HUNGARIAN LITERATURE Literature, literature written in the Hungarian language from medieval times to the present.

uring the !iddle Ages, most "ultural a"tivities in Hungar# were "arried on in Latin, the language of the "lerg#. The verna"ular $egan to $e used, however, in translations of legends and of Latin religious poetr#. The earliest e%tant Hungarian literar# wor& of importan"e is a funeral oration, Halotti $es'(d, that dates from the $eginning of the )*th "entur#. The oldest e%tant poem written in Hungarian is a version of a poem $# Godefro# de +reteuil, ,-ld Hungarian Lament of the .irgin !ar#/, whi"h dates from ". )*00. The first Hungarian drama was a translation from Hrosvitha1s Latin original. 2alled -n Three 2hristian .irgins, it was written ". )340. The )5th "entur# saw the development of a se"ular literar# "ulture and the introdu"tion of literar# forms from a$road. II )6TH T- )7TH 2ENTUR8 The first important period of Hungarian literature $egan with the great )6th9"entur# Reformation, when the +i$le was translated into Hungarian, first in )350 and again in )370 $# G:sp:r ;:rol#i. -utstanding among the poets who flourished during this period were +aron +:lint +alassa, an imitator of <etrar"h1s st#le, who wrote patrioti" and religious poems and who is parti"ularl# noted for his love poems= >e$astian Tin?di, who wrote histori"al "hroni"les in rh#med verse= !i&l?s @rin#i, author of the volume of verse The >iren of the Adriati" A)63)B whose wor& reveals the influen"e of the Italian +aroCue and parti"ularl# of the poet TorCuato Tasso= and Istv:n G#Dng#Dsi, among whose wor&s are the epi"s !ur:n#i .enus A)665B and 2upid? A)673B in the st#le of the Latin poet -vid. Numerous wor&s written in Hungarian during this period deal with law and philolog#= some are religious polemi"s. Erom the )Fth "entur# to the $eginning of the )7th, the Ha$s$urg rulers attempted to ma&e Hungar# part of a great Germani" empire. The# en"ouraged the writing of $oo&s in German or Latin and suppressed the use of Hungarian. uring the late )Gth "entur# the Hungarians, influen"ed $# nationalism and the European Enlightenment, re$elled against the politi"al and literar# poli"# of the Ha$s$urgs. The period was mar&ed $# the formation of so"ieties for the "ultivation of the Hungarian language, the founding of a num$er of pu$li"ations, among them the first newspaper in Hungarian, and e%perimentation with poeti" language. The movement for a strongl# "lassi"al Hungarian literature was greatl# stimulated during the earl# )7th "entur# $# the Romanti" poet and translator Eeren" ;a'in"'#, who was instrumental in moderni'ing the Hungarian language. Among the important poets of the ;a'in"'# epo"h were !ih:l# 2so&onai .it(', whose wor&s, influen"ed $# Rousseau, in"lude the philosophi"al poem -n the Immortalit# of the >oul and the mo"& epi" oroth# A)G05B, inspired $# <ope1s Rape of the Lo"&, and >:ndor ;isfalud#, who wrote Legends of the -lden Time in Hungar# A)G0FB. National feeling inspired su"h eminent poets as >:ndor <etDfi, whose patrioti" poems and innovative treatment of $oth "ontent and its e%pression esta$lished him as the national poet of Hungar#, and H:nos Aran#, author of man# $allads and l#ri"s and of Toldi, an epi" poem in )4 "antos, "ele$rating the e%ploits of a legendar# Hungarian hero. The foundations of the Hungarian modern national drama were laid at this time $# ;:rol# ;isfalud#, author of The !ongols in Hungar# A)G)7B and other histori"al dramas and also of tragedies and "omedies of "ontemporar# Hungarian life. +:n& $:n, the first modern traged# in Hungarian, was written in )G)3 $# H?'sef ;atona= it is now a "lassi" of the national theatre and, in the musi"al setting $# Eeren" Er&el, of the Hungarian opera. The most noted fi"tion writers of the time were +aron !i&l?s H?si&a, who

