as real fluid and their motion is +no!n as viscous flo!.

Ander certain situations of very high velocity flo! of viscous fluids an accurate analysis of flo! field a!ay from a solid surface can be made from the ideal flo! theory.

Non;Newtoni n Fluids
There are certain fluids !here the linear relationship bet!een the shear stress and the deformation rate (velocity gradient in parallel flo!) as expressed by the these fluids the viscosity varies !ith rate of deformation. is not valid. For

Due to the deviation from (e!ton%s la! of viscosity they are commonly termed as non;
Newtoni n fluids. Figure #.1 sho!s the class of fluid for !hich this relationship is nonlinear.

Fi"ure ($# S'e r stress nd defor! tion r te rel tions'ip of different fluids
The abscissa in Fig. #.1 represents the behaviour of ideal fluids since for the ideal fluids the resistance to shearing deformation rate is al!ays /ero and hence they exhibit /ero shear stress under any condition of flo!. The ordinate represents the ideal solid for there is no deformation rate under any loading condition. The (e!tonian fluids behave according to the la! that shear stress is linearly proportional to velocity gradient or rate of shear strain . Thus for these fluids the plot of shear stress against velocity gradient is a straight line through the origin. The slope of the line determines the viscosity. The non1(e!tonian fluids are further classified as pseudo1plastic dilatant and :ingham plastic.

Co!pressi)ilit%
Compressibility of any substance is the measure of its change in volume under the action of external forces. The normal compressive stress on any fluid element at rest is +no!n as hydrostatic pressure p and arises as a result of innumerable molecular collisions in the entire fluid. The degree of compressibility of a substance is characteri/ed by the )ul? !odulus of el sticit% ; defined as (#.&) Where and p are the changes in the volume and pressure respectively and is the initial volume. The negative sign (1sign) is included to ma+e ; positive since increase in pressure !ould decrease the volume i.e for Bp@$ B C$) in volume. For a given mass of a substance the change in its volume and density satisfies the relation

m ? $

( ) ? $
(#.')

using !e get (#.4)

7alues of E for li5uids are very high as compared !ith those of gases (except at very high pressures). Therefore li5uids are usually termed as incompressible fluids though in fact no substance is theoretically incompressible !ith a value of E as . For example the bul+ modulus of elasticity for !ater and air at atmospheric pressure are approximately # x 1$8 +(2m # and 1$1 +(2m # respectively. "t indicates that air is about #$ $$$ times more compressible than !ater. 0ence !ater can be treated as incompressible. For gases another characteristic parameter +no!n as compressibility K, is usually defined it is the reciprocal of E

10

(#.8) D is often expressed in terms of specific volume .

For any gaseous substance a change in pressure is generally associated !ith a change in volume and a change in temperature simultaneously. A function l rel tions'ip )etween t'e pressure4 &olu!e nd te!per ture t n% e=uili)riu! st te is ?nown s t'er!od%n !ic e=u tion of st te for t'e " s$ For an ideal gas the thermodynamic e5uation of state is given by p ? RT (#.9)

!here T is the temperature in absolute thermodynamic or gas temperature scale (!hich are in fact identical) and R is +no!n as the characteristic gas constant the value of !hich depends upon a particular gas. 0o!ever this e5uation is also valid for the real gases !hich are thermodynamically far from their li5uid phase. For air the value of E is #F9 32+g D. D and ; generally depend on the nature of process

Surf ce Tension of Li=uids

The phenomenon of surface tension arises due to the t!o +inds of intermolecular forces (i) Co'esion / The force of attraction bet!een the molecules of a li5uid by virtue of !hich they are bound to each other to remain as one assemblage of particles is +no!n as the force of cohesion. This property enables the li5uid to resist tensile stress. (ii) Ad'esion / The force of attraction bet!een unli+e molecules i.e. bet!een the molecules of different li5uids or bet!een the molecules of a li5uid and those of a solid body !hen they are in contact !ith each other is +no!n as the force of adhesion. This force enables t!o different li5uids to adhere to each other or a li5uid to adhere to a solid body or surface.

11

Fi"ure ($- T'e inter!olecul r co'esi&e force field in

)ul? of li=uid wit'

free surf ce

A and : experience e5ual force of cohesion in all directions C experiences a net force interior of the li5uid The net force is maximum for > since it is at surface Wor+ is done on each molecule arriving at surface against the action of an in!ard force. Thus mechanical !or+ is performed in creating a free surface or in increasing the area of the surface. Therefore a surface re5uires mechanical energy for its formation and the existence of a free surface implies the presence of stored mechanical energy +no!n as free surface energy. Any system tries to attain the condition of stable e5uilibrium !ith its potential energy as minimum. Thus a 5uantity of li5uid !ill ad,ust its shape until its surface area and conse5uently its free surface energy is a minimum. The magnitude of surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting across imaginary short and straight elemental line divided by the length of the line. The dimensional formula is F/L or )T1# . "t is usually expressed in (2m in *" units. *urface tension is a binary property of the li5uid and gas or t!o li5uids !hich are in contact !ith each other and defines the interface. "t decreases slightly !ith increasing temperature. The surface tension of !ater in contact !ith air at #$6C is about $.$9& (2m. "t is due to surface tension that a curved li5uid interface in e5uilibrium results in a greater pressure at the concave side of the surface than that at its convex side.

2 pour pressure
All li5uids have a tendency to evaporate !hen exposed to a gaseous atmosphere. The rate of evaporation depends upon the molecular energy of the li5uid !hich in turn depends upon the type of li5uid and its temperature. The vapour molecules exert a partial pressure in the space above the li5uid +no!n as vapour pressure. "f the space above the li5uid is confined (Fig. #.4) and the li5uid is maintained at constant temperature after sufficient time the confined space above the li5uid !ill contain vapour molecules to the extent that some of them !ill be forced to enter the li5uid. ;ventually an e5uilibrium condition !ill evolve !hen the rate at !hich the number of vapour molecules stri+ing bac+ the li5uid surface and condensing is ,ust e5ual to the rate at !hich they leave from the surface. The space above the li5uid then becomes saturated !ith vapour. The vapour pressure of a given li5uid is a function of temperature only and is e5ual to the saturation pressure for boiling corresponding to that temperature. 0ence the vapour pressure increases !ith the increase in temperature. Therefore the phenomenon of boiling of a li5uid is closely related to the vapour pressure. "n fact !hen the vapour pressure of a li5uid becomes e5ual to the total pressure impressed on its surface the li5uid starts boiling. This concludes that boiling can be achieved either by raising the temperature of the li5uid so that its vapour pressure is elevated to the ambient pressure or by lo!ering the pressure of the ambience (surrounding gas) to the li5uid%s vapour pressure at the existing temperature.

12

 Fi"ure ($8 To nd fro !o&e!ent of li=uid !olecules fro! n interf ce in confined sp ce s closed surroundin"

Rec p
In t'is c' pter %ou ' &e le rnt t'e followin"
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously !hen sub,ected to even an infinitesimal shear stress. *olids can resist tangential stress at static conditions undergoing a definite deformation !hile a fluid can do it only at dynamic conditions undergoing a continuous deformation as long as the shear stress is applied.

The concept of continuum assumes a continuous distribution of mass !ithin the matter or system !ith no empty space. "n the continuum approach properties of a system can be expressed as continuous functions of space and time. A dimensionless parameter +no!n as @nudsen nu!)er !here G is the mean free path and - is the characteristic length aptly describes the degree of departure from continuum. The concept of continuum usually holds good !hen DnC $.$1.

7iscosity is a property of a fluid by virtue of !hich it offers resistance to flo!. The shear stress at a point in a moving fluid is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. For a one dimensional flo! . The constant of proportionality H is +no!n as coefficient of viscosity or simply the viscosity. The relationship is +no!n as the (e!ton%s la! of viscosity and the fluids !hich obey this la! are +no!n as Newtoni n fluids$

The relationship bet!een the shear stress and the rate of shear strain is +no!n as the constitutive e5uation. The fluids !hose constitutive e5uations are not linear through

13

origin (do not obey the (e!ton%s la! of viscosity) are +no!n as non;Newtoni n fluids. For a (e!tonian fluid viscosity is a function of temperature only. With an increase in temperature the viscosity of a li5uid decreases !hile that of a gas increases. For non1(e!tonian fluid the viscosity depends not only on temperature but also on the deformation rate of the fluid. Dinematic viscosity v is defined as .

Compressibility of a substance is the measure of its change in volume or density under the action of external forces. "t is usually characteri/ed by the )ul? !odulus of el sticit%

A flo! is said to be incompressible !hen the change in its density due to the change in pressure brought about by the fluid motion is negligibly small. When the flo! velocity is e5ual to or less than $.&& times of the local acoustic speed the relative change in density of the fluid due to flo! becomes e5ual to or less than 4 per cent respectively and hence the flo! is considered to be incompressible

The force of attraction bet!een the molecules of a fluid is +no!n as cohesion !hile that bet!een the molecules of a fluid and of a solid is +no!n as adhesion. The interplay of these t!o intermolecular forces explains the phenomena of surface tension and capillary rise or depression. A free surface of the li5uid is al!ays under stretched condition implying the existence of a tensile force on the surface. The magnitude of this force per unit length of an imaginary line dra!n along the li5uid surface is +no!n as the surface tension coefficient or simply the surf ce tension.

