CAD/CAM/CIM

Unit III

Lecture Notes, Prashanth N, Dept of Mechanical Engg | 1

Analysis of Automated Flow Lines
In Analysing the Performance of Automated flowlines two general problem areas must be
distinguished.
1. Production Process
2. Flowline Performance

1. Production Process: Consider a Transfer line that performs a series of machining
operations; this technology includes proper specification & use of cutting tools, the
metallurgy & Machinability of work material, chip control, machining economics,
machine tool vibration etc.

Many of the problems encountered in the operation of a metal cutting transfer line are
directly related to and can be solved by the application of good machining principles.
The same is true for other production processes in each area of production by making
the best use of the given process technology each individual workstations on the line
can be made to operate in an optimal way.

2. Flowline Performance: This Problem area is concerned with the system aspects of
designing & running the line. The Problem of Reliability is normally associated with the
operation of an automated flowline. Since the line operates as a single mechanism,
failure of one component of the mechanism will result in stoppage of the entire line,
however there are approaches to this problem that transcend the manufacturing
process at individual station.

Some of the parameters that affect the performance of the Automated Flowlines are as
follows:

a. How much Improvement can be obtained by using one or more buffer storage
zone?
b. What is the effect of component quality on the operation of an automated
assembly machine?
c. How will the use of manual workstation affect the line?

In addition to reliability problem another system design problem is proper balancing of the
flow line. In Line Balancing the objective is to spread the total workload as evenly as
possible among the station in the line.


CAD/CAM/CIM
Unit III

Lecture Notes, Prashanth N, Dept of Mechanical Engg | 2

Terminologies & Analysis of Automated Flow Lines

Flow line performance is measured by following parameters:
1. Cycle Time
2. Average Production Rate
3. Line Efficiency
4. Cost per piece

Assumptions in the analysis of automated flowlines:
a) The work part transfer is synchronous type
b) The workstation perform processing operations only (Similar to machining operation) no
Assembly Operations are involved
c) Processing time at each work station is constant (But may not be equal to that of other
workstation)
d) Parts are loaded at the first workstation and after processing these parts are transported
to the subsequent work station for further processing

Terminologies:

a) Cycle Time (T
c
) : The Time consumed from the moment it enters a work station till it
reaches the next workstation defines the theoretical or ideal cycle time for a flow line.
Thus it comprises different components such as:
a. Actual processing time at the longest work station.
b. Ideal time spent, if any, at the work station.
c. Transfer time.







Therefore, T
c
= Process Time + Transfer Time (T
r
) + Idle Time (If Any)

Note: In An Automated Flowline the the process taking longest time will set the pace
of the Flowline & Hence Longest processing time should be considered

b) Production Time (T
p
): Production Time is always greater than cycle time by an amount
equal to the down time. The average production time can be mathematically
expressed by the relation,
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Unit III

Lecture Notes, Prashanth N, Dept of Mechanical Engg | 3



Where, T
p
= Average Production Time
T
c
= Cycle Time
F= Frequency of downtime (Linestops/cycle)
T
d
= Average downtime per line stop













Few Possible Reasons for Downtime are as follows:

a) Mechanical Failure: Failure of workstation or the transfer system Eg: Failure of
gears, linkages, Jam in the sliders/conveyor mechanism & so on.
b) Electrical Failure: Loss of main power supply, Electric Motor Failure, Short Circuit,
Overload/Switch gear Tripping etc
c) Tool Failure: Toll Wear, Breakage or jam with the work part due to excessive
cut/feed or incorrect programming of the feeds/depth of cut.
d) Tool Setting: Need for Tool Change, Tool Adjustment etc
e) Input/output delays: Stockout of starting Parts
f) Quality Related Issues: Poor Quality Part, Poor Quality Tool etc
g) Scheduled Maintenance
h) Other Reasons: Accidents, No Line worker etc...

c) Production Rate: the Production rate is the reciprocal of average production time. Thus
it is expressed as




Where, R
p
= Production Rate (parts/min or parts/hour)
T
p
= Production Time (In Mins or Hrs)
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Unit III

Lecture Notes, Prashanth N, Dept of Mechanical Engg | 4

The Ideal Production Rate is given by




Where, R
c
= Ideal Production rate.
T
c
= Cycle Time

(Note: Ideal Production Rate will not have any downtime)

d) Line Efficiency: It refers to the proportion of uptime on the flowline & indicative of the
reliability (rather than efficiency). It is given by the relation,





Where E = the proportion of uptime on the production line.
Tc= Cycle Time
Tp= Production Time
F= Frequency of Downtime
Td= Average Downtime

The other measure of performance/reliability is the proportion of the downtime,
which is nothing but,
D=1 E

Downtime can also be expressed by the relation,




The sum of proportion of uptime & downtime is always unity i.e.
E + D =1 (100% efficient flowline)

e) Cost per Piece (C
pc
) :
An important economic measure of the performance of an automated production line is
the cost of the unit produced.
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Lecture Notes, Prashanth N, Dept of Mechanical Engg | 5

The cost of 1 piece includes the cost of the starting blank that is to processed, the cost of
time on the production line & the cost of the tool consumed. The cost per unit can be
expressed as the sum of three factors:



Where, Cpc = cost per piece (Rs / pc)
Cm = cost of material (Rs / min)
Tp = average production time per piece (min / pc)
Ct = cost of tooling per piece (Rs / pc)
Co = the allocation of capital cost of the equipment over the service life, labour to
Operate the line, applicable overheads, maintenance, & other relevant costs all reduced
to cost per min


FLOWLINES WITHOUT STORAGE BUFFER






In the analysis of Automated flowlines without buffer two approaches are followed
a. Upper Bound Approach
b. Lower Bound Approach

a) Upper Bound Approach:

The upper bound approach provides an upper limit on the frequency on the line stops
per cycle. In this approach we assume that the part remains on the line for further
processing. It is possible that there will be more than one line stop associated with a given
part during its sequence of processing operations.
Let
Pi = probability or frequency of a failure at station i where i = 1, 2,. n

Since a part is not removed from the line when a station jam occurs it is possible that the
part will be associated with a station breakdown at every station.

The expected number of lines stops per part passing through the line is obtained by
summing the frequencies Pi over the n stations. Since each of the n stations is processing a
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Unit III

Lecture Notes, Prashanth N, Dept of Mechanical Engg | 6

part of each cycle, then the expected frequency of line stops per cycle is equal to the
expected frequency of line stops per part i.e.

=

=1


where F = expected frequency of line stops per cycle
Pi = frequency of station break down per cycle, causing a line
Stop
n = number of workstations on the line

If all the Pi are assumed equal, which is unlikely but useful for computation purposes, then

F = n.p

Where, all the Pi are equal (P
1
= P
2
= P
3
........P
n
= P)

b) Lower Bound Approach:
The lower bound approach gives an estimate of the lower limit on the expected
frequency of line stops per cycle. Here we assume that a station breakdown results in
destruction of the part, resulting in removal of the part from the line & preventing its
subsequent processing at the remaining workstations.

Let Pi = the probability that the work piece will jam at a particular station i.

Then considering a given part as it proceeds through the line,

Pi = probability that the part will jam at station 1

(1 - Pi) = probability that the part will not jam station 1 & thus will available for processing at
subsequent stations. A jam at station 2 is contingent on successfully making it through
station 1 & therefore the probability that the same part will jam at station 2 is given by

P
1
(1 P
2
)

Generalising the quantity
P
i
(1 P
i - 1
) (1 P
i - 2
) = (1 P2) (1 P1)

Where i = 1,,2, .n

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Unit III

Lecture Notes, Prashanth N, Dept of Mechanical Engg | 7

Is the probability that a given part will jam at any station i. Summing all these probabilities
from i = 1 through i = n gives the probability or frequency of line stops per cycle.

Probability that the given part will pass through all n stations without a line stop is

(1

=1

)

Therefore the frequency of line stops per cycle

= 1 (1

=1

)

If all the probabilities, Pi, are equal, Pi = P, then

= 1 (1 )

Because of parts removal in the lower bound approach, the number of parts coming of the
Line is less than the number launched onto the front of the line.

If F= frequency of line stops & a part is removed for every line stop, then the proportion of
Parts produced are (1 - F). This is the yield of the production line. The production rate
Equation then becomes:




Where Rap = average actual production rate of acceptable parts from the line.