wrote the first Hungarian romanti" histori"al novel, and H?'sef EDtvDs, a statesman who wrote novels dealing with so"ial and politi"al Cuestions. Interest in Hungarian fol& songs and fol&tales was advan"ed $# the "olle"tions of fol&lore pu$lished $# H:nos Erd(l#i $etween )G56 and )G5G. The dire"t e%pression of Hungarian nationalisti" aspirations was prohi$ited $# the Austrian rulers of Hungar# after the a$ortive )G5G9)G57 re$ellion= in pra"ti"e, German rather than !ag#ar was the favoured language. In )G60 !ag#ar was restored as the offi"ial language, $ut not until the 40th "entur# did Hungarian letters as a whole re"over from politi"al $light and the imitative tenden"ies that largel# stifled literar# effort during the period of politi"al repression. Among the signifi"ant literar# wor&s of the time were the poeti" drama The Traged# of !an A)G6)B $# Imre !ad:"h= the poetr# of H:nos .aIda, whose a"hievements were overloo&ed until after his death= and the wor&s of several novelists, parti"ularl# !?r H?&ai, who produ"ed more than )00 romanti" novels and whose s&ill as a stor#teller $rought him immense popularit#, ;:lm:n !i&s':th, who wrote humorous tales, su"h as >t <eter1s Um$rella A)G73B and A Ghost in Lu$lo A)G76B and stories of politi"ians and $ureau"rats, and @sigmond ;em(n# whose wor&s, su"h as Hus$and and Jife A)G34B and Grim Times A)G64B, were remar&a$le for their profound ps#"hologi"al anal#sis. The pla#wright Gergel# 2si&# is noted prin"ipall# for The <roletariat. III 40TH 2ENTUR8 The development of Hungarian literature during the 40th "entur# was greatl# influen"ed $# the literar# review N#ugat AThe JestB, founded in )70G. -utstanding among the poets of this generation were the politi"al revolutionar# Endre Ad#, noted for innovative themes and te"hniCues in su"h wor&s as +lood and Gold A)70FB= !ih:l# +a$its, also an essa#ist= and the poet and short9stor# writer e'sD ;os'tol:n#i. @sigmond !?ri"', generall# "onsidered the greatest Hungarian novelist, is noted for his novels Gold Nugget A)7)0B and +utterfl# A)743B, for his histori"al trilogies Trans#lvania A)7*3B and R?'sa >:ndor A)750B, and for his short stories >even <en"e A)707B and +ar$arians A)7*3B. The satiri"al wor&s of the humorist Erig#es ;arinth# in"lude Travel Around !# Head A)7*F= trans. )7*GB. <erhaps the most famous of modern Hungarian writers is the pla#wright Eeren" !oln:r, author of Liliom A)707= trans. )74)B. Through the wor& of these authors, e%traordinar# produ"tivit# too& pla"e in Hungarian literature in the #ears following Jorld Jar I. A num$er of new writers appeared, espe"iall# in poetr#, where the outstanding figures in"luded LDrin"' >'a$?, a highl# individualisti" and su$tle l#ri"ist= G#ula Ill#(s, &nown also for his essa#s and $iographies= Attila H?'sef, whose verse "om$ines an"ient Hungarian fol&lore with elements of modern ps#"holog#= and !i&l?s Radn?ti, an elegia" poet murdered $# Hungarian National >o"ialists. The novel $e"ame the prin"ipal form of literar# e%pression and, though the ,>o"ialist transformation/ for"ed man# writers into e%ile, outstanding prose writers of this period in"lude LaIos @ilah#, pla#wright and author of the epi" novel The u&a#s Atrans. )757B, pro$a$l# the $est des"ription of pre9war Hungar#= Ti$or (r#, a former 2ommunist and one of the leaders of the revolution of )736 against the 2ommunists, &nown for his novels The Unfinished >enten"e A)756B and Ni&i A)736= trans. )73FB= and Las'l? N(meth, espe"iall# noted for his novel Revulsion A)75F= trans. )763B. After the failure of the revolution of )736, little signifi"ant literature was produ"ed in Hungar# itself. -ne e%"eption is the wor& of Eeren" Huh:s', whose verse written $etween )757 and )76F has $een pu$lished in an English translation entitled The +o# 2hanged into a >tag A)7F0B. The most nota$le writers of re"ent times are the novelists G#Drg# ;onrad and <eter Esterh:'#, and the poets L:s'l? Nag#, >:ndor JeDres, and H:nos <ilins'&#.