One4 Two nd T'ree Di!ension l Flows

Fluid flo! is t'ree;di!ension l in nature. This means that the flo! parameters li+e velocity pressure and so on vary in all the three coordinate directions.

*ometimes simplification is made in the analysis of different fluid flo! problems by= *electing the appropriate coordinate directions so that appreciable variation of the hydro dynamic parameters ta+e place in only t!o directions or even in only one.

One;di!ension l flow All the flo! parameters may be expressed as functions of time and one space coordinate only. The single space coordinate is usually the distance measured along the centre1line (not necessarily straight) in !hich the fluid is flo!ing.

14

E+ !ple/ the flo! in a pipe is considered one1dimensional !hen variations of pressure and velocity occur along the length of the pipe but any variation over the cross1section is assumed negligible. "n reality flo! is never one1dimensional because &iscosit% causes the velocity to decrease to /ero at the solid boundaries. "f ho!ever the non unifor!it% of t'e ctu l flow is not too "re t valuable results may often be obtained from a Ione di!ension l n l%sisI. The &er "e & lues of the flo! parameters at any given section (perpendicular to the flo!) are assumed to be applied to the entire flo! at that section.

Two;di!ension l flow All the flo! parameters are functions of time and t!o space coordinates (say x and y). (o variation in / direction. The same streamline patterns are found in all planes perpendicular to / direction at any instant.

T'ree di!ension l flow The hydrodynamic parameters are functions of three space coordinates and time.

S%ste!
Definition S%ste!/ A 5uantity of matter in space !hich is analy/ed during a problem. Surroundin"s/ ;verything external to the system. S%ste! ,ound r%/ A separation present bet!een system and surrounding.

Classification of the system boundary=1 Eeal solid boundary "maginary boundary

The system boundary may be further classified as=1 Fixed boundary or Control )ass *ystem )oving boundary or Control 7olume *ystem The choice of boundary depends on the problem being analy/ed.

15

Fi" A$# S%ste! nd Surroundin"s Cl ssific tion of S%ste!s

T%pes of S%ste!
Control M ss S%ste! 6Closed S%ste!7 1. "ts a system of fi+ed ! ss !ith fi+ed identit%. #. This type of system is usually referred to as Bclosed s%ste!B. &. There is no mass transfer across the system boundary. '. ;nergy transfer may ta+e place into or out of the system.

16

Clic? to pl % t'e De!onstr tion Fi" A$( A Control M ss S%ste! or Closed S%ste! Control 2olu!e S%ste! 6Open S%ste!7 1. "ts a system of fi+ed &olu!e. #. This type of system is usually referred to as Bopen s%ste!C or a Bcontrol &olu!eB &. )ass transfer can ta+e place across a control volume. '. ;nergy transfer may also occur into or out of the system. 4. A control volume can be seen as a fixed region across !hich mass and energy transfers are studied. 8. Control *urface1 "ts the boundary of a control volume across !hich the transfer of both mass and energy ta+es place. 9. The mass of a control volume (open system) may or may not be Jxed. F. When the net influx of mass across the control surface e5uals /ero then the mass of the system is fixed and vice1versa. K. The identity of mass in a control volume al!ays changes unli+e the case for a control mass system (closed system). 1$. )ost of the engineering devices in general represent an open system or control volume. E+ !ple/; 0eat exchanger 1 Fluid enters and leaves the system continuously !ith the transfer of heat across the system boundary. Lump 1 A continuous flo! of fluid ta+es place through the system !ith a transfer of mechanical energy from the surroundings to the system.

17

Clic? to pl % t'e De!onstr tion Fi" A$- A Control 2olu!e S%ste! or Open S%ste!

Isol ted S%ste!

1. "ts a system of fi+ed ! ss !ith same identit% nd fi+ed ener"%. #. (o interaction of mass or energy ta+es place bet!een the system and the surroundings. &. "n more informal !ords an isolated system is li+e a closed shop amidst a busy mar+et.

Fi" A$0 An Isol ted S%ste!

Conser& tion of M ss ; T'e Continuit% E=u tion

L w of conser& tion of ! ss The la! states that mass can neither be created nor be destroyed. Conservation of mass is inherent to a control mass system (closed system).

18

The mathematical expression for the above la! is stated as=

m/t = 0

!here m ? mass of the system

For a control volume (Fig.K.4) the principle of conservation of mass is stated as

Eate at !hich mass enters ? Eate at !hich mass leaves the region M Eate of accumulation of mass in the region <E Eate of accumulation of mass in the control volume M (et rate of mass efflux from the control volume ? $ Continuit% e=u tion The above statement expressed analytically in terms of velocity and density Jeld of a No! is +no!n as the e=u tion of continuit%. (K.1)

Clic+ to play the >emonstration

Fi" A$8

A Control 2olu!e in

Flow Field

Continuit% E=u tion ; Differenti l For!

Deri& tion 1. The point at !hich the continuity e5uation has to be derived is enclosed by an elementary control volume.

19

#. The influx efflux and the rate of accumulation of mass is calculated across each surface !ithin the control volume.

Fi" A$9 A Control 2olu!e Appropri te to

Rect n"ul r C rtesi n Coordin te S%ste!

Consider a rectangular parallelopiped in the above figure as the control volume in a rectangular cartesian frame of coordinate axes. (et efflux of mass along x 1axis must be the excess outflo! over inflo! across faces normal to x 1axis. -et the fluid enter across one of such faces A:C> !ith a velocity u and a density O.The velocity and density !ith !hich the fluid !ill leave the face ;FP0 !ill be respectively (neglecting the higher order terms in x). and

Therefore the rate of mass entering the control volume through face A:C> ? The rate of mass leaving the control volume through face ;FP0 !ill be

u dy dz.

(neglecting the higher order terms in dx)

20

*imilarly influx and efflux ta+e place in all y and / directions also. Eate of accumulation for a point in a flo! field

Asing Eate of influx ? Eate of Accumulation M Eate of ;fflux

Transferring everything to right side

(K.#)

This is the E=u tion of Continuit% for a compressible fluid in a rectangular cartesian coordinate system.

Conser& tion of Mo!entu!/ Mo!entu! T'eore!

"n (e!tonian mechanics the conservation of momentum is defined by (e!tonQs second la! of motion.

NewtonDs Second L w of Motion

The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the impressed action and ta+es place in the direction of the impressed action. "f a force acts on the body linear momentum is implied. "f a tor5ue (moment) acts on the body angular momentum is implied.

Re%nolds Tr nsport T'eore!

A study of fluid flo! by the ;ulerian approach re5uires a mathematical modeling for a control volume either in differential or in integral form. Therefore the physical statements of the principle of conservation of mass momentum and energy !ith reference to a control volume become necessary.

21

This is done by invo+ing a theorem +no!n as the Eeynolds transport theorem !hich relates the control volume concept !ith that of a control mass system in terms of a general property of the system.

St te!ent of Re%nolds Tr nsport T'eore!

The theorem states that Ithe time rate of increase of property ( !ithin a control mass system is e5ual to the time rate of increase of property ( !ithin the control volume plus the net rate of efflux of the property ( across the control surfaceR.

E=u tion of Re%nolds Tr nsport T'eore!

After deriving Eeynolds Transport Theorem according to the above statement !e get

(1$.K)

"n this e5uation ( 1 flo! property !hich is transported S 1 intensive value of the flo! property

An l%sis Of Finite Control 2olu!es ; t'e pplic tion of !o!entu! t'eore!

We%ll see the application of momentum theorem in some practical cases of inertial and non1inertial control volumes.

Inerti l Control 2olu!es Applications of momentum theorem for an inertial control volume are described !ith reference to three distinct types of practical problems namely
Forces acting due to internal No!s through expanding or reducing pipe bends. Forces on stationary and moving vanes due to impingement of fluid ,ets. 3et propulsion of ship and aircraft moving !ith uniform velocity.

Non;inerti l Control 2olu!e A good example of non1inertial control volume is a roc+et engine !hich !or+s on the principle of ,et propulsion.
We shalll discuss each example seperately in the follo!ing slides.

D%n !ic Forces on .l ne Surf ces due to t'e I!pin"e!ent of Li=uid Eets
Force on st tion r% surf ce Consider a stationary Nat plate and a li5uid ,et of cross sectional area RaR stri+ing !ith a velocity 7 at an angle to the plate as sho!n in Fig. 11.&a.