Problems on Automated Flowlines without Buffer Storage:

1. A ten-station transfer machine has an ideal cycle time of 30 sec. The frequency of line
stops is 0.075 stops per cycle. When a line stop occurs, the average downtime is 4.0 min.
Determine (a) average production rate in pc/hr, (b) line efficiency, and (c) proportion
downtime.
Solution: (a) T
p
= 0.5 + 0.075(4) = 0.5 + 0.3 = 0.8 min
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Lecture Notes, Prashanth N, Dept of Mechanical Engg | 8

R
p
= 1/0.8 = 1.25 pc/min = 75 pc/hr
(b) E = 0.5/0.8 = 0.625 = 62.5%
(c) D = 0.3/0.8 = 0.375 = 37.5%
2. Cost elements associated with the operation of the ten-station transfer line in Problem
16.4 are as follows: raw workpart cost = Rs 0.55/pc, line operating cost = Rs 42.00/hr
and cost of disposable tooling = Rs 0.27/pc. Compute the average cost of a workpiece
produced.
Solution: Refers to Problem 16.4: C
pc
= 0.55 + 42(0.8)/60 + 0.27 = 0.55 + 0.56 + 0.27 =
Rs 1.38/pc
3. In Problem 1, the line stop occurrences are due to random mechanical and electrical
failures on the line. Suppose that in addition to these reasons for downtime, that the
tools at each workstation on the line must be changed and/or reset every 150 cycles.
This procedure takes a total of 12.0 min for all ten stations. Include this additional data
to determine (a) average production rate in pc/hr, (b) line efficiency, and (c) proportion
downtime.
Solution: Refers to Problem 16.4:
(a) F
1
T
d1
= 0.075(4.0) = 0.3 min
F
2
T
d2
= 12.00/150 = 0.08 min
T
p
= 0.5 + 0.3 + 0.08 = 0.88 min
R
p
= 1/0.88 = 1.13636 pc/min = 68.2 pc/hr
(b) E = 0.5/0.88 = 0.5682 = 56.82%,
(c) D = 0.38/0.88 = 0.4318 = 43.18%
4. A 30 station Transfer line is being proposed to machine a certain component currently
Produced by conventional methods. The proposal received from the machine tool
builder states that the line will operate at a production rate of 100 pc / hr at 100%
efficiency. From a similar transfer line it is estimated that breakdowns of all types will
occur at a frequency of F = 0.20 breakdowns per cycle & that the average downtime per
line stop will be 8.0 minutes. The starting blank that is machined on the line costs Rs.
5.00 per part. The line operates at a cost for 100 parts each & the average cost per tool =
Rs. 20 per cutting edge. Compute the following:
1. Production rate
2. Line efficiency
3. Cost per unit piece produced on the line
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Solution:

1. At 100% efficiency, the line produces 100 pc/hr. The reciprocal gives the unit time
or ideal cycle time per piece.

Tc = 1/100 = 0.010hr / pc = 0.6 mins

The average production time per piece is given by:
Tp = Tc + FTd
= 0.60 + 0.20 (8.0)
= 0.60 + 1.60
Tp= 2.2 mins / piece

Rp = 1 / 2.2m = 0.45 pc / min = 27 pc / hr

Efficiency is the ratio of the ideal cycle time to actual production time
E = 0.6 / 2.2= 27 %

Tooling cost per piece


= Rs 6/ Piece

The hourly ratio of Rs 100 / hr to operate the line is equivalent to Rs. 1.66 / min.
Cpc = 5 + 1.66 (2.2) + 6
= 5 + 3.65 + 6
Cpc = Rs 14.65 / piece

5. For a 10 Station Transfer line the following data is given:
P=0.01 (All Stations have an equal probability of failure), Tc=0.5 min , Td= 5.0 min
Using the upper bound approach & Lower Bound Approach, determine
a. The Frequency of Line stops
b. The avg Production rate
c. The Line Efficiency
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Unit III

Lecture Notes, Prashanth N, Dept of Mechanical Engg | 10

Solution: Upper Bound Approach
a. Frequency of Line Stops, F
Upper Bound Approach assumes that no work part is taken out of the station and
the frequency of line stops is given by
F= np
=10X 0.01
F = 0.1 breakdowns/cycle
b. Avg Production rate R
p


W.k.t. R
p
=1/T
p

T
p
= T
c
+F T
d
=0.5 + 0.1 X 5
= 1 min/pc

Therefore R
p
= 1/1= 1 pc/min

c. Line Efficiency, E
E= Tc/Tp
= 0.5/1
=0.5
E=50%

Solution: Lower Bound Approach

a. Frequency of Line Stops, F
Lower Bound Approach assumes that work part is taken out of the station and
the frequency of line stops is given by
= ( )

=1- ( 1- 0.01)
10

F = 0.096 Breakdown/cycle
b. Avg Production Rate, Rp
R
p
= (1 F ) / Tp
Tp=Tc + F Td
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= 0.5 +0.096 X 5
Tp= 0.98 min/pc
R
p
= (1 0.096)/ 0.98
R
p
= 0.922 pc/min
R
p
= 55.35 pc/hr

c. Line Efficiency, E
E = Tc/ Tp
= 0.5/0.98
=0.51
E=51%

Note: Line efficiency is greater with lower bound approach even though production
rate is lower. This is because lower bound approach leaves fewer parts remaining on
the line to jam.

6. In the operation of a certain 15-station transfer line, the ideal cycle time = 0.58 min.
Breakdowns occur at a rate of once every 20 cycles, and the average downtime per
breakdown is 9.2 min. The transfer line is located in a plant that works an 8-hr day, 5
days per week. Determine (a) line efficiency, and (b) how many parts will the transfer
line produce in a week?
Solution: (a) T
p
= 0.58 + 9.2/20 = 0.58 + 0.46 = 1.04 min
E = 0.58/1.04 = 0.5577 = 55.77%
(b) R
p
= 60/1.04 = 57.69 pc/hr Weekly production = 40(57.69) = 2307.7 pc/wk.

7. A ten-station rotary indexing machine performs nine machining operations at nine
workstations, and the tenth station is used for loading and unloading parts. The longest
process time on the line is 1.30 min and the loading/unloading operation can be
accomplished in less time than this. It takes 9.0 sec to index the machine between
workstations. Stations break down with a frequency of 0.007, which is considered equal
for all ten stations. When these stops occur, it takes an average of 10.0 min to diagnose
the problem and make repairs. Determine (a) line efficiency and (b) average actual
production rate.

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Solution: (a) F = np = 10(0.007) = 0.07
T
c
= 1.30 + 0.15 = 1.45 min
T
p
= 1.45 + 0.07(10) = 1.45 + 0.7 = 2.15 min/pc
E = 1.45/2.15 = 0.674 = 67.4%
(b) R
p
= 1/2.15 = 0.465 pc/min = 27.9 pc/hr

ANALYSIS OF TRANSFER LINES WITH STORAGE BUFFERS:
In an automated production line with no internal storage of parts, the workstations are
interdependent. When one station breaks down all other stations on the line are affected
either immediately or by the end of a few cycles of operation. The other stations will be
forced to stop for one or two reasons
1. Starving of Stations: Starving on an automated production line means that a
workstation is prevented from performing its cycle because it has no part to work
on. When a breakdown occurs at any workstation on the line, the stations
downstream from the affected station will either immediately or eventually become
starved for parts.

2. Blocking of Stations: Blocking means that a station is prevented from performing its
work cycle because it cannot pass the part it just completed to the neighbouring
downstream station. When a break down occurs at a station on the line, the stations
upstream from the affected station become blocked because the broken down
station cannot accept the next part for processing from the neighbouring upstream
station. Therefore none of the upstream stations can pass their just completed parts
for work.









By Adding one or more parts storage buffers between workstations production lines can be
designed to operate more efficiently. The storage buffer divides the line into stages that can
operate independently for a number of cycles.
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The number depending on the storage capacity of the buffer

If one storage buffer is used, the line is divided into two stages.

If two storage buffers are used at two different locations along the line, then a three stage
line is formed.

The upper limit on the number of storage buffers is to have a storage between every pair of
adjacent stations. The number of stages will then be equal to the number of workstations.

For an n stage line, there will be n 1 storage buffers.

This obviously will not include the raw parts inventory at the front of the line or the finished
parts inventory that accumulates at the end of the line.

Consider a two stage transfer line, with a storage buffer separating the stages. If we
assume that the storage buffer is half full. If the first stage breaks down, the second stage
can continue to operate using parts that are in the buffer. And if the second stage breaks
down, the first stage can continue to operate because it has the buffer to receive its output.
The reasoning for a two stage line can be extended to production lines with more than two
stages.











Effectiveness of Buffer Storage
Two extreme cases of storage buffer effectiveness can be identified:
1. No buffer storage capacity at all (Zero Buffer Storage Capacity).
2. Infinite capacity storage buffers

1. Zero Buffer Storage Capacity:
In the case of no storage capacity, the production line acts as one stage when a station
Breaks down the entire line stops. This is the case of a production line with no internal
Storage.
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+.