!i"rosoftK En"artaK En"#"lopedia. L )77*9400) !i"rosoft 2orporation. All rights reserved. I INTR- U2TI-N we$ "entre U Eind the $est online information a$out Einnish Literature. En"arta Editors1 2hoi"es Nordi" Literature and Art more... Einnish Literature, wor&s written $# or tra"ed to the people of Einland $ut, $e"ause of a histori"al affiliation with neigh$ouring >weden, not all ne"essaril# in the Einnish language. II -RIGIN AN EARL8 >JE I>H INELUEN2E An e%tensive oral fol& literature dates from a$out ad )00 and the arrival of the Einns, a people of possi$l# Nordi" and East9+alti" origin. Legends and m#ths served as the $asis for mu"h of their "reative wor&. The most popular forms in"luded epi" and l#ri" poetr#, fol& songs, fa$les, prover$s, and riddles. In ))3F Einland was "onCuered $# >weden. Through the ne%t si% "enturies, >wedish influen"e in administrative, religious, and edu"ational areas in"reasingl# altered the "ulture of the nation. >wedish was designated the offi"ial language of the edu"ated "lasses, and, with the introdu"tion of 2hristianit#, the language of the 2hur"h, Latin, "ame into similar wide usage. Jith most of the writing $# the edu"ated "lass $eing done in either one or the other language, literature in the Einnish tongue remained sparse. The first $oo& pu$lished in Einnish was the A+29+oo& printed in )36* $# +ishop !i"hael Agri"ola. The $ishop1s su$seCuent translation of the New Testament, pu$lished in )35G, mar&ed the earliest use of Einnish for religious writings. The traditional oral forms "ontinued to $e transmitted, $ut little other literature was produ"ed in Einnish. III NATI-NALI>T LITERAR8 !-.E!ENT In )G07 Einland was "eded to Russia. Eollowing the separation from >weden, a Einnish nationalist movement emerged, largel# en"ouraged $# histori"al resear"h underta&en $# the nation1s a"ademi" "ommunit#. The s"holar Elias LDnnrot, after man# #ears "olle"ting and stud#ing the fol& songs and sa#ings of an"ient Einland, pu$lished the ;alevala in Einnish in )G*3= he enlarged it in )G57. <ride in the Einnish language awa&ened among the nation1s writers, inspiring them at last to e%press themselves in their native tongue. This was lin&ed to the rise in nationalism in the mid9)7th "entur# whi"h led to a new "ultural "ons"iousness and the founding of the Einnish National Theatre in )GF4. +# the mid9)7th "entur#, Einnish wor&s were $eing pu$lished in all the maIor literar# forms. -ne of the most impressive monuments of Einnish prose is the novel >even +rothers A)GF0= trans. )747B, $# Ale&sis ;ivi, a noted pla#wright as well as a novelist. It is "onsidered the first Einnish novel and "hanged the emphasis of Einnish narrative literature $# realisti"all#, rather than romanti"all#, portra#ing the rural people. Earl# Realism is also represented in the novels and stories of Huhani Aho and in dramati" wor&s $# !inna 2anth. -f the "omedies written sin"e

;ivi, the $est is !an1s Ri$ A)7)5B, a depi"tion of marriage and divor"e, $# !aria Hotuni. Her last pla#, ;laus, the !aster of Louhi&&o, was honoured as the $est Einnish drama of )75). Naturalism in literature is represented in wor&s $# the novelists Hoel Lehtonen= Toivo <e&&anen, whose !