22

Fi" ##$- I!pin"e!ent of li=uid Eets on

St tion r% Fl t .l te

To calculate the force re5uired to +eep the plate stationary a control volume A:C>;FA (Fig. 11.&a) is chosen so that the control surface >; coincides !ith the surface of the plate. The control volume is sho!n separately as a free body in Fig. 11.&b. -et the volume flo! rate of the incoming ,et be T and be divided into T1 and T# gliding along the surface (Fig. 11.&a) !ith the same velocity 7 since the pressure throughout is same as the atmospheric pressure the plate is considered to be frictionless and the inNuence of a gravity is neglected (i.e. the elevation bet!een sections C> and ;F is negligible). Coordinate axes are chosen as !s and !n along and perpendicular to the plate respectively. (eglecting the viscous forces. (the force along the plate to be /ero) the momentum conservation of the control volume A:C>;FA in terms of s and n components can be !ritten from ;5.(1$.1Fd) as (11.4a) and (11.4b) !here Fs and Fn are the forces acting on the control volume along !s and !n respectively From continuity T ? T 1 M T# With the help of ;5s (11.4a) and (11.8) !e can !rite (11.9a) (11.8)

23

(11.9b) The net force acting on the control volume due to the change in momentum of the ,et by the plate is Fn along the direction I"nR and is given by the ;5. (11.9b) as (11.9c) 0ence according to (e!tonQs third la! the force acting on the plate is (11.F) "f the cross1sectional area of the ,et is RaR then the volume flo! rate T stri+ing the plate can be !ritten as T ? a7. ;5uation (11.F) then becomes (11.K)

Conser& tion of Ener"%

The principle of conservation of energy for a control mass system is described by the first la! of thermodynamics 0eat T added to a control mass system1 the !or+ done W by the control mass system ? change in its internal energy ; The internal energy depends only upon the initial and final states of the system. "t can be !ritten in the form of the e5uation as (1&.1a) ;5uation (1&.1a) can be expressed on the time rate basis as (1&.1b) Where UT and UW are the amount of heat added and !or+ done respectively during a time interval of Ut. To develop the analytical statement for the conservation of energy of a control volume the ;5. (1$.1$) is used !ith ( ? ; (the internal energy) and S ? e (the internal energy per unit mass) along !ith the ;5. (1&.1b). This gives (1&.#) The ;5. (1&.#) is +no!n as the "ener l ener"% e=u tion for a control volume.

24

The first term on the right hand side of the e5uation is the time rate of increase in the internal energy !ithin a control volume and the second term is the net rate of energy efflux from the control volume. >ifferent forms of energy associated !ith moving fluid elements comprising a control volume are 1

#$ .otenti l ener"% The concept of potential energy in a fluid is essentially the same as that of a solid mass. The potential energy of a fluid element arises from its existence in a conservative body force field. This field may be a magnetic electrical etc. "n the absence of any of such external force field the earthQs gravitational effect is the only cause of potential energy. "f a fluid mass m is stored in a reservoir and its C.P. is at a vertical distance / from an arbitrary hori/ontal datum plane then the potential energy is mg/ and the potential energy per unit mass is g/. The arbitrary datum does not play a vital role since the difference in potential energy instead of its absolute value is encountered in different practical purposes. ($ @inetic Ener"% "f a 5uantity of a fluid of mass m flo!s !ith a velocity 7 being the same throughout its mass then the total +inetic energy is m7#2# and the +inetic energy per unit mass is 7#2#. For a stream of real fluid the velocities at different points !ill not be the same. "f 7 is the local component of velocity along the direction of flo! for a fluid flo!ing through an open channel or closed conduit of cross1sectional area A the total +inetic energy at any section is evaluated by summing up the +inetic energy No!ing through differential areas as

The average velocity at a cross1section in a flo!ing stream is defined on the basis of volumetric flo! rate as

The +inetic energy per unit mass of the fluid is usually expressed as +no!n as the ?inetic ener"% correction f ctor. Therefore !e can !rite

!here is

0ence

25

(1&.&a)

For an incompressible flo!

(1&.&b)

-$ Inter!olecul r Ener"% The intermolecular energy of a substance comprises the potential energy and +inetic energy of the molecules. The potential energy arises from intermolecular forces. For an ideal gas the potential energy is /ero and the intermolecular energy is therefore due to only the +inetic energy of molecules. The +inetic energy of the molecules of a substance depends on its temperature. 0$ Flow 1or?
Flo! !or+ is the !or+ done by a fluid to move against pressure. For a flo!ing stream a layer of fluid at any cross1section has to push the ad,acent neighboring layer at its do!nstream in the direction of flo! to ma+e its !ay through and thus does !or+ on it. The amount of !or+ done can be calculated by considering a small amount of fluid mass A1 1 dx to cross the surface A: from left to right (Fig. 1&.1). The !or+ done by this mass of fluid then becomes e5ual to p1 A1 dx and thus the flo! !or+ per unit mass can be expressed as (!here p1 is the pressure at section A: (Fig 1&.1)

Fi" #-$# 1or? done )%

fluid to flow " inst pressure

Therefore the flo! !or+ done per unit mass by a fluid element entering the control volume A:C>A (Fig. 1&.1) is p1 21 *imilarly the flo! !or+ done per unit mass by a fluid element leaving the control volume across the surface C> is p #21 "mportant1 "n introducing an amount of fluid inside the control volume the !or+ done against

26

the frictional force at the !all can be sho!n to be small as compared to the !or+ done against the pressure force and hence it is not included in the flo! !or+. Although Qflo! !or+Q is not an intrinsic form of energy it is sometimes referred to as Qpressure energyQ from a vie! point that by virtue of this energy a mass of fluid having a pressure p at any location is capable of doing !or+ on its neighboring fluid mass to push its !ay through.

Ste d% Flow Ener"% E=u tion

The energy e5uation for a control volume is given by ;5. (1&.#). At steady state the Jrst term on the right hand side of the e5uation becomes /ero and it becomes (1&.') "n consideration of all the energy components including the flo! !or+ (or pressure energy) associated !ith a moving fluid element one can substitute QeQ in ;5. (1&.') as

and finally !e get

(1&.4)

The ;5. (1&.4) is +no!n as ste d% flow ener"% e=u tion

A Control 2olu!e Appro c' for t'e Deri& tion of EulerDs E=u tion
;ulerQs e5uations of motion can also be derived by the use of the momentum theorem for a control volume.

Deri& tion "n a fixed x y / axes (the rectangular cartesian coordinate system) the parallelopiped !hich !as ta+en earlier as a control mass system is no! considered as a control volume (Fig. 1#.').

27

Fi" #($0 A Control 2olu!e used for t'e deri& tion of EulerFs E=u tion

We can define the velocity vector

and the body force per unit volume

as

28

The rate of x momentum influx to the control volume through the face A:C> is e5ual to Ou # dy d/. The rate of x momentum efflux from the control volume through the face ;FP0 e5uals Therefore the rate of net efflux of x momentum from the control volume due to the faces perpendicular to the x direction (faces A:C> and ;FP0) ? *imilarly The rate of net efflux of x momentum due to the faces perpendicular to the y direction (face :CPF and A>0;) ? The rate of net efflux of x momentum due to the faces perpendicular to the / direction (faces >CP0 and A:F;) ? 0ence the net rate of x momentum efflux from the control volume becomes !here the elemental volume ? dx dy d/.

The time rate of increase in x momentum in the control volume can be !ritten as

(*ince by the definition of control volume is invariant !ith time) Applying the principle of momentum conservation to a control volume (;5. '.#Fb) !e get (1#.11a) The e5uations in other directions y and / can be obtained in a similar !ay by considering the y momentum and / momentum Nuxes through the control volume as

(1#.11b)

29

(1#.11c)

The typical form of ;ulerQs e5uations given by ;5s (1#.11a) (1#.11b) and (1#.11c) are +no!n as the conservative forms.

,ernoulliFs E=u tion

Ener"% E=u tion of n ide l Flow lon" Stre !line

;ulerQs e5uation (the e5uation of motion of an inviscid fluid) along a stream line for a steady flo! !ith gravity as the only body force can be !ritten as (1&.8) Application of a force through a distance ds along the streamline !ould physically imply !or+ interaction. Therefore an e5uation for conservation of energy along a streamline can be obtained by integrating the ;5. (1&.8) !ith respect to ds as

(1&.9) Where C is a constant along a streamline. "n case of an incompressible flo! ;5. (1&.9) can be !ritten as (1&.F) The ;5s (1&.9) and (1&.F) are based on the assumption that no !or+ or heat interaction bet!een a fluid element and the surrounding ta+es place. The first term of the ;5. (1&.F) represents the flo! !or+ per unit mass the second term represents the +inetic energy per unit mass and the third term represents the potential energy per unit mass. Therefore the sum of three terms in the left hand side of ;5. (1&.F) can be considered as the total mechanical energy per unit mass !hich remains constant along a streamline for a steady inviscid and incompressible flo! of fluid. 0ence the ;5. (1&.F) is also +no!n as Mec' nic l ener"% e=u tion. This e5uation !as developed first by >aniel :ernoulli in 19&F and is therefore referred to as :ernoulliQs e5uation. ;ach term in the ;5. (1&.F) has the dimension of energy per unit mass. The e5uation can also be expressed in terms of energy per unit !eight as (1&.K) "n a fluid flo! the energy per unit !eight is termed as head. Accordingly e5uation 1&.K can be interpreted as

30

Lressure head M 7elocity head M Lotential head ?Total head (total energy per unit !eight).