= {

}





The line efficiency of a zero capacity storage buffer:





2. Infinite capacity storage buffers
The opposite extreme is the case where buffer zones of infinite capacity are installed
Between every pair of stages. If we assume that each storage buffer is half full, then
each stage is independent of the next. The presence of the internal storage buffer
means that then no stage will ever be blocked or starved because of a breakdown at
some other stage.








An infinite capacity storage buffer cannot be realized in practice. If it could then the
Overall line efficiency will be limited by the bottleneck stage. I.e. production in all
other stages would ultimately be restricted by the slowest stage. The downstream
stages could only process parts at the output rate of the bottle neckstage.

Given that the cycle time Tc is the same for all the stages the efficiency for any stage
k is given by:



where k is used to identify the stage.

The overall line efficiency would be given by:



where the subscript identifies E

as the efficiency of a line whose storage buffers

have infinite capacity.The actual value of line efficiency will fall somewhere between
these extremes for a given buffer capacity
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E
b
Indicates the line efficiency with a definite buffer capacity, b.


Analysis of Two Stage Transfer Line

The two stage line is divided by a storage buffer of capacity is expressed in terms of the
number of work parts that it can store. The buffer receives the output of stage 1 forwards it
to stage 2, temporarily storing any parts not immediately needed by stage 2 upto its
capacity b. The ideal cycle time Tc is the same for both stages.

We assume the downtime distributions of each stage to be the same with mean downtime =
Td, let F 1 & F2


































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Problems on Automated Flowlines with Buffer Storage:

1. A 30-station transfer line has an ideal cycle time of 0.75 min, an average downtime of
6.0 min per line stop occurrence, and a station failure frequency of 0.01 for all
stations. A proposal has been submitted to locate a storage buffer between stations
15 and 16 to improve line efficiency. Determine (a) the current line efficiency and
production rate, and (b) the maximum possible line efficiency and production rate
that would result from installing the storage buffer.
Solution: (a) T
p
= 0.75 + 30(0.01)(6.0) = 0.75 + 1.8 = 2.55 min/pc
E = 0.75/2.55 = 0.2941 = 29.41%
R
p
= 1/2.55 = 0.392 pc/min = 23.53 pc/hr
(b) T
p1
= T
p2
= 0.75 + 15(0.01)(6.0) = 0.75 + 0.90 = 1.65 min/pc.
E

= 0.75/1.65 = 0.4545 = 45.45%

R
p
= 1/1.65 = 0.6061 pc/min = 36.36 pc/hr
2. Given the data in Problem 1, solve the problem except that (a) the proposal is to
divide the line into three stages, that is, with two storage buffers located between
stations 10 and 11, and between stations 20 and 21, respectively; and (b) the proposal
is to use an asynchronous line with large storage buffers between every pair of
stations on the line; that is a total of 29 storage buffers.
Solution: (a) T
p1
= T
p2
= T
p3
= 0.75 + 10(0.01)(6.0) = 0.75 + 0.60 = 1.35 min/pc
For each stage, E = 0.75/1.65 = 0.5555 = 55.55%
R
p
= 1/1.35 = 0.7407 pc/min = 44.44 pc/hr
(b) T
p1
= T
p2
= . . . = T
p29
= 0.75 + 0.01(6.0) = 0.75 + 0.06 = 0.81 min/pc
For each stage, E = 0.75/0.81 = 0.926 = 92.6%
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R
p
= 1/0.81 = 1.235 pc/min = 74.1 pc/hr
3. In Problem 1, if the capacity of the proposed storage buffer is to be 20 parts,
determine (a) line efficiency, and (b) production rate of the line. Assume that the
downtime (T
d
= 6.0 min) is a constant.
Solution: From Problem 1, E
o
= 0.2941 and E

= 0.4545
'
1
15(0.01)(6.0)
2.55
D = = 0.3529, r =
1
2
F
F
= 1.0
d
c
T
T
=
6 0
0 75
.
.
= 8.0. If b = 20, then B = 2 and L = 4
Substituting the values of B & L in the equation
h(20) =
2
2 1
4
0 75
6 0
1
2 1 2 2 +
+
|
\

|
.
|
+ +
|
\

|
.
|
.
. ( )( )
=
2
3
4
8
1
12
+
|
\

|
.
|
= 0.7083
E = 0.2941 + 0.3529(0.7083)(0.4545) = 0.4077 = 40.77%
(b) R
p
=
c
E
T
=
0 4077
0 75
.
.
= 0.5436 pc/min = 32.62 pc/hr
4. Solve Problem 3, but assume that the downtime (T
d
= 6.0 min) follows the geometric
repair distribution.
Solution: From previous Problem 3, E
o
= 0.2941 and E

= 0.4545
D
1
=
15 0 01 6 0)
2.55
( . )( .
= 0.3529, r =
1
2
F
F
= 1.0
h(20) =
20(0 75 6 0)
2 20 1 0 75 6 0)
. / .
( )( . / . +
=
2.5
4.375
= 0.5714
E = 0.2941 + 0.3529(0.5714)(0.4545) = 0.3858 = 38.58%
(b) R
p
=
c
E
T
=
0 3858
0 75
.
.
= 0.5143 pc/min = 30.86 pc/hr
5. In the transfer line of Problems 3 and 5, suppose it is more technically feasible to
locate the storage buffer between stations 11 and 12, rather than between stations 15
and 16. Determine (a) the maximum possible line efficiency and production rate that
would result from installing the storage buffer, and (b) the line efficiency and
production rate for a storage buffer with a capacity of 20 parts. Assume that
downtime (T
d
= 6.0 min) is a constant.
Solution:
F
1
= 11(0.01) = 0.11,
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T
p1
= 0.75 + 0.11(6.0) = 0.75 + 0.66 = 1.41 min/pc
F
2
= 19(0.01) = 0.19,
T
p2
= 0.75 + 0.19(6.0) = 0.75 + 1.14 = 1.89 min/pc
E

= Min{E
1
, E
2
}
= Min{(0.75/1.41), (0.75/1.89)}
= Min{0.5319, 0.3968}
= 0.3968
R
p
= 0.3968/0.75 = 0.5291 pc/min = 31.74 pc/hr
(b) E
o
= 0.75/2.55 = 0.2941,
D
1
= 0.66/2.55 = 0.2588,
E
2
= 0.75/1.89 = 0.3968
r =
1
2
F
F
=
011
019
.
.
= 0.5789,

d
c
T
T
=
6 0
0 75
.
.
= 8.0,
If b = 20, then B = 2 and L = 4
By Substituting the values of B & L in the Equation
h(20) = 05789
1 05789
1 05789
2
3
.
.
.

+ 4
0 75
6 0
05789 1 05789
1 05789 1 05789
3 2
3 4
.
.
. ( . )
( . )( . )
|
\

|
.
|


= 0.4776 + 0.0241 = 0.5017
E = 0.2941 + 0.2588(0.5017)(0.4545) = 0.3531 = 35.31%
R
p
= 0.3531/0.75 = 0.4708 pc/min = 28.25 pc/hr

PARTIAL AUTOMATION
Many assembly lines in industry contain a combination of automated & manual work
stations. These cases of partially automated production lines occur for two main reasons:
1. Automation is introduced gradually on an existing manual line. Suppose that demand for
the product made on a manually operated line increases, & it is desired to increase
production & reduce labour costs by automating some or all of the stations. The simpler
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operations are automated first, & the transition toward a fully automated line is
accomplished over a long period of time. Meanwhile, the line operates as a partially
automated system.
2. Certain manual operations are too difficult or too costly to automate. Therefore, when
the sequence of workstations is planned for the line, certain stations are designed to be
automated, whereas the others are designed as manual stations. Examples of operations
that might be too difficult to automate are assembly procedures or processing steps
involving alignment, adjustment, or fine-tuning of the work unit. These operations often
require special human skills and/or senses to carry out. Many inspection procedures also fall
into this category. Defects in a product or a part that can be easily perceived by a human
inspector are sometimes extremely difficult to identify by an automated inspection device.
Another problem is that the automated inspection device can only check for the defects for
which it was designed, whereas a human inspector is capable of sensing a variety of
unanticipated imperfections & problems.
To analyze the performance of a partially automated production line, we build on our
previous analysis & make the following assumptions:
1. Workstations perform either processing or assembly operations;
2. Processing & assembly times at automated stations are constant, though not necessarily
equal at all stations;
3. Synchronous transfer of parts;
4. No internal buffer storage;
5. The upper bound approach is applicable &
6. Station breakdowns occur only at automated stations.
The ideal cycle time Tc is determined by the slowest stations on the line, which is generally
one of the manual stations.
If the cycle time is in fact determined by a manual station, then Tc will exhibit a certain
degree of variability simply because there is a random variation in any repetitive human
activity.
However, we assume that the average Tc remains constant over time. Given our assumption
that breakdowns occur only at automated stations,