# 2hildhood A)73*= trans. )766B des"ri$es a wor&ing9"lass famil#= and )7*7 No$el <ri'e winner Erans Eemil >illanpMM, writer of the poeti" epi" of rural life <eople in the >ummer Night A)7*5= trans. )766B. !i&a Jaltari is $est &nown for his internationall# popular histori"al novel The Eg#ptian A)757= trans. )757B, whi"h refle"ts "ontemporar# European post9war disillusion. The greatest names in Einnish verse are the l#ri" master Eino Leino, the patrioti" poet .ei&&o Antero ;os&enniemi, the singer of suffering and death Uuno ;ailas, and the sensitive l#ri"ist ;aarol >ar&ia. The most prominent post9Jorld Jar II novelist was .MinD Linna, whose The Un&nown >oldier A)735B, with its realisti", humorous "riti"isms of the offi"er "lass, $e"ame a $estseller and was translated into man# foreign languages. In his trilog# Under the North >tar A)7379)764B, Linna gave a powerful des"ription of the Einnish "ivil war in )7)F. Among the "ontemporar# novelists of note are .eiIo !eri, author of The !anila Rope A)73F= trans. )76FB, a mu"h9translated stor# of a soldier home on leave= and <aavo Rintala, whose trilog# Grandma and !annerheim A)7609 )764B deflates "herished national m#ths. The #oung !odernist poets in"lude Tuomas Anhava= Eeva9Liisa !anner, whose poetr# en"ompasses $oth nature and dream imager#= !atti Rossi, writer of politi"al protest verse= and <entti >aari&os&i, whose love poetr# and self9anal#ti"al verse is written in "olloCuial di"tion. >aari&os&i made the Einnish translation of Hames Ho#"e1s Ul#sses. rama has flourished in "ontemporar# Einland in the wor& of !eri and of Arvo >alo, who dealt with Einnish fas"ism in his ver# popular Lapua -pera A)766B. I. !- ERN J-R;> IN >JE I>H !an# Einnish writers pu$lished in >wedish, finding an audien"e at home and an e%tended readership in neigh$ouring >weden. Among these are Hohan Ludvig Rune$erg, whose poem ,.Nrt Land/ A)G5GB is the national h#mn of Einland, and @a&arias Topelius, a revered writer of fair# tales and histori"al novels. Important 40th9"entur# l#ri" poets are Edith >Ddergran, pioneer of !odernism= Arvid !Drne, "hampion of the >wedish9spea&ing minorit#1s "ause= +ertel Gripen$erg, a master of form= and Elmer i&tonius, who dealt with revolutionar# politi"al themes. !i"rosoftK En"artaK En"#"lopedia. L )77*9400) !i"rosoft 2orporation. All rights reserved. Gree& Literature, literature of the Gree&9spea&ing peoples from a$out the end of the 4nd millennium $" until the present da#. This literature developed as a national e%pression with little outside influen"e until the Hellenisti" period Asee $elowB, and had a formative effe"t upon all su""eeding European literature. >ee Gree"e. II THE EARL8 <ERIJritings produ"ed during the earl# period of Gree& literature were almost entirel# in verse form. Eor e%planations of the metres and other elements of verse stru"ture dis"ussed in this se"tion, see .ersifi"ation. Eor e%planations of the Gree& diale"ts mentioned, see Gree& Language. A Epi" <oetr#

Homer1s Iliad In this e%"erpt from the epi" poem, the Iliad Atranslated $# J. H. . Rouse, and re"ited $# an a"torB, TroIan and Gree& armies gather for the TroIan Jar A". )460 $"B, the "lassi" $attle of Jestern m#tholog#. In the meantime, the gods gather to de$ate the fate of the humans Owhether the# will allow them to settle their dispute in a "ivil manner, or whether the# will put the for"es in motion that will ensure total destru"tion for $oth sides and for an entire "ivili'ation. Attri$uted to the an"ient Gree& writer named Homer, this epi" poem dates from the 7th "entur# $".2ulver <i"turesPApB )774 !i"rosoft 2orporation. All Rights Reserved. E%pand The earl# inha$itants of Gree"e, the people of the Aegean and !