,ernoulliFs E=u tion wit' He d Loss

The derivation of mechanical energy e5uation for a real fluid depends much on the information about the frictional !or+ done by a moving fluid element and is excluded from the scope of the boo+. 0o!ever in many practical situations problems related to real fluids can be analysed !ith the help of a modified form of :ernoulliQs e5uation as (1&.1$) !here hf represents the frictional !or+ done (the !or+ done against the fluid friction) per unit !eight of a fluid element !hile moving from a station 1 to # along a streamline in the direction of flo!. The term h f is usually referred to as head loss bet!een 1 and # since it amounts to the loss in total mechanical energy per unit !eight bet!een points 1 and # on a streamline due to the effect of fluid friction or viscosity. "tphysically signifies that the difference in the total mechanical energy bet!een stations 1 and # is dissipated into intermolecular or thermal energy and is expressed as loss of head h f in ;5. (1&.1$). The term head loss is conventionally symboli/ed as h- instead of hf in dealing !ith practical problems. For an inviscid flo! h- ? $ and the total mechanical energy is constant along a streamline.

UNIT II
31

FLO1 THROU3H CIRCULAR CONDUITS

Lift nd Dr " for Flow . st

.ressure in t'e C%linder Surf ce

C%linder wit'out Circul tion

Lressure becomes uniform at large distances from the cylinder ( !here the influence of doublet is small). -et us imagine the pressure p $ is +no!n as !ell as uniform velocity We can apply :ernoulli%s e5uation bet!een infinity and the points on the boundary of the cylinder. A$ .

(eglecting the variation of potential energy bet!een the aforesaid point at infinity and any point on the surface of the cylinder !e can !rite

(##.4)

!here the subscript b represents the surface on the cylinder. *ince fluid cannot penetrate the solid boundary the velocity U) s'ould )e onl% in t'e tr ns&erse direction or in other !ords only vV component of velocity is present on the streamline W ? $ .

Thus at

(##.8)

From e5s (##.4) and (##.8) !e obtain

(##.9)

Lift nd Dr "
Lift /force ctin" on t'e c%linder 6per unit len"t'7 in t'e direction nor! l to unifor! flow$ Dr "/ force ctin" on t'e c%linder 6per unit len"t'7 in t'e direction p r llel to unifor! flow$

32

Fi" (($0 C lcul tion of Dr " in

C%linder

The drag is calculated by integrating the force components arising out of pressure in the x direction on the boundary. Eeferring to Fig.##.' the drag force can be !ritten as

infinitesimal length on the circumference

*ince

or,
(##.F)

*imilarly the lift force may be calculated as

(##.K)

33

The ;5s (##.F) and (##.K) produce DGH nd LGH fter the integration is carried out. 0o!ever in re lit%4 t'e c%linder will lw %s e+perience so!e dr " force$ T'is contr diction )etween t'e in&iscid flow result nd t'e e+peri!ent is usu ll% ?nown s D FAl!)ert p r do+$ :ernoulli%s e5uation can be used to calculate the pressure distribution on the cylinder surface

The pressure coefficient cp is therefore

(##.1$)

Lift nd Dr " for Flow A)out

Rot tin" C%linder

The pressure at large distances from the cylinder is uniform and given by p $. >eploying :ernoulli%s e5uation bet!een the points at infinity and on the boundary of the cylinder

(#&.K)

0ence

(#&.1$)

From ;5s (#&.K) and (#&.1$) !e can !rite

(#&.11)

The lift may calculated as

34

or,

(#&.1#) The drag force !hich includes the multiplication by cosV (and integration over #X) is /ero. Thus the inviscid flo! also demonstrates lift. lift becomes a simple formula involving only the density of the medium free stream velocity and circulation. in t!o dimensional incompressible steady flo! about a boundary of any shape the lift is al!ays a product of these three 5uantities.11111 @utt ; Eou?ows?i t'eore!

Aerofoil T'eor%
Aerofoils are streamline shaped !ings !hich are used in airplanes and turbo machinery. These shapes are such that the drag force is a very small fraction of the lift. The follo!ing nomenclatures are used for defining an aerofoil

35

Fi" (-$0

Aerofoil Section

The c'ord (C) is the distance bet!een the leading edge and trailing edge. The length of an aerofoil normal to the cross1section (i.e. normal to the plane of a paper) is called the sp n of a aerofoil. The c !)er line represents the mean profile of the aerofoil. *ome important geometrical parameters for an aerofoil are the ratio of maximum thic+ness to chord (t2C) and the ratio of maximum camber to chord (h2C). When these ratios are small an aerofoil can be considered to be thin. For the analysis of flo! a thin aerofoil is represented by its camber.

The theory of thic+ cambered aerofoils uses a complex1variable mapping !hich transforms the inviscid flo! across a rotating cylinder into the flo! about an aerofoil shape !ith circulation.

Flow Around

T'in Aerofoil

Thin aerofoil theory is based upon the superposition of uniform flo! at infinity and a continuous distribution of cloc+!ise free vortex on the camber line having circulation density per unit length . should be such that the resultant flo! is tangent to the The circulation density camber line at every point.

*ince the slope of the camber line is assumed to be small circulation around the profile is given by

. The total

(#&.1&)

36

Fi" (-$8

Flow Around T'in Aerofoil

A vortical motion of strengt may be e!#resse" as

at !=

"evelo#s a velocity at t e point p $ ic

The total induced velocity in the up!ard direction at point p due to the entire vortex distribution along the camber line is

(#&.1') For a small camber (having small .) this expression is identically valid for the induced velocity at point pF due to the vortex sheet of variable strength on the camber line. The resultant velocity due to and v(x) must be tangential to the camber line so that the slope of a camber line may be expressed as

(#&.14) From ;5s (#&.1') and (#&.14) !e can !rite

Consider an element ds on the camber line. Consider a small rectangle (dra!n !ith dotted line) around ds. The upper and lo!er sides of the rectangle are very close to each other and these are parallel to the camber line. The other t!o sides are normal to the camber line. The circulation along the rectangle is measured in cloc+!ise direction as Ynormal component of velocity at the camber line should be /eroZ

or
"f the mean velocity in the tangential direction at the camber line is given by it can be re!ritten as

37

and if v is very small becomes e5ual to . The difference in velocity across the causes pressure

camber line brought about by the vortex sheet of variable strength difference and generates lift force.

3ener tion of 2ortices Around

1in"

T'e lift round n erofoil is "ener ted followin" @utt ;Eou?ows?i t'eore! . -ift is a product of O and the circulation .

When the motion of a !ing starts from rest vortices are formed at the trailing edge. At the start there is a velocity discontinuity at the trailing edge. This is eventual because near the trailing edge the velocity at the bottom surface is higher than that at the top surface. This discrepancy in velocity culminates in the formation of vortices at the trailing edge. Figure #&.8(a) depicts the formation of starting vortex by impulsively moving aerofoil. 0o!ever the starting vortices induce a counter circulation as sho!n in Figure #&.8(b). The circulation around a path (A:C>) enclosing the !ing and ,ust shed (starting) vortex must be /ero. 0ere !e refer to @el&inFs t'eore! once again.

Fi" (-$9

2ortices 3ener ted w'en n Aerofoil Eust ,e"ins to Mo&e

"nitially the flo! starts !ith the /ero circulation around the closed path. Thereafter due to the change in angle of attac+ or flo! velocity if a fresh starting vortex is shed the circulation around the !ing !ill ad,ust itself so that a net /ero vorticity is set around the closed path. Eeal !ings have finite span or finite aspect ratio (AE) G defined as

38

(#&.18)

!here b is the span length As is the plan form area as seen from the top.. For a !ing of finite span the end conditions affect both the lift and the drag. "n the leading edge region pressure at the bottom surface of a !ing is higher than that at the top surface. The longitudinal vortices are generated at the edges of finite !ing o!ing to pressure differences bet!een the bottom surface directly facing the flo! and the top surface.

Fi" (-$<

2ortices Around

Finite 1in"

39

Fi" (-$> 3ener tion of Lon"itudin l 2ortices

H "en .oiseuille Flow

Consider full% de&eloped laminar flo! through a straight tube of circular cross1section as in Fig. #8.&. Eotational symmetry is considered to ma+e the flo! t!o1dimensional axisymmetric. -et us ta+e /1axis as the axis of the tube along !hich all the fluid particles travel i.e.

Fig 26.3 - Hagen-Poiseuille flow through a pipe

(o! from continuity e5uation !e obtain

40

% For rotational symmetry

!hich means

&

"nvo+ing

in the

(avier1*to+es e5uations !e obtain

(#8.&) (in the /1direction) For ste d% flow the governing e5uation becomes

(#8.')

The boundary conditions are1 6i7 At r ? $ ;5uation (#8.') can be !ritten as

is finite and 6ii7 r ? E

yields

or

or or or

At r ?$

is finite !hich means A should be e5ual to /ero and at r ? E

? $ yields

41

(#8.4) T'is s'ows t' t t'e +i l &elocit% profile in p r )olic & ri tion lon" r$ At r ? $ as such full% de&eloped l !in r pipe flow is ' &in"

(#8.8a) The average velocity in the channel

or

(#8.8b) (#8.8c)

or (o! the discharge (T) through a pipe is given by

(#8.9)

or

YFrom ;5. #8.8bZ

or

(#8.F)

. r llel Flow in

Str i"'t C' nnel

Consider ste d% flow )etween two infinitel% )ro d p r llel pl tes as sho!n in Fig. #4.#.