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Let,
n
a
= the number of automated stations
Td = average downtime per occurrence.
p
i
= the probability (frequency) of breakdowns per cycle;
q
i
= the defect rate
m
i =
probability that the defect will cause station i to stop.
The Average Production time is given by,


Where, p
i
= m
i
q
i
For Special Case, When p
i
= p, m
i
= m, & q
i
= q
,
Then Production time is given by




Where, p

= m

q

Cost Calculations
In Partial Automated Flow line
C
as
= Cost to operate an automatic station
C
ms
= Cost to operate an manual station
C
at
= Cost to operate transfer lines
C
m
= Cost of the raw material
C
t
= Cost of Tooling

P
ap
= Proportion of good assemblies/ product (i.e. 100%=1, 80%=0.8)
Then Operating cost of the partially automated transfer line is,


Total cost per unit produced on the line is
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Problems on Partial Automation
1) A partially automated production line has a mixture of three mechanized and three
manual workstations. There are a total of six stations, and the ideal cycle time of 1.0 min,
which includes a transfer time of 6 sec. Data on the six stations are listed in the
accompanying table. Cost of the transfer mechanism C
at
= $0.10/min, cost to run each
automated station C
as
= $0.12/min, and labor cost to operate each manual station C
w
=
$0.17/min. It has been proposed to substitute an automated station in place of station 5.
The cost of this station is estimated at C
as5
= $0.25/min and its breakdown rate p
5
= 0.02,
but its process time would be only 30 sec, thus reducing the overall cycle time of the line
from 1.0 min to 36 sec. Average downtime per breakdown of the current line, as well as
for the proposed configuration, is 3.5 min. Determine the following for the current line
and the proposed line: (a) production rate, (b) proportion uptime, and (c) cost per unit.
Assume the line operates without storage buffers, so when an automated station stops,
the whole line stops, including the manual stations. Also, in computing costs, neglect
material and tooling costs.

Station Type Process time p
i

1 Manual 36 sec 0
2 Automatic 15 sec 0.01
3 Automatic 20 sec 0.02
4 Automatic 25 sec 0.01
5 Manual 54 sec 0
6 Manual 33 sec 0

Solution: For the current line,
(a) T
c
= 1.0 min, F = 0.01 + 0.02 + 0.01 = 0.04
T
p
= 1.0 + 0.04(3.5) = 1.0 + 0.14 = 1.14 min/unit,
R
p
= 1/1.14 = 0.877 units/min = 52.6 units/hr
(b) E = 1.0/1.14 = 0.877 = 87.7%
(c) C
o
= 0.10 + 3(0.12) + 3(0.17) = $0.97/min. C
pc
= (0.97)(1.14) = $1.106/unit.
For the proposed line in which station 5 is automated,
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(a) T
c
= 36 sec = 0.6 min F = 0.01 + 0.02 + 0.01 + 0.02 = 0.06
T
p
= 0.6 + 0.06(3.5) = 0.6 + 0.21 = 0.81 min/unit,
R
p
= 1/0.81 = 1.235 units/min = 74.1 units/hr
(b) E = 0.6/0.81 = 0.7407 = 74.1%
(c) C
o
= 0.10 + 3(0.12) + 0.25 + 2(0.17) = $1.05/min

C
pc
= (1.05)(0.81) = $0.851/unit

2. A manual assembly line has six stations. The assembly time at each manual station is 60
sec. Parts are transferred by hand from one station to the next, and the lack of discipline
in this method adds 12 sec (T
r
= 12 sec) to the cycle time. Hence, the current cycle time is
72 sec. The following two proposals have been made: (1) Install a mechanized transfer
system to pace the line; and (2) automate one or more of the manual stations using robots
that would perform the same tasks as humans only faster. The second proposal requires
the mechanized transfer system of the first proposal and would result in a partially or fully
automated assembly line. The transfer system would have a transfer time of 6 sec, thus
reducing the cycle time on the manual line to 66 sec. Regarding the second proposal, all
six stations are candidates for automation. Each automated station would have an
assembly time of 30 sec. Thus if all six stations were automated the cycle time for the line
would be 36 sec. There are differences in the quality of parts added at the stations; these
data are given in the accompanying table for each station (q = fraction defect rate, m =
probability that a defect will jam the station). Average downtime per station jam at the
automated stations is 3.0 min. Assume that the manual stations do not experience line
stops due to defective components. Cost data: C
at
= $0.10/min; C
w
= $0.20/min; and C
as
=
$0.15/min. Determine if either or both of the proposals should be accepted. If the second
proposal is accepted, how many stations should be automated and which ones? Use cost
per piece as the criterion of your decision. Assume for all cases considered that the line
operates without storage buffers, so when an automated station stops, the whole line
stops, including the manual stations.

Station q
i
m
i
Station q
i
m
i

1 0.005 1.0 4 0.020 1.0
2 0.010 1.0 5 0.025 1.0
3 0.015 1.0 6 0.030 1.0

Solution:
Proposal 1:
Current operation: T
c
= 1.2 min
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C
o
= 6(0.20) = $1.20/min
C
pc
= 1.20(1.2) = $1.44/unit.
Proposal:
T
c
= 1.1 min
C
o
= 0.10 + 6(0.20) = 1.30/min
C
pc
= 1.30(1.1) = $1.43/unit.
Conclusion: Accept Proposal 1.

Proposal 2:
T
c
= 36 sec = 0.6 min if all six stations are automated.
F = 0.005(1.0) + 0.01(1.0) + 0.015(1.0) + 0.02(1.0) + 0.025(1.0) + 0.03(1.0) = 0.105
T
p
= 0.6 + 0.105(3.0) = 0.6 + 0.315 = 0.915 min/unit
C
o
= 0.10 + 6(0.15) = 1.00/min
C
pc
= 1.00(0.915) = $0.915/unit
Conclusion: Accept Proposal 2.


















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Assembly Systems and Line Balancing
Assembly Line
An Assembly Line is a production line that consists of a series of workstations where
assembly operations are performed.
In an assembly line either the components are assembled to form a sub assembly (In Most
cases) that becomes an input component for further assembly or a complete assembly (as
the final product).
Assembly operations involve bringing the mating parts together, Mechanical fastening &
Joining Operations. Thus in assembly operations bolting, reveting, welding, soldering,
brazing & bonding are common.
Assembly operations can be performed using:
1. Manual Single Station
2. Manual Assembly Line
3. Automated Assembly Line
Manual Single Station assembly is used for very low volume smaller assemblies or sub
assemblies. This is performed in a single work station, involving one or more operators.
Eg: Aircraft, Special purpose machine tools, & prototype models of new products, which are
produced in low quantities.

Manual Assembly Line
Manual Assembly line consists of series of workstations where assembly operations are
performed by the human operators. Eg: Televison sets, Electric & Electronic Appliances, Fan,
Audio Equipment etc....












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Automated Assembly line
In this work stations in series are linked by work transport/ transfer system, automatic
work/tool handling, assembling & inspection facilities. It is suitable for mass production.

Work Transport Mechanism
In an assembly line, the transportation of the work part from one work station to the next
workstation for further operation, is an important requirement. The Transportation can be
performed by:
a. Manual Method: Workpart is carried manually to next station









b. Mixed Mode (Manual plus Mechanized also called as Partial Automated
Assembly Lines)

c. Mechanized Method (Conveyors): In this automated work part transport
mechanism is adopted Eg: Walking Beam, Roller/Belt Conveyors etc.
In Mechanized Workpart Transport system, the Workpart can be transferred in
different methods (These Methods are already discussed in II Unit).
i. Continuously moving conveyor: operates at constant velocity
Work units are fixed to the conveyor
The product is large and heavy
Worker moves along with the product
Work units are removable from the conveyor
Work units are small and light
Workers are more flexible compared to synchronous lines, less
flexible than asynchronous lines
ii. Synchronous transport (intermittent transport stop-and-go line): all work
units are moved simultaneously between stations.
Problem:
Task must be completed within a certain time limit. Otherwise the line
produces incomplete units;
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Eexcessive stress on the assembly worker.
Not common for manual lines (variability), but often ideal for
automated production lines
iii. Asynchronous transport: a work unit leaves a given station when the
assigned task is completed.
Work units move independently, rather than synchronously (most
flexible one).
Variations in worker task times
Small queues in front of each station.

Assembly Line Models
Manual Assembly Line can be distinguished in three categories:
a. Single Model Line
b. Batch Model Line
c. Mixed Model Line

a) Single Model Line (No Product Variety): This is a manual assembly line in which only
one variety of products is assembled. The Work stations are not designed to take any
other assembly operation; such lines are used for the manufacture of products in large
quantities.

b) Batch Model Line (Hard product Variety): A Batch model assembly line is designed to
produce two or more varieties of products. However, each product of desired quantity is
produced in batches.

c) Mixed Model Line (Soft Product Variety): in a mixed model line, the assembly line are
designed to produce more than one product variety and not necessarily in batches. That
means 2 or 3 varieties of products can be manufactured simultaneously on the same
assembly line.