#"enaean "ivili'ations, possessed an oral literature largel# "omposed of songs "on"erning wars, harvests, and funerar# rites. The songs were ta&en over $# the Hellenes in the 4nd millennium $", and although no fragments are &nown to e%ist, the su$seCuent art of the $allad singers who "ele$rated the a"tions of heroes must have developed from them. The fol& $allads, in turn, $e"ame the $asis of Gree& epi" poetr#. The Gree& epi" rea"hed its height in the Iliad and the -d#sse#, "omposed $# the writer Homer, who, it is now thought, "ould have $een a su""ession of poets rather than a single individual, sometime in the 7th "entur# $" Asee Epi"= <oetr#B. The# were written in the diale"t of the Gree& language later "alled Ioni", with an admi%ture of the Aeoli" diale"t. The perfe"tion of the da"t#li" he%ameter verse indi"ates that the poems are the "ulmination rather than the $eginning of a literar# tradition. The Homeri" epi"s were disseminated $# the re"itations of professional poets who, in su""eeding generations, made alterations in the originals, su$stituting "ontemporar# phrases for re"entl# o$solete ones. His wor& remained an oral tradition for ". 500 #ears. !#thi"al and heroi" events that are not "ele$rated in the Homeri" wor&s or that are mentioned without $eing full# narrated $e"ame the su$Ie"t matter of a num$er of su$seCuent epi"s, some fragments of whi"h are e%tant. A group of these epi"s, "omposed $# a num$er of un&nown poets Afl. G009330 $"B "alled the "#"li" poets, "on"erns the TroIan Jar and the war of the >even against The$es Asee >even Against The$esB. Among the &nown epi" poets, most of them of a later period, are <eisander of Rhodes, author of the Hera"leia, "on"erning the deeds of the m#thologi"al hero Hera"les Asee Her"ulesB= <an#asis of Hali"arnassus, author of a wor& also "alled the Hera"leia, of whi"h onl# fragments survive= and Antima"hus of 2olophon or 2laros, author of the The$ais and "onsidered the founder of the so9"alled learned s"hool of epi" poetr#. Antima"hus was a maIor influen"e on the later Ale%andrian epi" poets Asee The Hellenisti" <eriod, $elowB. A num$er of wor&s formerl# attri$uted to Homer have $een esta$lished as of later authorship. The earliest of these are pro$a$l# the *5 so9"alled Homeri" H#mns A". F009500 $"B, a series of magnifi"ent h#mns to the gods, written in da"t#li" he%ameter. Among other su"h poems is the +atra"hom#oma"hia A+attle of the Erogs and !i"eB, a parod# of an epi" poem. Not long after Homer, the poet Hesiod produ"ed his maIor wor&s. Jor&s and a#s, "omposed li&e the Homeri" epi"s in the Ioni" diale"t with some admi%ture of Aeoli", is the first Gree& poem to forsa&e legendar# su$Ie"t matter in favour of a theme drawn from ever#da# life, the e%perien"es and thoughts of a +oeotian farmer. The Theogon#, usuall# attri$uted to Hesiod,

although some "riti"s "onsider it of later authorship, is an a""ount of the esta$lishment of order from "haos and the $irth of the gods. The elegia" "ouplet, or elegia" disti"h, $e"ame popular throughout Gree"e during the Fth "entur# $" and was used for "ompositions of all &inds, ranging from dirges to love songs. The first &nown writer of elegia"s was, perhaps, 2allinus of Ephesus. -ther "ele$rated earl# elegia" poets were T#rtaeus of >parta= !imnermus of 2olophon= Ar"hilo"hus of <aros= the first Athenian poet, >olon= and Theognis of !egara. Ar"hilo"hus is said to have invented iam$i" verse and to have used it e%tensivel# in $iting satires. >olon and