42

Flo! is independent of any variation in / direction hence / dependence is gotten rid of and ;5. (#4.11) becomes

FI3 (8$( . r llel flow in

str i"'t c' nnel

(#4.1#)

The boundary conditions are at y ? b u ? $[ and y ? 1b u ? <. From ;5. (#4.1#) !e can !rite

or Applying the boundary conditions the constants are evaluated as

and *o the solution is (#4.1&)

!hich implies that the velocity profile is parabolic. A&er "e 2elocit% nd M +i!u! 2elocit% To establish the relationship bet!een the maximum velocity and average velocity in the channel !e analy/e as follo!s

43

At y ? $

[ this yields

(#4.1'a)

<n the other hand the average velocity

or

Finally

(#4.1'b'

(#4.1'c) *o or The shearing stress at the !all for the parallel flo! in a channel can be determined from the velocity gradient as

*ince the upper plate is a Iminus y surfaceI a negative stress acts in the positive x direction i.e. to the right. The local friction coefficient #f is defined by

(#4.1'd)

!here (#b).

is the Eeynolds number of flo! based on average velocity and the channel height

44

;xperiments sho! that ;5. (#4.1'd) is valid in the laminar regime of the channel flo!. The maximum Eeynolds number value corresponding to fully developed laminar flo! for !hich a stable motion !ill persist is #&$$. "n a reasonably careful experiment laminar flo! can be observed up to even Ee ? 1$ $$$. :ut the value belo! !hich the flo! !ill al!ays remain laminar i.e. t'e critic l & lue of Re is (-HH$

Losses nd Friction F ctors

<ver a finite length l the head loss Combining ;5s (#8.1$) and (#8.11) !e get

(#8.11)

(#8.1#) or <n the other hand the head loss in a pipe flo! is given by D rc%;1eis) c' for!ul as

(#8.1&)

!here IfI is >arcy friction factor . ;5uations (#8.1#) and (#8.1&) yield

!hich finally gives

!here

is the Eeynolds number.

*o for a fully developed laminar flo! the D rc% 6or Mood%7 friction f ctor is given by (#8.1'a)

Alternatively the s?in friction coefficient for 0agen1Loiseuille flo! can be expressed by

45

With the help of ;5s (#8.Kb) and (#8.Kc) it can be !ritten (#8.1'b) The s+in friction coefficient C f is called as Fanning%s friction factor . From comparison of ;5s (#8.1'a) and (#8.1'b) it appears

For fully developed turbulent flo! the analysis is much more complicated and !e generally depend on experimental results. Friction factor for a !ide range of Eeynolds number (1$ ' to 1$F) can be obtained from a loo+1up chart . Friction factor for high Eeynolds number flo!s is also a function of tube surface condition. 0o!ever in circular tube flo! is laminar for Ee \ #&$$ and turbulent regime starts !ith Ee ] '$$$. The surface condition of the tube is another responsible parameter in determination of friction factor. Friction factor in the turbulent regime is determined for different degree of surface1

roughness of the pipe !here hydraulic diameter of the pipe .

is the dimensional roughness and $h is usually the

Friction factors for different Eeynolds number and surface1roughness have been determined experimentally by various investigators and the comprehensive results are expressed through a graphical presentation !hich is +no!n as Mood% C' rt after L$F$ Mood% !ho compiled it. The hydraulic diameter !hich is used as the characteristic length in determination of friction factor instead of ordinary geometrical diameter is defined as (#8.14)

!here A! is the flo! area and L! is the !etted perimeter .

46

@inetic ener"% correction f ctor , its profile through elemental area through per unit time .

The +inetic energy associated !ith the fluid flo!ing !ith and the total +inetic energy passing

This can be related to the +inetic energy due to average velocity( factor . as

) through a correction

or 0ere for 0agen1Loiseuille flo!

Flow )etween Two Concentric Rot tin" C%linders

Another example !hich leads to an exact solution of (avier1*to+es e5uation is the flo! bet!een two concentric rot tin" c%linders$ Consider flo! in the annulus of t!o cylinders (Fig. #8.4) !here r 1 and r# are the radii of inner and outer cylinders respectively and the cylinders move !ith different rotational speeds # and ( respectively

FIG 26. - Flow between two concentric rotating cylinders

From the physics of the problem !e +no! . From the continuity ;5. and these t!o conditions !e obtain

47

!hich means be neglected and

is not a function of . Assume % dimension to be large enough so that end effects can (any property) ? $. s%!!etr%I holds

This implies . With these simplifications and assuming that I good (avier1*to+es e5uation reduces to

(#8.19)

(#8.1F) and ;5uation (#8.19) signifies that the centrifugal force is supplied by the radial pressure exerted by the !all of the enclosure on the fluid. "n other !ords it describes the r di l pressure distri)ution$ From ;5. (#8.1F) !e get

or For the a/imuthal component of velocity the boundary conditions are= at

(#8.1K)

at . Application of these boundary conditions on ;5. (#8.1K) !ill produce

and

Finally the velocity distribution is given by

48

(#8.#$)

1 ll S'e r Stress
With the profile +no!n !all shear can be evaluated as

(o!

or

or

from Table #F.1

(#K.1a) 61 ll S'e r Stress7

and the local s+in friction coefficient is *ubstituting from (#K.1a) !e get

(#K.1b) 6S?in Friction Coefficient7 "n 1K41 -iepmann and >ha!an measured the shearing stress on a flat plate directly. Their results sho!ed a stri+ing confirmation of ;5. (#K.1).

49

Total frictional force per unit !idth for the plate of length - is

or

or

(#K.#)

and the average s+in friction coefficient is

(#K.&)

!here

For a flat plate of length - in the stream!ise direction and !idth ! perpendicular to the flo! the >rag > !ould be

(#K.')

,ound r% L %er T'ic?ness

*ince that point !here it is customary to select the boundary layer thic+ness ppro c'es H$AA$ as

50

From Table #F.1

re c'es H$AA t IG 8$H and !e can !rite

(#K.4)

0o!ever the aforesaid definition of boundary layer thic+ness is some!hat arbitrary a physically more meaningful measure of boundary layer estimation is expressed through displ ce!ent thic+ness .

Fi"$ (A$# 6Displ ce!ent t'ic?ness7

6)7 Mo!entu! t'ic?ness

Displ ce!ent t'ic?ness / "t is defined as the distance by !hich the external potential flo! is displaced out!ards due to the decrease in velocity in the boundary layer.

(#K.8) Therefore

*ubstituting the values of and from ;5s (#F.#1a) and (#F.1K) into ;5.(#K.8) !e obtain

51

or

(#K.9)

Follo!ing the analogy of the displacement thic+ness a momentum thic+ness may be defined. )omentum thic+ness ( )= "t is defined as the loss of momentum in the boundary layer as compared !ith that of potential flo!. Thus

(#K.F)

With the substitution of value of for a flat plate as

and

from ;g. (#F.#1a) and (#F.1K) !e can evaluate numerically the

(#K.K)

) e relations i#s bet$een Seper tion of ,ound r% L %er

ave been s o$n in Fig( *+(,(

"t has been observed that the flow is re&ersed t t'e &icinit% of t'e w ll under certain conditions. The phenomenon is termed as sep r tion of )ound r% l %er. *eparation ta+es place due to e+cessi&e !o!entu! loss ne r t'e w ll in tr%in" to !o&e downstre ! " inst incre sin" pressure4 i$e$4 c lled ad!erse pressure gradient$ )ound r% l %er 4 w'ic' is

Figure #K.# sho!s the flo! past a circular cylinder in an infinite medium. 1. Ap to the flo! area is li+e a constricted passage and the flo! behaviour is li+e that of a no//le. #. :eyond the flo! area is diverged therefore the flo! behaviour is much similar to a diffuser

52

This dictates the inviscid pressure distribution on the cylinder !hich is sho!n by a firm line in Fig. #K.#. 0ere / pressure in t'e free stre ! / &elocit% in t'e free stre ! nd " is t'e loc l pressure on t'e c%linder$

Fi"$ (A$( Flow sep r tion nd for! tion of w ?e )e'ind

Consider the "n the in&iscid re"ion4 forces in the

circul r c%linder
flo! field.

1. Until the pressure force and the force due to stream!ise acceleration i.e. inertia forces are acting in the same direction ( pressure "r dient being ne" ti&eJf &our )le)

53

#. ,e%ond the pressure "r dient is positi&e or d&erse. >ue to the adverse pressure gradient the pressure force and the force due to acceleration !ill be opposing each other in the in viscid /one of this part. *o long as no viscous effect is considered the situation does not cause any sensation. "n the &iscid re"ion (near the solid boundary) 1. Up to 4 t'e viscous force opposes the combined pressure force and the force due to acceleration. Fluid particles overcome this viscous resistance due to continuous con&ersion of pressure force into ?inetic ener"%$ #. :eyond !ithin the viscous /one the flo! structure becomes different. "t is seen that the force due to acceleration is opposed by both the viscous force and pressure force. >epending upon the magnitude of adverse pressure gradient so!ew'ere round 4 t'e fluid p rticles4 in t'e bound r% l %er re sep r ted fro! t'e w ll and driven in the upstream direction. 0o!ever the far field external stream pushes bac+ these separated layers together !ith it and develops )ro d puls tin" w ?e )e'ind t'e c%linder . T'e ! t'e! tic l e+pl n tion of flow;sep r tion / The point of separation may be defined as the limit bet!een for!ard and reverse flo! in the layer very close to the !all i.e. at the point of separation

(#K.18)

This means that the shear stress at the !all . :ut at this point the adverse pressure continues to exist and at the do!nstream of this point the flo! acts in a reverse direction resulting in a bac+ flo!. We can also explain flo! separation using the argument about the second derivative of velocity & at the !all. From the dimensional form of the momentum at the !all !here & ' v ' ! !e can !rite

(#K.19)

Consider the situation due to a f &our )le pressure "r dient !here 1. . (From ;5. (#K.19))

!e have

54

#. As we proceed tow rds t'e free stre !4 t'e &elocit% u ppro c'es s%!ptotic ll%4 so &. '. This means that decreases at a continuously lesser rate in ydirection. remains less than /ero near the edge of the boundary layer. is al!ays negative as sho!n in (Fig. #K.&a)

The curvature of a velocity profile

Consider the case of d&erse pressure "r dient 1. At the boundary the curvature of the profile must be positive (since ).