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LINE BALANCING

The line balancing problem is to arrange the individual processing & assembly tasks at the
workstations so that the total time required at each workstation is approximately the same.

If the work elements can be grouped so that all the station times are exactly equal, we have
perfect balance on the line & we can expect the production to flow smoothly. In most
practical situations it is very difficult to achieve perfect balance. When the workstations
times are unequal, the slowest station determines the overall production rate of the line.

Terminologies Used in Line balancing

1. Precedence Constraints

Flow line production there are many separate & distinct processing & assembly operations
to be performed on the product. Invariably, the sequence of processing or assembly steps is
restricted, at least to some extent, in terms of the order in which the operations can be
carried out. For example, a threaded hole must be drilled before it can be tapped.

In mechanical fastening, the washer must be placed over the bolt before the nut can be
turned & tightened. These restrictions are called precedence constraints in the language of
line balancing.

2. Minimum Rational Work Element:

In order to spread the job to be done on the line among its stations, the job must be divided
Into its component tasks. The minimum rational work elements are the smallest practical
indivisible tasks into which the job can be divided. These work elements cannot be
subdivided further.

For example, the drilling of a hole would normally be considered as a minimum rational
work element. In manual assembly, when two components are fastened together with a
screw & nut, it would be reasonable for these activities to be taken together. Hence, this
assembly task would constitute a minimum rational work element.

We can symbolize the time required to carry out this minimum rational work element Tej,
where j is used to identify the element out of the n
e
elements that make up the total work
or job.



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3. Total Work Content Time:
This time is the sum of all the work element times & represented by T
wc
. It is Expressed
as,

=1

Where, Ts = Station Time

4. Workstation Process time
An assembly line comprises a number of workstations that perform a series of assembly
operations in a specified sequence. As indicated, one or more work stations are required
to execute one work element. Thus the time required to process at each work station is
the sum of all the times all the work elements performed at a particular work station.

5. Cycle Time T
c

This refers to the total time taken to complete the assembly process in an assembly line. It is
expressed by the relation,

=
60

Where, Tc= Cycle time, min/cycle
E= Line Efficiency
Rp= Production rate, pc/hr
6. Line Efficiency
The Ideal cycle rate for a line is given by

=
60

Where Rc= Ideal production rate of the line. Therefore the line efficiency, which is a
measure of the performance, is given by,
=

Where Tp= The average Production cycle time.

7. Balance Efficiency:
This results in line imbalance & measured by the quantity line balance efficiency, simply
termed as balance efficiency. It is give by relation,

Where, E
b
= Balance Efficiency
T
wc
= Total Work Content Time
T
s
= Max available station time or process time on the line i.e. Max {T
si
}
w= Number of stations or workers
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8. Balance Delay
This is referred to as balancing loss. It is a measure of the inefficiency of the assembly
line.

9. Production Rate
The production rate is usually expressed as units/hr, depends on the annual market
demand and the working hrs (assuming the required capacity is available on the line). It
is given by the relation

/

Where, Rp= Avg production rate, pc/hr
D
a
= Annual demand for the product, pc/year
n
w
= No. of working weeks per year
S
w
= No. of Shifts per week
H
sh
=No. of Working Hrs per shift

10. Number of workstations (or Workers), w
It is used to calculate total number of workstation or workers required to complete an
assembly of a product considering the total workload & available time. It is expressed as
follows:
=

Where, w= the number of workstations (workers)
WL= Work Load to be finished in a given time of total work content time, hrs = R
p
T
wc

Or WL=
60

AT= Available Time = 60 E (Line Efficiency)

11. Repositioning Loss
In assembly some portion of the time is required to reposition the work part or the
operator himself. Thus the time available for each operation to perform the actual
assembly operation is less than the cycle time Tc. This loss is referred to as repositioning
loss. It is expressed as Efficiency factor or Repositioning Efficiency & is given by

Where, Ts= Station time or Process time
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Tc= Cycle time
Tr= Repositioning Time

12. Smoothness Index (SI)
Smoothness index is a measure of the relative smoothness of an assembly line. A
smoothness value of 0 indicates a perfect balance. That is nothing but the square root of
sum of all idle times. It is given by the relation,

= (

)
2

=1


Where, w= Total number of stations.

Methods of Line Balancing

1. Largest Candidate Rule: It is the easiest method to understand. The work elements are
selected to station simply on the basis of the size of their estimated time T
e
values.

Procedure:
a) List all elements in descending order of Te value i.e. Largest Te at the top of the
list.
b) To assign elements to the first workstation start at the top of the list & workdown
selecting the first feasible element for placement at the station. A feasible element is
one that satisfies the precedence requirements & does not cause the sum of Te
values at the station to exceed the cycle time Tc.
c) Continue the process of assigning work elements to the stations as in step 2 until no
further elements can be added without exceeding Tc.
d) Repeat steps 2 & 3 for other stations in the line until all the elements have been
assigned.

2. Kilbridge & Wester Method
In this, numbers are assigned to each operation indicating the number of predecessors
to it. Task with the lowest number of predecessor are assigned first to the wok station.

Procedure:
a) Draw the precedence diagram for the work elements. First of all, mark in column I all
the work elements that do not have any predecessors. Next Mark Column II, with
work elements that must follow those in column I. Mark other columns similarly, for
all the work elements.
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b) Compute the cycle time & station time.
c) Prepare a table indicating the work element, number of predecessor for each
element and the time for each work element.
d) Assign work elements to the station. While, assigning work elements to the station,
take care that sum of elemental time does not exceed the station time. Proceed
assigning from column I to II & so on. Do not consider the work elements once they
are assigned to the station, Repeat step C. Any station, whose sum of elemental
times exceeds the station time, it should be assigned to the next station. Similarly
assign all work elements to work stations.
e) Prepare a Table showing the work station assignments.
f) Calculate the required parameters like Line Efficiency, balance Delay & Smoothness
Index.
3. Ranked Positional Weight (RPW) or Helgeson & Bernie Method
Procedure:
a) Draw the precedence diagram ( As explained Previously)
b) Find the positional weight for each work element. A Positional Weight of a work
element refers to the sum of all the T
ek
values that fall in all its possible paths from
the beginning of the work element through the rest of the diagram.
c) Based on the positional weights obtained above, Rank the Work Elements (Arrange
the work Elements based on RPW value in Descending Order), i.e Work elemnt with
Highest RPW value should be in the first position.
d) Next Assign the work elements to the work stations, by assigning the elements of the
highest positional weight & rank Priority.
e) If the sum of the elemental times for an assigned work station is less than the station
time, then assign the next succeeding ranked operation to the work station. See that
the assignment maintains precedence relationships & also the total operation time
does not exceed the station time.
f) Repeat the Stepsd & e until all elements are assigned to the work stations.

LINE BALANCING PROBLEMS
Problem 1:
A small component assembly unit has a market demand of 1,20,000 units/year. The line will
operate 50 weeks/year, 6 shifts per week and 8 hrs per shift. The company works 8 hrs per
shift. The company has a single model assembly line & the assembly work contains the
following work elements.

Work
Element
Duration
T
ek
(Min)
Preceded
By
1 0.52 -
2 0.28 1
3 0.46 2
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4 0.3 1
5 0.58 4
6 0.48 3,5
7 0.22 6
8 0.62 7
9 0.1 6
10 0.38 6
11 0.36 10
12 0.7 8. 9. 11

Each station can be assigned with one operator, the expected uptime of the line is 95% and
the repositioning loss is 0.04min per cycle.
Determine:
a. Total Work Content Time, T
wc

b. Production Rate per hour, R
p

c. Cycle Time T
c

d. Theoretical minimum number of Operators
e. Station or Service time, T
s


Solution:
Da= 1,20,000 units/yr
n
w
=50 weeks
H
sh
=8 hr/shift
E= 95%
T
r
= 0.04min
S
w
= 6 Shifts/week

a. Total Work Content time, T
wc

=1

T
wc
= 0.52+0.28+0.46+0.3+0.58+0.48+0.22+0.62+0.1+0.38+0.36+0.7
T
wc
= 5.0 min

b. Production Rate, R
p

The hourly Production rate is given by

/

R
p
= 120000/ (50 X 6 X 8)
R
p
= 50 Units/hr

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c. Cycle Time, T
c

Cycle Time is given by

=
60

= (60 0.95) /50

T
c
= 1.14min

d. Theoretical minimum number of work stations (Workers)

w = min integer (T
wc
/ Tc)

= 5/1.14
= 4.4
w=5 Operators

e. Station or Service time, T
s


T
s
= T
c
-T
r
= 1.14-0.04
T
s
= 1.1 min

Problem 2:
Solve Problem 1 by applying the largest candidate rule method. Determine the line
efficiency, balance delay & Smoothness Index