man# other poets used this metre also for refle"tive poems. +e"ause it represents the rh#thms of an"ient Gree& spee"h more faithfull# than does an# other metre, iam$i" verse "ame to $e used also for the dialogue in tragedies, in the form of the iam$i" trimeter. The fa$les of Aesop were written originall# in iam$i" trimeter, although the surviving te%ts are all of a mu"h later date Asee Ea$leB. + L#ri" <oetr# The l#ri" was originall# a song to $e sung to the a""ompaniment of the l#re. Two main t#pes of l#ri"s were "omposed in an"ient Gree"e, the personal and the "horal l#ri". The personal l#ri" was developed on the island of L(svos ALes$osB. The poet and musi"ian Terpander, who was $orn on L(svos $ut lived mu"h of his life in >parta, is "onsidered the first Gree& l#ri" poet $e"ause he was the earliest to set poetr# to musi". !ost of his poems were nomes, or liturgi"al h#mns, written in honour of a god, Apollo in parti"ular, and sung $# a lone singer to l#re a""ompaniment. Terpander was followed later in the Fth "entur# $" $# the great poets of L(svos. Al"aeus treated politi"al, religious, and personal themes in his l#ri"s and invented the Al"ai" strophe. >appho, the greatest woman poet of an"ient Gree"e, invented the >apphi" strophe and wrote also in other l#ri" forms. Her poems of love and friendship are among the most finel# wrought and passionate in the Jestern tradition. The Les$ian poets, as well as a num$er of later l#ri" poets from other Gree& "ities, "omposed their poems in the Aeoli" diale"t. In the 6th "entur# $" the poet Ana"reon1s pla#ful l#ri"s on wine and love were written in various l#ri" metres= su$seCuent verse similar in tone and theme was &nown as ana"reonti". Ana"reon also wrote elegia" disti"hs, epigrams, and poems in iam$i" metres. The "horal l#ri" was first developed in the Fth "entur# $" $# poets who wrote in the orian diale"t. ominant in the region around >parta, the orian diale"t was used even in later times, when poets in man# other parts of Gree"e were writing "horal l#ri"s.The >partan poets first wrote "horal l#ri"s for songs and dan"es in pu$li" religious "ele$rations. Later the# wrote "horal l#ri"s also to "ele$rate private o""asions, su"h as a vi"tor# at the -l#mpian Games. The earliest "horal l#ri" poet is said to have $een Thaletas, who reputedl# "ame from 2rete to >parta in order to Cuell an epidemi" with paeans, or "horal h#mns, to Apollo. He was followed $# Terpander, who wrote $oth personal and "horal l#ri"s= $# Al"man, most of whose poems were partheneia, pro"essional "horal h#mns sung $# a "horus of maidens and partl# religious in

"hara"ter and lighter in tone than the paeans= and $# Arion. Arion is said to have invented $oth the dith#ram$ and the tragi" mode, whi"h was used e%tensivel# in Gree& drama. Later great writers of "horal l#ri"s in"lude the >i"ilian poet >tesi"horus, a "ontemporar# of Al"aeus, who introdu"ed the triadi" form of "horal ode, "onsisting of a series of groups of three stan'as= >ee Also I$#"us of Rhegium, author of a large e%tant fragment of a triadi" "horal ode and of eroti" personal l#ri"s= >imonides of 2eos, whose "horal l#ri"s in"luded epini"ia, or "horal odes in honour of vi"tors at the -l#mpian Games, en"omia, or "horal h#mns that "ele$rated parti"ular people, and dirges, as well as personal l#ri"s, in"luding epigrams= and +a""h#lides of 2eos, a nephew of >imonides, who wrote $oth epini"ia, of whi"h )* are e%tant, and dith#ram$s, of whi"h 3 are e%tant. The "horal l#ri" rea"hed its height a$out the middle of the 3th "entur# $" in the wor&s of <indar, who wrote man# "horal l#ri"s of ever# t#pe, in"luding paeans, dith#ram$s, and epini"ia. A$out one9Cuarter of his wor&s are e%tant, "hiefl# epini"ia having the triadi" stru"ture invented $# >tesi"horus. 