#. (ear the interface of boundary layer and free stream the previous argument regarding &. and still holds good and the curvature is negative.

Thus !e observe that for an adverse pressure gradient there must exist a point for !hich . This point is +no!n as point o( in()ection of the velocity profile in the boundary layer as sho!n in Fig. #K.&b

'. 0o!ever point of separation means 4.

at the !all.

at the !all since separation can only occur due to adverse pressure gradient. :ut !e have already seen that at the edge of the boundary layer . "t is therefore clear that if t'ere is point of sep r tion4 t'ere !ust e+ist inflection in t'e &elocit% profile$ point of

55

Fi"$ (A$- 2elocit% distri)ution wit'in

)ound r% l %er

(a) Favourable pressure gradient (b) adverse pressure gradient 1. -et us reconsider the flo! past a circular cylinder and continue our discussion on t'e w ?e )e'ind c%linder$ The pressure distribution !hich !as sho!n by the firm line in Fig. #1.4 is obtained from the potential flo! theory. 0o!ever. some!here near 6in e+peri!ents it ' s )een o)ser&ed to )e t 7 $ t'e )ound r% l %er det c'es itself fro! t'e w ll$ #. )ean!hile pressure in t'e w ?e re! ins close to sep r tion;point;pressure since the eddies (formed as a conse5uence of the retarded layers being carried together !ith the upper layer through the action of shear) cannot convert rotational +inetic energy into pressure head. The actual pressure distribution is sho!n by the dotted line in Fig. #K.&. &. *ince the w ?e *one pressure is less t' n t' t of t'e forw rd st "n tion point (pressure at point A in Fig. #K.&) the cylinder experiences a drag force !hich is basically attributed to the pressure difference.

56

T'e dr " force4 )rou"'t )out )% t'e pressure difference is ?nown s for# drag w'ere s t'e s'e r stress t t'e w ll "i&es rise to s$in friction drag$Penerally these t!o drag forces together are responsible for resultant drag on a body

Concept of Friction F ctor in

pipe flow/

The friction factor in the case of a pipe flo! !as already mentioned in lecture #8. We !ill elaborate further on friction factor or friction coefficient in this section. *+in friction coefficient for a fully developed flo! through a closed duct is defined as

(&4.1)

!here * is the average velocity of flo! given by duct and the cross1sectional area of the duct respectively.

+ and A are the volume flo! rate through the

From a force balance of a typical fluid element (Fig. &4.1) in course of its flo! through a duct of constant cross1sectional area !e can !rite

(&4.#)

FI3 -8$# Force , l nce of

fluid ele!ent in t'e course of flow t'rou"'

duct

!here

is the shear stress at the !all and

is the pie/ometric pressure drop over a length

57

of L . A and S are respectively the cross1sectional area and !etted perimeter of the duct. *ubstituting the expression (&4.#) in ;5. (&4.1) !e have

(&4.&)

!here

and

is

+no!n

as

the '%dr ulic

di !eter .

"n case of a circular pipe $h?$ the diameter of the pipe. The coefficient #f defined by ;5s (&4.1) or (&4.&) is +no!n as F nnin"Fs friction f ctor . To do a!ay !ith the factor 12' in the ;5. (&4.&) >arcy defined a friction factor f 6D rc%Fs friction f ctor7 as

(&4.') Comparison of ;5s (&4.&) and (&4.') gives flo! as . ;5uation (&4.') can be !ritten for a pipe

(&4.4) ;5uation (&4.4) is !ritten in a different fashion for its use in the solution of pipe flo! problems in practice as (&4.8a) or in terms of head loss (energy loss per unit !eight)

(&4.8b)

!here hf represents the loss of head due to friction over the length - of the pipe. ;5uation (&4.8b) is fre5uently used in practice to determine hf "n order to evaluate hf !e re5uire to +no! the value of f. The value of f can be determined from )oody%s Chart.

2 ri tion of Friction F ctor

"n case of a laminar fully developed flo! through pipes the friction factor ( is found from the exact solution of the (avier1*to+es e5uation as discussed in lecture #8. "t is given by

58

(&4.9) "n the case of a turbulent flo! friction factor depends on both the Eeynolds number and the roughness of pipe surface. *ir Thomas ;. *tanton (1F8411K&1) first started conducting experiments on a number of pipes of various diameters and materials and !ith various fluids.After!ards a Perman engineer (i+uradse carried out experiments on flo!s through pipes in a very !ide range of Eeynolds number. A comprehensive documentation of the experimental and theoretical investigations on the la!s of friction in pipe flo!s has been presented in the form of a diagram as sho!n in Fig. &4.# by L$F$ Mood% to sho! the variation of friction factor ( !ith the pertinent governing parameters namely the Eeynolds number of flo! and the relative roughness of the pipe. This diagram is +no!n as Mood%Fs C' rt !hich is employed till today as the best means for predicting the values of ( .

Fi"$ -8$( Friction F ctors for pipes 6 d pted fro! Tr ns$ ASME4 9949<(4 #A007
Figure &4.# depicts that The friction factor ( at a given Eeynolds number in the turbulent region depends on the relative roughness defined as the ratio of average roughness to the diameter of the pipe rather than the absolute roughness. For moderate degree of roughness a pipe acts as a smooth pipe up to a value of Ee !here the curve of ( vs Re for the pipe coincides !ith that of a smooth pipe. This /one is +no!n as the s!oot' *one of flow .

59

The region !here ( vs Ee curves (Fig. &4.#) become hori/ontal sho!ing that f is independent of Re is +no!n as the rou"' *one and the intermediate region bet!een the smooth and rough /one is +no!n as the tr nsition *one. The position and extent of all these /ones depend on the relative roughness of the pipe. "n the smooth /one of flo! the laminar sublayer becomes thic+ and hence it covers appreciably the irregular surface protrusions. Therefore all the curves for smooth flo! coincide. With increasing Eeynolds number the thic+ness of sublayer decreases and hence the surface bumps protrude through it. The higher is the roughness of the pipe the lo!er is the value of Re at !hich the curve of ( vs Re branches off from smooth pipe curve (Fig. &4.#). "n the rough /one of flo! the flo! resistance is mainly due to the form drag of those protrusions. The pressure drop in this region is approximately proportional to the s5uare of the average velocity of flo!. Thus ( becomes independent of Re in this region.

"n practice there are three distinct classes of problems relating to flo! through a single pipe line as follo!s= 1. The flo! rate and pipe diameter are given. <ne has to determine the loss of head over a given length of pipe and the corresponding po!er re5uired to maintain the flo! over that length. #. The loss of head over a given length of a pipe of +no!n diameter is given. <ne has to find out the flo! rate and the transmission of po!er accordingly. &. The flo! rate through a pipe and the corresponding loss of head over a part of its length are given. <ne has to find out the diameter of the pipe. "n the first category of problems the friction factor ( is found out explicitly from the given values of flo! rate and pipe diameter. Therefore the loss of head hf and the po!er re5uired P can be calculated by the straightfor!ard application of ;5.(&4.8b).

Concept of Flow .otenti l nd Flow Resist nce

Consider the flo! of !ater from one reservoir to another as sho!n in Fig. &4.&. The t!o reservoirs A and : are maintained !ith constant levels of !ater. The difference bet!een these t!o levels is as sho!n in the figure. Therefore !ater flo!s from reservoir A to reservoir , .