Solution:
We have Ts= 1.1 min


a) Precedence Diagram:









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b) Arrange elements in descending order of element time value

Work
Element
Duration Tek
(Min)
Preceded
By
12 0.7 8. 9. 11
8 0.62 7
5 0.58 4
1 0.52 -
6 0.48 3,5
3 0.46 2
10 0.38 6
11 0.36 10
4 0.3 1
2 0.28 1
7 0.22 6
9 0.1 6

c. Assigning Work Content to Stations











The Work elements assigned to station #1 to #5 is shown in table below:

1
2 3 4
5
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a) Line

1. Balance Efficiency, E
b


It is given by relation,

Here, T
s
should be = Tek
Max
at any station. Tek
Max
is at station #1=1.1 min.
E
b
= 5 / (5 X 1.1) = 90.9
E
b
= 90.9%

2. Balance Delay, D
b

= (5 X 1.1 -5)/ (5 X 1.1)

D
b
= 0.091 or 9.1%

Or

D
b
= 1-E
b
=1-0.909
D
b
=0.091



Station # Work
Element
Duration Tek
(Min)
Station Time Tek (min)
Idle Time,
min
1
1 0.52
1.1 0 4 0.3
2 0.28
2
5 0.58
1.04 0.06
3 0.46
3
6 0.48
1.08 0.02 10 0.38
7 0.22
4
8 0.62
0.98 0.12
11 0.36
5
12 0.7
0.8 0.3
9 0.1
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c. Smoothness Index SI

= (

)
2

=1


= 0
2
+ 0.06
2
+ 0.02
2
+ 0.12
2
+ 0.3
2


SI = 0.33 min

Problem 3:
Solve the problem 1 using Kilbridge Wester Method. Find Smoothness Index.

Solution:

We have already computed Ts=1.1min

a) Precedence diagram
First of all, construct the precedence diagram, keeping the work element nodes of
identical precedence in vertical columns, as shown below












b) Prepare the list of elements and Column
Now prepare the a table indicating the work element, column numbers, element
time & Sum of column times.


Col 1 Col 2 Col 3 Col 4 Col 5 Col 6
Col 7
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Work Element, i Column # Duration Tek (Min) Column Tek
(min)
1 I 0.52 0.52
2 II 0.28
0.58
4 II 0.3
3 III 0.46
1.04
5 III 0.58
6 IV 0.48 0.48
7 V 0.22
0.7 9 V, VI 0.1
10 V 0.38
8 VI 0.62
0.98
11 VI 0.36
12 VII 0.7 0.7


c. Assign elements to stations
Now starting with column I, assign elements to station #1. Follow in the order of
column number for selecting elements to assign to stations, till sum of T
ek
does
not exceed Ts (1.1 min)

Station
#
Work Element,
i
Column
#
Duration Tek
(Min)
Station Tek (min) Tek-Ts
1
1 I 0.52
1.1 0 2 II 0.28
4 II 0.3
2
3 III 0.46
1.04 0.06
5 III 0.58
3
6 IV 0.48
1.08 0.02 7 V 0.22
10 V 0.38
4
8 VI 0.62
1.08 0.02 9 VI 0.1
11 VI 0.36
5 12 VII 0.7 0.7 0.4

a) Smoothness Index SI

= (

)
2

=1


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= 0
2
+ 0.06
2
+ 0.02
2
+ 0.02
2
+ 0.4
2


SI = 0.41 min

Problem 4:
Solve the Problem 1 using ranked positional weight method.

Solution:
We have computed T
s
=1.1min & we have to ensure that T
ek
does not exceed Ts (1.1
min) while assigning elements to stations.

a) Precedence Diagram









b) Compute the Ranked Positional Weight (RPW)
Now for each element, compute the RPW & Tabulate them. RPW is the sum of
all the T
ek
values, that fall in all its possible paths. For example, for element 1
the RPW is the sum of all the elements listed, for element 2 the RPW is the
sum of T
ek
of all elements except element 1,4 & 5. The RPW for entire
elements are given below
Work Element, i RPW Duration Tek (Min)
1 5 0.52
2 3.6 0.28
3 3.32 0.46
4 3.74 0.3
5 3.44 0.58
6 2.86 0.48
7 1.54 0.22
8 1.32 0.62
9 0.8 0.1
10 1.44 0.38
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Now Arrange the RPW values in descending order (Largest to smallest)

Work Element, i RPW Duration Tek (Min) Preceded
By
1
5
0.52
4 3.74 0.3 1
2 3.6 0.28 1
5 3.44 0.58 4
3 3.32 0.46 2
6 2.86 0.48 3,5
7 1.54 0.22 6
10 1.44 0.38 6
8 1.32 0.62 7
11 1.06 0.36 10
9 0.8 0.1 6
12 0.7 0.7 8,9,11

c) Assign to workstations
Now assign the elements to stations as per the RPW (Move from Top to
Down), Make sure that Tek< Ts

Station
#
Work Element,
i
Duration Tek
(Min)
Station Tek (min) Tek-Ts
1
1 0.52
1.1 0 2 0.28
4 0.3
2
3 0.46
1.04 0.06
5 0.58
3
6 0.48
1.08 0.02 7 0.22
10 0.38
4
8 0.62
1.08 0.02 9 0.1
11 0.36
5 12 0.7 0.7 0.4

We can see that this solution is same as the Kilbridge-Wester Method. But for
different Assembly line Different type of Line balancing Method will yield
11 1.06 0.36
12 0.7 0.7
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different results, hence the type of Assembly line will determine which type of
Line Balance method to adopt.

Design for Automated Assembly Line
Recommendations and principles that can be applied in product design to facilitate
Automated assembly

1. Reduce the amount of assembly required: This principle can be realized during design
by combining functions within the same part that were previously accomplished by
separate components in the product. The use of plastic molded parts to substitute for
sheet metal parts is an example of this principle. A more complex geometry molded into
a plastic part might replace several metal parts. Although the plastic part may seem to
be more costly, the savings-in assembly time probably justify the substitution in many
cases.

2. Use modular design: In automated assembly, increasing the number of separate
assembly steps that are done by a single automated system will result in an increase in
the downtime of the system. To reduce this effect, Riley suggests that the design of the
product be modular, with perhaps each module requiring a maximum of 12 or 13 parts
to be assembled on a single assembly system. Also, the subassembly should be designed
around a base part to which other components are added.

3. Reduce the number of fasteners required: Instead of using separate screws and nuts,
and similar fasteners, design the fastening mechanism into the component design using
snap fits and similar features. Also, design the product modules so that several
components are fastened simultaneously rather than each component fastened
separately.

4. Reduce the need for multiple components to lie handled at once: The preferred practice
in automated assembly machine design is to separate the operations at different
stations rather than to handle and fasten multiple components simultaneously at the
same workstation. (It should be noted that robotics technology is causing a rethinking of
this practice since robots can be programmed to perform more complex assembly tasks
than a single station in a mechanized assembly system.

5. Limit the required directions of access: This principle simply means that the number of
directions in which new components are added to the existing subassembly should be
minimized. If all of the components can be added vertically from above, this is the ideal
situation. Obviously, the design of the subassembly module determines this.

6. Require high quality in components: High performance of the automated assembly
system requires consistently good quality of the components that are added at each
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workstation. Poor-quality components cause jams in the feeding and assembly
mechanisms which cause downtime in the automated system.

7. Implement hopperability: This is a term that is used to identify the ease with which a
given component can be fed and oriented reliably for delivery from the parts hopper to
the assembly workhead.

TYPES OF AUTOMATED ASSEMBLY SYSTEMS

Based on the type of work transfer system that is used in the assembly system:
Continuous transfer system
Synchronous transfer system
Asynchronous transfer system
Stationary base part system

The first three types involve the same methods of work part transport described in
automated flow line. In the stationary base part system, the base part to which the other
components are added is placed in a fixed location, where it remains during the assembly
work.

Based on physical configuration:
Rotary type or Dial-type assembly machine
Linear or In-line assembly machine
Carousel assembly system
Single-station assembly machine

a) Rotary Type or The dial-type machine, the base partare indexed around a circular table
or dial. The workstations are stationary and usually located around the outside
periphery of the dial. The parts ride on the rotating table and arc registered or
positioned, in turn, at each station a new component is added to base part. This type of
equipment is often referred to as an indexing machine or dial index machine and the
configuration is shown in Figure below















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b) Linear or In-line type configuration
The in-line configuration assembly system consists of a sequence of workstations in a
more-or-less straight-line arrangement as shown in figure below. The in-line assembly
machine consists of a series of automatic workstations located along an in-line transfer
system. It is the automated version of the manual assembly line. Continuous,
synchronous, or asynchronous transfer systems can be used with the in-line
configuration.











c) Carousel assembly system
It represents a hybrid between the circular flow of work provided by the dial assembly
Machine and straight work flow of the in-line. It is as shown in the figure below. In this
system, two segments of assembly lines in parallel and facing one another are
connected with a semi rotary end as illustrated in below figure, to make one integrated
assembly system.

The Base part and the final products are fed and received at the same end. The conveyor
system feeds and moves the work part in a rectangular manner along the workstation,
thus taking a U turn at the end of the line, and starts moving towards the starting end.

Such assembly systems are suitable for large size & complex products involving a large
number of components and assembly operations. Compared to the simple in-line
configuration, the carousel assembly system utilises the shop floor space in a more
efficient manner.














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d) Single Station Assembly System
In the single-station assembly machine, the assembly operations are performed at a
single location (stationary base part system) as shown in figure below. The typical
operation involves the placement of the base part at the workstation where various
components are added to the base. The components are delivered to the station by
feeding mechanisms, and one or more workheads perform the various assembly and
fastening operations.











PARTS FEEDING DEVICES

In each of the configurations described above, a means of delivering the components to
The assembly workhead must be designed. In this section we discuss these devices and their
operation.

Elements of the parts delivery system
The hardware system that delivers components to the workhead in an automated assembly
system typically consists of the following elements as shown in figure below




















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a) Hopper: This is the container into which the components are loaded at the
workstation. A separate hopper is used for each component type. The components
are usually loaded into the hopper in bulk. This means that the parts are randomly
oriented initially in the hopper.

b) Parts feeder: This is a mechanism that removes the components from the hopper
one at a time for delivery to the assembly workhead. The hopper and parts feeder
are often combined into one operating mechanism. The vibratory bowl feeder,
pictured in Figure below, is a very common example of the hopper-feeder
combination.
















c) Selector and/or orienteer: These elements of the delivery system establish the
proper orientation of the components for the assembly workhead. A selector is a
device that acts as a filter, permitting only parts that are in the correct orientation to
pass through. Components that are not properly oriented are rejected back into the
hopper.














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An orientor is a device that allows properly oriented pans to pass through but
provides a reorientation of components that are not properly oriented initially.
Several selector and orientor schemes are illustrated in Figure below. Selector and
orientor devices are often combined and incorporated into one hopper-feeder
system.

d) Feed track: The preceding elements of the delivery system are usually located some
distance from the assembly workhead. A feed track is used to transfer the
components from the hopper and parts feeder to the location of the assembly
workhead, maintaining proper orientation of the parts during the transfer. There are
two general categories of feed tracks: gravity and powered. The gravity feed track is
most common. In this type the hopper and parts feeder are located at an elevation
that is above the elevation of the workhead. The force of gravity is used to deliver
the components to the workhead. The powered feed track uses vibratory action, air
pressure, or other means to force the parts to travel along the feed track toward the
assembly workhead.

e) Escapement and placement device: The purpose of the escapement device is to
remove components from the feed track at time intervals that are consistent with
the cycle time of the assembly workhead. The placement device physically places the
component in the correct location at the workstation for the assembly operation by
the workhead.

Several types of escapement and placement devices are shown in Figure below.






















(a) Horizontal device
(b) Vertical device for placement of
parts onto dial indexing table.
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(c) Escapement of rivet-shaped parts
actuated by work carriers,
(d) Pick & Place Robot
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Analysis of Multistation Assembly
Machines
In the analysis of multi-station assembly lines, the following assumptions are made:
a) The work elements performed at different workstations have constant element times.
b) The element times need not be equal
c) Synchronous transfer mechanism is used (In-line, Dial-Indexing & Carousel Systems are
used).
d) There is no storage buffer in between stations.
e) Line stopping due to electrical & mechanical failures of the line are not accounted
f) Stopping of line will only be due to defective parts added during the assembly





ANALYSIS
In any production system, defective parts are bound to be manufactured, and the fraction of
defective rate can be considered as, q (0<q<1). Thus, in assembly operation, q is the
probability that a defective component is added to the workstation. There are chances that
this defective component may or may not jam the station (which depends on the quantum
of defect in the component).
Let m be the probability that the defective component results in a station jam. Also, the
probabilities of addition of defective parts and station jams may be different at different
stations and can be represented as q
i
and m
i
,
Where i=1,2,3,.....,n (the number of stations)
For a given workstation, three possible events may occur, when the feeder system tries to
add a component to the station:
1. The Component is defective and may cause a jam: The probability of occurrence of
this event is the product of probability of addition of defective part q
i
and the
probability of station jam, m
i
i.e.
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p
i
= m
i
. q
i
Once this occurs, the jam has to be closed by the operator, and allow the station to
proceed with further operation. The probability of another consecutive defective
part being added is very small, and is equal to q
i
2
.

2. The component is defective, but does not cause station jam: This probability of
defective component, not causing a station jam is expressed by,
(1-m
i
)q
i
Once this occurs, chances are that the sub assembly may get jammed in the next
station, and/or the whole assembly may be defective and to be rejected in the final
inspection
3. The component is not defective: This is the preferred processing condition in an
assembly line that leads to smooth flow. The probability that a component added to
a workstation is not defective is equal to,
(1-q
i
)
Now the sum of these three probabilities has to be unity, i.e.,


To determine the complete distribution of possible outcomes that can occur on an
n station assembly machine, we can multiply the terms of above Equation together
for all stations:




If it so happens that m
i
=m, q
i
=q for all workstations i, then,




Measures of performance
Fortunately, we are not required to calculate every term to make use of the concept
of assembly machine operation provided by above Equations. One of the
characteristics of performance that we might want to know is the proportion of
assemblies that contain one or more defective components. Two of the three terms
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in above Equation represent event that result in the addition of good components at
a given station.

The first term is m
i
q
i
which indicates a line stop but also means that a defective
component has not been added to the assembly. The other term is (1-q
i
), which
means that a good component has been added at the station. The sum of these two
terms represents the probability that a defective component will not be added at
station i.

Multiplying these probabilities for all stations, we get the proportion of acceptable
product coming off the line, P
ap
(i.e. yield)





In the special case where all are m
i
= m and all q
i
= q, then equation becomes

= [ + ]

If this is the proportion of assemblies with no defective components, the proportion
of assemblies that contain at least one defect is given by




In the special case where all are m
i
= m and all q
i
= q, then equation becomes

= [ + ]

Production Rate R
p
To compute the production rate, we should have the value for the frequency of downtime
per cycle, F. If each jam causes assembly line downtime occurrence, the frequency of
occurrence can be calculated by using the expected number of station jams per cycle.


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In the special case where all p
i
=p, m
i
=m and all q
i
=q are equal, then equation becomes


Average production time per assembly is therefore given by


Where,
Tc = ideal cycle time
Td = average downtime per occurrence

In the special case where all m
i
=m and all q
i
=q are equal, then equation becomes


The average production rate is,


The rate of production of acceptable product is given by equation




In the special case where all m
i
=m and all q
i
=q are equal, then equation becomes





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Line Efficiency, E
The line efficiency is calculated as the ratio of ideal cycle time to average production time.


Downtime, D
The proportion of downtime, D, is the average downtime per cycle divided by the average
production time is given by


Cost per piece, C
pc


Where,
Cm = cost of material (Rs / min)
Tp = average production time per piece (min / pc)
Ct = cost of tooling per piece (Rs / pc)
C
L
= cost of labour (Rs / pc)
P
ap
= Yield or proportion of acceptable assemblies.