Fi" -8$- Flow of li=uid fro! one reser&oir to not'er

60

Application of :ernoulli%s e5uation bet!een t!o points A and , at the free surfaces in the t!o reservoirs gives

(&4.1$)

!here

is the loss of head in the course of flo! from A to , . Therefore ;5. (&4.1$) states that under steady state the head causing flo! to the total loss of head due to the flo!. Considering the possible hydrodynamic losses the total loss of head of its different components as becomes e5ual

can be !ritten in terms

(&4.11) -oss of heat atFriction loss in ;xit loss entry to the pipepipe over its reservoir : from reservoir A length !here * is the average velocity of flo! in the pipe. The velocity * in the above e5uation is usually substituted in terms of flo! rate + since under steady state the flo! rate remains constant throughout the pipe even if its diameter changes. Therefore replacing 7 in ;5. (&4.11) as !e finally get

to

the

or

(&4.1#) (&4.1&)

!here The term R is defined as the flow resist nce . "n a situation !here f becomes independent of Re the flo! resistance expressed by ;g. (&4.1&) becomes simply a function of the pipe geometry. With the help of ;5. (&4.1$) ;5. (&4.1#) can be !ritten as (&4.1')

61

in ;5. (&4.1') is the head causing the flo! and is defined as the difference in flo! potentials bet!een A and :. This e5uation is comparable to the voltage1current relationship in a purely resistive electrical circuit. "n a purely resistive electrical circuit !here is the voltage or electrical potential difference across a resistor !hose resistance is R and the electrical current flo!ing through it is -. The difference ho!ever is that !hile the voltage drop in an electrical circuit is linearly proportional to current the difference in the flo! potential in a fluid circuit is proportional to the s5uare of the flo! rate. Therefore the fluid flo! system as sho!n in Fig. &4.& and described by ;5. (&4.1') can be expressed by an e5uivalent electrical net!or+ system as sho!n in Fig. &4.'.

Fi" -8$0 E=ui& lent electric l networ? s%ste! for Fi"$-8$-

si!ple pipe flow pro)le! s'own in

Flow T'rou"' ,r nc'ed .ipes

"n several practical situations flo! ta+es place under a given head through different pipes ,ointed together either in series or in parallel or in a combination of both of them.

.ipes in Series
"f a pipeline is ,oined to one or more pipelines in continuation these are said to constitute pipes in series. A typical example of pipes in series is sho!n in Fig. &8.1. 0ere three pipes A, , and # are ,oined in series.

Fi" -9$# .ipes in series

"n this case rate of flo! + remains same in each pipe. 0ence

62

"f the total head available at *ec. 1 (at the inlet to pipe A) is !hich is greater than the total head at *ec. # (at the exit of pipe C) then the flo! ta+es place from 1 to # through the system of pipelines in series. Application of :ernoulli%s e5uation bet!een *ecs.1 and # gives

!here

is the loss of head due to the flo! from 1 to #. Eecogni/ing the minor and ma,or losses can be !ritten as

associated !ith the flo!

-oss due -oss due to to abrupt Friction loss Friction loss Friction enlargement at contraction in pipe A in pipe : pipe C entry to pipe : at entry to pipe C

(&8.1) loss in

The subscripts A, , and # refer to the 5uantities in pipe A : and C respectively. C c is the coefficient of contraction. The flo! rate T satisfies the e5uation

(&8.#)

7elocities 7A 7: and 7C in ;5. (&8.1) are substituted from ;5. (&8.#) and !e get

(&8.&)

63

(&8.')

;5uation (&8.') states that the total flo! resistance is e5ual to the sum of the different resistance components. Therefore the above problem can be described by an e5uivalent electrical net!or+ system as sho!n in Fig. &8.#.

Fi" -9$( E=ui& lent electric l networ? s%ste! for t'rou"' pipes in series

.ipes In . r llel
When t!o or more pipes are connected as sho!n in Fig. &8.& so that the flo! divides and subse5uently comes together again the pipes are said to be in parallel. "n this case (Fig. &8.&) e5uation of continuity gives (&8.4)

!here + is the total flo! rate and

and

are the flo! rates through pipes A and , respectively.

-oss of head bet!een the locations 1 and # can be expressed by applying :ernoulli%s e5uation either through the path 11A1# or 11:1#. Therefore !e can !rite

Fi" -9$- .ipes in . r llel

64

and

;5uating the above t!o expressions !e get 1

(&8.8)

!here

;5uations (&8.4) and (&8.8) give 1 (&8.9)

(&8.F) !here The flo! system can be described by an e5uivalent electrical circuit as sho!n in Fig. &8.'.

Fi" -9$0 E=ui& lent electric l networ? s%ste! for flow t'rou"' pipes in p r llel

65

From the above discussion on flo! through branched pipes (pipes in series or in parallel or in combination of both) the follo!ing principles can be summari/ed= 1. The friction e5uation must be satisfied for each pipe. #. There can be only one value of head at any point. &. Algebraic sum of the flo! rates at any ,unction must be /ero. i.e. the total mass flo! rate to!ards the ,unction must be e5ual to the total mass flo! rate a!ay from it. '. Algebraic sum of the products of the flux (T #) and the flo! resistance (the sense being determined by the direction of flo!) must be /ero in any closed hydraulic circuit.

The principles & and ' can be !ritten analytically as at a node (3unction) in a loop (&8.K) (&8.1$)

While ;5. (&8.K) implies the principle of continuity in a hydraulic circuit ;5. (&8.1$) is referred to as pressure e5uation of the circuit.

.ipe Networ?/ Solution )% H rd% Cross Met'od

The distribution of !ater supply in practice is often made through a pipe net!or+ comprising a combination of pipes in series and parallel. The flo! distribution in a pipe net!or+ is determined from ;5s(&8.K) and (&8.1$). The solution of ;5s (&8.K) and (&8.1$) for the purpose is based on an iterative techni5ue !ith an initial guess in + The method !as proposed by 0ardy1Cross and is described belo!= The flo! rates in each pipe are assumed so that the continuity (;5. &8.K) at each node is satisfied. Asually the flo! rate is assumed more for smaller values of resistance R and vice versa. "f the assumed values of flo! rates are not correct the pressure e5uation ;5. (&8.1$) !ill not be satisfied. The flo! rate is then altered based on the error in satisfying the ;5. (&8.1$).

-et T$ be the correct flo! in a path !hereas the assumed flo! be T. The error d + in flo! is then defined as (&8.11) -et and (&8.1#a) (&8.1#b)

Then according to ;5. (&8.1$)

66

in a loop and in a loop

(&8.1&a) (&8.1&b)

Where .e. is defined to be the error in pressure e5uation for a loop !ith the assumed values of flo! rate in each path. From ;5s (&8.1&a) and (&8.1&b) !e have

or

(&8.1')

Where dh (? h 1 h% ) is the error in pressure e5uation for a path. Again from ;5. (&8.1#a) !e can !rite

or *ubstituting the value of dh from ;5. (&8.14) in ;5. (&8.1') !e have

(&8.14)

Considering the error dT to be the same for all hydraulic paths in a loop !e can !rite

(&8.18)

The ;5. (&8.18) can be !ritten !ith the help of ;5s (&8.1#a) and (&8.1#b) as

(&8.19)

The error in flo! rate d+ is determined from ;5. (&8.19) and the flo! rate in each path of a loop is then altered according to ;5. (&8.11).

The 0ardy1Cross method can also be applied to a hydraulic circuit containing a pump or a turbine. The pressure e5uation (;5. (&8.1$)) is only modified in consideration of a head source (pump) or a head sin+ (turbine) as (&8.1F) !here is the head delivered by a source in the circuit. Therefore the value of in ;5. (&8.1F) !ill be positive for a pump and negative for a turbine. to be substituted

67

Losses In .ipe ,ends

:ends are provided in pipes to change the direction of flo! through it. An additional loss of head apart from that due to fluid friction ta+es place in the course of flo! through pipe bend. The fluid ta+es a curved path !hile flo!ing through a pipe bend as sho!n in Fig. &9.#.

Fi"$ -<$( Flow t'rou"' pipe )end

Whenever a fluid flo!s in a curved path there must be a force acting radially in!ards on the fluid to provide the in!ard acceleration +no!n as centripet l cceler tion. This results in an increase in pressure near the outer !all of the bend starting at some point A (Fig. &9.#) and rising to a maximum at some point , . There is also a reduction of pressure near the inner !all giving a minimum pressure at # and a subse5uent rise from # to $ . Therefore )etween % nd & nd )etween C nd D t'e fluid e+periences n d&erse pressure "r dient (the pressure increases in the direction of flo!). Fluid particles in this region because of their close proximity to the !all have lo! velocities and cannot overcome the adverse pressure gradient and this leads to a separation of flo! from the boundary and conse5uent losses of energy in generating local eddies. Losses lso t ?e pl ce due to second r% flow in t'e r di l pl ne of t'e pipe )ec use of c' n"e in pressure in t'e r di l dept' of t'e pipe$ This flo! in con,unction !ith the main flo! produces a typical spiral motion of the fluid !hich persists even for a do!nstream distance of fifty times the pipe diameter from the central plane of the bend. This spiral motion of the fluid increases the local flo! velocity and the velocity gradient at the pipe !all and therefore results in a greater frictional loss of head than that !hich occurs for the same rate of flo! in a straight pipe of the same length and diameter. The additional loss of head (apart from that due to usual friction) in flo! through pipe bends is +no!n as )end loss and is usually expressed as a fraction of the velocity head as !here * is the average velocity of flo! through the pipe. The value of K depends on the total length of the bend and the ratio of radius of curvature of the bend and pipe diameter R/$. The radius of curvature R is usually ta+en

68

as the radius of curvature of the centre line of the bend. The factor K varies slightly !ith Eeynolds number Ee in the typical range of Ee encountered in practice but increases !ith surface roughness.