Problems on Analysis of Multi Station Assembly Machines

1. A 10 station in-line assembly machine has a 6 sec ideal cycle time. The base part is
automatically loaded prior to the first station. The fraction defect rate at each of 10
stations is equal to 0.01 and the probability that a defect will jam is 0.5. When jam
occurs, the average down time is 2 minutes. Determine the average production rate, the
yield of good assemblies, and the uptime efficiency of the assembly machine.
Given :
n=10
Tc=6sec=0.1min
q=0.01
m=0.5
Td=2min
Rp=?
Pap=?
E=?
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Solution:
The average production cycle time = T
p
= T
c
+ nm q T
d





The yield of good products





Uptime efficiency, E




2. A dial indexing machine has six stations that perform assembly operations on a base part.
The operations, element times, q and m values for components added are given in the
table below (NA means q and m are not applicable to the operation). The indexing time for
the dial table is 2 sec. When a jam occurs, it requires 1.5 min to release the jam and put
the machine back in operation. Determine (a) production rate for the assembly machine,
(b) yield of good product (final assemblies containing no defective components), and (c)
proportion uptime of the system.
Station Operation Element
time
q m
1 Add part A 4 sec 0.015 0.6
2 Fasten part A 3 sec NA NA
3 Assemble part B 5 sec 0.01 0.8
4 Add part C 4 sec 0.02 1.0
5 Fasten part C 3 sec NA NA
6 Assemble part D 6 sec 0.01 0.5

Solution:
(a) E(mq) = 0.6(0.015) + 0.8(0.01) + 1(0.02) + .5(0.01) = .042
T
p
= 0.1333 + 0.042(1.5) = 0.19633 min/asby
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R
p
= 60/0.19633 = 305.6 asbys/hr
(b) P
ap
= (1-0.015+0.6x.015)(1-0.01+0.8x.01)(1-0.02+1x0.02)(1-0.01+0.5x0.01)
= (0.994)(0.998)(1.0)(0.995) = 0.98705
(c) E = 0.1333/0.19633 = 0.679 = 67.9%
3. An eight-station assembly machine has an ideal cycle time of 6 sec. The fraction defect
rate at each of the 8 stations is q = 0.015 and a defect always jams the affected station.
When a breakdown occurs, it takes 1 minute, on average, for the system to be put back
into operation. Determine the production rate for the assembly machine, the yield of
good product (final assemblies containing no defective components), and proportion
uptime of the system.
Solution:
T
p
= 0.1 + 8(1.0)(0.015)(1.0) = 0.22 min/asby.
R
p
= 60/0.22 = 272.7 asbys/hr
If defects always jam the affected station, then m = 1.0
P
ap
= (1 - 0.015 + 1x0.015)
8
= 1.0 = yield
E = 0.1/0.22 = 0.4545 = 45.45%
4. Solve Problem 3 but assume that defects never jam the workstations. Other data are the
same.
Solution:
T
p
= 0.1 + 8(0)(0.015)(1.0) = 0.10 min/asby.
R
p
= 60/0.10 = 600 asbys/hr
If defects never jam, then m = 0
P
ap
= (1 - 0.015 + 0x0.015)
8
= 0.8861 = yield
E = 0.1/0.1 = 100%

5. Solve Problem 3 but assume that m = 0.6 for all stations. Other data are the same.
Solution:
T
p
= 0.1 + 8(0.6)(0.015)(1.0) = 0.172 min/asby
R
p
= 60/0.172 = 348.8 asbys/hr
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P
ap
= (1 - 0.015 + 0.6x0.015)
8
= 0.953 = yield
E = 0.1/0.172 = 0.5814 = 58.14%
6. A six-station automatic assembly line has an ideal cycle time of 12 sec. Downtime occurs
for two reasons. First, mechanical and electrical failures cause line stops that occur with a
frequency of once per 50 cycles. Average downtime for these causes is 3 min. Second,
defective components also result in downtime. The fraction defect rate of each of the six
components added to the base part at the six stations is 2%. The probability that a
defective component will cause a station jam is 0.5 for all stations. Downtime per
occurrence for defective parts is 2 min. Determine (a) yield of assemblies that are free of
defective components, (b) proportion of assemblies that contain at least one defective
component, (c) average production rate of good product, and (d) uptime efficiency.
Solution:
(a) P
ap
= (1 - 0.02 + 0.5x0.02)
6
= (0.99)
6
= 0.9415
(b) P
qp
= 1 - 0.9415 = 0.0585
(c) T
p
= 12/60 + 0.02(3) + 6(0.5)(0.02)(2) = 0.38 min
R
p
= 60/0.38 = 157.6 cycles/hr
R
ap
= (0.9415)(157.9) = 148.66 good asbys/hr
(d) E = 0.2/0.38 = 0.526 = 52.6%
7. An eight-station automatic assembly machine has an ideal cycle time of 10 sec. Downtime
is caused by defective parts jamming at the individual assembly stations. The average
downtime per occurrence is 3.0 min. The fraction defect rate is 1.0% and the probability
that a defective part will jam at a given station is 0.6 for all stations. The cost to operate
the assembly machine is $90.00 per hour and the cost of components being assembled is
$.60 per unit assembly. Ignore other costs. Determine (a) yield of good assemblies, (b)
average production rate of good assemblies, (c) proportion of assemblies with at least one
defective component, and (d) unit cost of the assembled product.
Solution:
(a) P
ap
= (1 - 0.01 + 0.6x0.01)
8
= (0.996)
8
= 0.9684
(b) T
p
= 0.1667 + 8(0.6)(0.01)(3) = 0.310667 min/asby
R
p
= 60/0.310667 = 193.1 asbys/hr
R
ap
= (0.9684)(193.1) = 187.04 good asbys/hr
(c) P
qp
= 1 - 0.9684 = 0.0316
(d) C
pc
= [0.60+1.50(0.310667)]/0.9684 = 1.066/0.9684 = $1.1007/asby
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ANALYSIS OF A SINGLE-STATION
ASSEMBLY MACHINE
The single-station assembly machine can be pictured as shown in Figure below. We assume a
single workhead, with several components feeding into the station to be assembled. Let us
use n to represent the number of distinct assembly elements that are performed on the
machine.






Each element has an element time, Tei, where i = 1,2,..., n. The ideal cycle time for the single-
station assembly machine is the sum of the individual element times of the assembly
operations to be performed on the machine, plus the handling time to load the base part into
position and unload the completed assembly. We can express this ideal cycle time as


Where, T
h
is the handling time

Many of the assembly elements involve the addition of a component to the existing
subassembly. As in our analysis of the multiple-station assembly system, each component
type has a certain fraction defect rate, q
i
and there is a certain probability that a defective
component will jam the workstation, m
i
.

When a jam occurs, the assembly machine stops, and it takes an average T
d
to clear the jam
and restart the system. The inclusion of downtime resulting from jams in the machine cycle
time gives.




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Average production time per assembly is therefore given by




In the special case where all are m
i
= m and all q
i
= q, then equation becomes



The rate of production of acceptable product is given by equation





The rate of production of acceptable product is given by equation





In the special case where all are m
i
= m and all q
i
= q, then equation becomes





The line efficiency is calculated as the ratio of ideal cycle time to average production time.





The proportion of downtime, D, is the average downtime per cycle divided by the average
production time is given by






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The cost per assembly produced, is given by






Problems on Single Station Assembly Machine

8. A single-station assembly machine is to be considered as an alternative to the dial-
indexing machine in Problem 2 (Multistation Assembly Machine) . Use the data given in
the table for that problem to determine (a) production rate, (b) yield of good product
(final assemblies containing no defective components), and (c) proportion uptime of the
system. Handling time to load the base part and unload the finished assembly is 7 sec and
the downtime averages 1.5 min every time a component jams. Why is the proportion
uptime so much higher than in the case of the dial-indexing machine in Problem 2?
Solution:
(a) T
c
= 7 + (4 + 3 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 6) = 7 + 25 = 32 sec = 0.5333 min
E(mq) = 0.6(0.015) + 0.8(0.01) + 1(0.02) + 0.5(0.01) = 0.042 (same as for Problem 17.4)
T
p
= 0.5333 + 0.042(1.5) = 0.59633 min
R
p
= 60/0.59633 = 100.6 asbys/hr
(b) P
ap
= (1-0.015+0.6x0.015)(1-0.01+0.8x0.01)(1-0.02+1x0.02)(1-0.01+0.5x0.01) =
0.98705 (same as for Problem 17.4)
(c) E = .5333/.59633 = 0.8943 = 89.43%
Comment: Proportion of uptime E is so much higher than in Problem 2 because the
cycle time is much longer for the single-station machine than for the six-station dial-
indexing machine (32 sec vs 6 sec). The average downtime per cycle is the same for both
machines, but it is a much lower proportion of the longer cycle time in the single station
case.
9. A single station robotic assembly system performs a series of five assembly elements, each
of which adds a different component to a base part. Each element takes 4.5 sec. In
addition, the handling time needed to move the base part into and out of position is 4 sec.
For identification, the components, as well as the elements that assemble them, are
numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The fraction defect rate is 0.005 for all components, and the
probability of a jam by a defective component is 0.7. Average downtime per occurrence =
2.5 min. Determine (a) production rate, (b) yield of good product in the output, (c) uptime
efficiency, and (d) proportion of the output that contains a defective type 3 component.

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Solution:
(a) T
p
= T
c
+ nmqT
d

T
c
= 4 + 5(4.5) = 26.5 sec = 0.44167 min
T
p
= 0.44167 + 5(0.7)(0.005)(2.5) = 0.48542 min
R
p
= 1/0.48542 = 2.06 asbys/min = 123.6 asbys/hr
(b) P
ap
= (1 - 0.005 + 0.7(0.005))
5
= (0.9985)
5
= 0.9925
(c) E = 0.44167/0.48542 = 0.90986 = 91.0%
(d) Type 3 defect = 1 - (1 - 0.005 + 0.7(0.005)) = 0.005 - 0.7(0.005) = 0.3(0.005) = 0.0015