Losses In .ipe Fittin"s

An additional loss of head ta+es place in the course of flo! through pipe fittings li+e valves couplings and so on. "n1general more restricted the passage is greater is the loss of head. For turbulent flo! the losses are proportional to the s5uare of the average flo! velocity and are usually expressed by !here * is the average velocity of flo!. The value of K depends on the exact shape of the flo! passages. Typical values of K are

Appro+i! te Loss Coefficients4 ' for Co!!erci l .ipe Fittin"s (

T%pe nd position of fittin"s 3lo)e & l&e4wide open 3 te & l&e4 wide open 3 te & l&e4 t'ree;=u rters open 3 te & l&e4 ' lf open 3 te & l&e4 =u rter open .u!p foot & l&e AHKel)ow6t're ded7 08Kel)ow6t're ded7 Side outlet of T :unction

2 lues of '
#H H$( #$#8 8$9 (0 #$8

0.9 0.4
#$>

*ince the eddies generated by fittings persist for some distance do!nstream the total loss of head caused by t!o fittings close together is not necessarily the same as the sum of the losses !hich each alone !ould cause. These losses are sometimes expressed in terms of an e5uivalent length of an unobstructed straight pipe in !hich an e5ual loss !ould occur for the same average flo! velocity. That is

(&9.4) !here represents the e5uivalent length !hich is usually expressed in terms of the

pipe diameter as given by ;5. (&9.4). T'us depends upon t'e friction f ctor f 4 nd t'erefore on t'e Re%nolds nu!)er nd rou"'ness of t'e pipe$

69

UNIT III
70

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

T'e Applic tion of D%n !ic Si!il rit% ; T'e Di!ension l An l%sis
T'e concept/
A physical problem may be characterised by a group of dimensionless similarity parameters or variables rather than by the original dimensional variables. This gives a clue to the reduction in the number of parameters re5uiring separate consideration in an experimental investigation. For an e+ !ple4 if the Eeynolds number Ee ? O7 > h 2^ is considered as the independent variable in case of a flo! of fluid through a closed duct of hydraulic diameter > h then a change in Ee may be caused through a change in flo! velocity 7 only. Thus a range of Ee can be covered simply by the variation in 7 !ithout varying other independent dimensional variables O > h and ^.

-n fact

the variation in the Eeynolds number physically implies the variation in any of the dimensional parameters defining it though the change in Ee may be obtained through the variation in anyone parameter say the velocity 7. A number of such di!ensionless p r !eters in relation to dynamic similarity are sho!n in Table 4.1. *ometimes it becomes diffcult to derive these parameters straight for!ard from an estimation of the representative order of magnitudes of the forces involved. An alternative !et'od of deter!inin" t'ese di!ensionless p r !eters )% ! t'e! tic l tec'ni=ue is ?nown s di!ension l n l%sis .

T'e Tec'ni=ue/
The re5uirement of dimensional homogeneity imposes conditions on the 5uantities involved in a physical problem and these restrictions placed in the form of an algebraic function by the re5uirement of dimensional homogeneity play the central role in dimensional analysis. There are t!o existing approaches[ one due to :uc+ingham +no!n as ,uc?in"' !Fs pi t'eore! other due to Eayleigh +no!n as R %lei"'Fs Indici l !et'od

"n our next slides !e%ll see fe! examples of the dimensions of physical 5uantities.

Di!ensions of .'%sic l Lu ntities

All physical 5uantities are expressed by magnitudes and units. For e(a#ple the velocity and acceleration of a fluid particle are Fm2s and 1$m2s # respectively. 0ere the dimensions of velocity and acceleration are ms11 and ms1#respectively. "n SI 6S%ste! Intern tion l7 units4 t'e pri! r% p'%sic l =u ntities w'ic' re ssi"ned ) se di!ensions re t'e ! ss4 len"t'4 ti!e4 te!per ture4 current nd lu!inous intensit%$ Of t'ese4 t'e

71

first four re used in fluid !ec' nics nd t'e% re s%!)oli*ed s M 6! ss74 L 6len"t'74 T 6ti!e74 nd M 6te!per ture7$ Any physical 5uantity can be expressed in terms of these primary 5uantities by using the basic mathematical definition of the 5uantity. The resulting expression is +no!n as the dimension of the 5uantity.

-et us ta+e some e+ !ples/

#$ Di!ension of Stress
*hear stress is defined as force2area. Again force ? mass _ acceleration

>imensions of acceleration ? >imensions of velocity2>imension of time.

Dimension of area = (Length)2 =L2

0ence dimension of shear stress (1K.1)

($ Di!ension of 2iscosit%
Consider (e!ton%s la! for the definition of viscosity as

or,

The dimension of velocity gradient du2dy can be !ritten as

72

di!ension of duJd%G di!ension of uJdi!ension of % G 6L J T7JL G T The dimension of shear stress 0ence dimension of is given in ;5. (1K.1).

;#

Di!ensions of 2 rious .'%sic l Lu ntities in T )ul r For! t

Lhysical Tuantity )ass -ength Time Temperature 7elocity Angular velocity Acceleration Angular Acceleration Force Thrust Weight *tress Lressure )omentum Angular )omentum )oment Tor5ue Wor+ ;nergy Lo!er *tream Function 7orticity *hear Eate 7elocity Lotential >ensity Coefficient of >ynamic 7iscosity Coefficient of Dinematic 7iscosity *urface Tension :ul+ )odulus of ;lasticity >imension ) T V -T 11 T 11 -T 1# T 1# )-T 1# )- 11T 1# )-T 11 )-#T 11 )-#T 1# )-#T 1# )-#T 1& -#T 11 T 11 -#T 11 )-1& )- 11T 11 -#T 11 )T 1# )- 11T 1#

,uc?in"' !Fs .i T'eore!

Assume a physical phenomenon is described by ! nu!)er of independent & ri )les li?e +# 4 +( 4 +- 4 $$$4 +!

73

The phenomenon may be expressed analytically by an implicit functional relationship of the controlling variables as (1K.#)

(o! if n )e t'e nu!)er of fund !ent l di!ensions li?e ! ss4 len"t'4 ti!e4 te!per ture etc . involved in these m variables then according to :uc+ingham%s p theorem 1 T'e p'eno!enon c n )e descri)ed in ter!s of 6! ; n7 independent di!ensionless "roups li?e N# 4N( 4 $$$4 N!;n 4 !here p terms represent the dimensionless parameters and consist of different combinations of a number of dimensional variables out of the m independent variables defining the problem. Therefore. the analytical version of the phenomenon given by ;5. (1K.#) can be reduced to (1K.&) ccordin" to ,uc?in"' !Fs pi t'eore! This physically implies that the p'eno!enon !hich is basically described by m independent dimensional variables is ulti! tel% controlled )% 6!;n7 independent di!ensionless p r !eters ?nown s N ter!s$

Altern ti&e M t'e! tic l Description of 6N7 .i T'eore!

A physical problem described by m number of variables involving n number of fundamental dimensions (n C m) leads to a system of n linear algebraic e5uations !ith m variables of the form

(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((
(1K.') or in a matrix form (1K.4)

74

!here

and

Deter!in tion of N ter!s

A group of n (n ? number of fundamental dimensions) variables out of m (m ? total number of independent variables defining the problem) variables is first chosen to form a basis so that all n dimensions are represented . These n variables are referred to as repeating variables. Then the p terms are formed by the product of these repeating variables raised to arbitrary un+no!n integer exponents and anyone of the excluded (m 1n) variables.

For e(a#ple if x1 x# ...xn are ta+en as the repeating variables. Then

(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((

The sets of integer exponents #4 ( $ $ $ n re different for e c' p ter!$ *ince p terms are dimensionless it re5uires that !hen all the variables in any p term are expressed in terms of their fundamental dimensions the exponent of all the fundamental dimensions must be /ero. This leads to a system of n linear e5uations in a a # . . . an !hich gives a uni5ue solution for the exponents. This gives the values of a1 a# . . . an for each p term and hence the p terms are uni5uely defined.

"n selecting the repeating variables the follo!ing points have to be considered= 1. The repeating variables must include among them all the n fundamental dimensions not necessarily in each one but collectively. #. The dependent variable or the output parameter of the physical phenomenon should not be included in the repeating variables.

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No p'%sic l p'eno!en is represented w'en ;

!On because there is no solution nd

! G n because there is a uni5ue solution of the variables involved and hence all the parameters have fixed values. ll fe si)le p'eno!en re defined wit' ! P n $

( T'erefore

1'en ! G n Q #4 then according to the Li theorem the number of pi term is one and the phenomenon can be expressed as

!here the non1dimensional term X 1 is some specific combination of n M 1 variables involved in the problem. 1'en ! P nQ # 4

1.
#.

the number of X terms are more than one. A number of choices regarding the repeating variables arise in this case.

Again it is true that if one of the repeating variables is changed it results in a different set of X terms. Therefore the interesting 5uestion is w'ic' set of repe tin" & ri )les is to )e c'osen to arrive at the correct set of X terms to describe the problem. The nswer to t'is =uestion lies in t'e f ct t' t different sets of N ter!s resultin" fro! t'e use of different sets of repe tin" & ri )les re not independent$ T'us4 n%one of suc' interdependent sets is !e nin"ful in descri)in" t'e s !e p'%sic l p'eno!enon$ From any set of such X terms one can obtain the other meaningful sets from some combination of the X terms of the existing set !ithout altering their total numbers (m1n) as fixed by the Li theorem.

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