2ontemporar# with the wor& of these later poets, man# great "horal odes, $oth triadi" and nontriadi" in stru"ture, were written as integral parts of Gree& tragedies. 2 -ther Eorms Another genre developed in the 6th "entur# $" was a t#pe of philosophi"al poem related to the epi" and written $# su"h Gree& philosophers as Empedo"les, Qenophanes, and <armenides. Towards the end of the 3th "entur# $" some of the earliest Gree& prose wor&s now surviving were produ"ed, the most nota$le $eing those on medi"ine attri$uted to the ph#si"ian Hippo"rates. III THE ATTI2 <ERI- , 6TH95TH 2ENTURIE> +2 rama had $een developing meanwhile in Athens during the 6th "entur# $" Asee rama and ramati" ArtsB. In its earliest form the drama "onsisted of a "horus of men who sang and dan"ed "horal odes. Later, an a"tor who engaged in dialogue with the "horus was added. A Traged# >opho"les1 -edipus Re% >opho"les, "onsidered one of the greatest of all Gree& dramatists, introdu"ed several important advan"es into Gree& theatre during the 3th "entur# $". His ri"hl# developed "hara"ters often e%hi$it tragi" flaws that ironi"all# ensure their unwel"ome destinies. In -edipus Re% A-edipus the ;ingB, >opho"les dramati'ed the famous stor# of -edipus, the Gree& m#thologi"al figure who un&nowingl# &illed his father, the &ing, and married his own mother. The $lind prophet Teiresias spea&s the words in this e%"erpt at the point in the pla# when he is as&ed to divine who has offended the gods $# &illing the former &ing Are"ited $# an a"torB. ApB )774 !i"rosoft 2orporation. All Rights Reserved.P2ulver <i"tures E%pand Tragi" drama as we &now it toda# is said to have $een originated in the 6th "entur# $" $# the Athenian poet Aes"h#lus. Aes"h#lus introdu"ed the role of a se"ond a"tor, apart from the "horus. His tragedies, num$ering a$out 70, treat su"h loft# themes as the nature of divinit# and the relations of human $eings to the gods. -nl# seven of his tragedies are e%tant, in"luding <rometheus +ound, the stor# of the punishment of <rometheus, one of the Titans, $# the god

@eus= and the -resteia, a trilog# portra#ing the murder of the Gree& hero Agamemnon $# his wife, her murder $# their son -restes, and -restes1s su$seCuent fate. The se"ond great Gree& tragedian was >opho"les. The fine "onstru"tion of his plots and the manner in whi"h his themes and "hara"ters aroused $oth pit# and fear led Aristotle as well as other Gree& "riti"s to "onsider him the greatest writer of traged#. His -edipus Re% is the epitome of the tragi" genre. -f the more than )00 pla#s that >opho"les wrote, onl# F tragedies, a sat#r pla# Aa t#pe of "omed#B, and more than ),000 fragments are e%tant. His parti"ular "ontri$ution to traged# was the introdu"tion of a third a"tor on the stage, an innovation that was adopted later $# Aes"h#lus. Euripides, a #ounger "ontemporar# of >opho"les, was the third great Gree& pla#wright. He wrote a$out 74 pla#s, of whi"h )G tragedies Aone of dou$tful authorshipB and one "omplete sat#r pla#, The 2#"lops, are e%tant. His wor&s are "onsidered more realisti" than those of his prede"essors, espe"iall# in the ps#"hologi"al a"uteness of his "hara"teri'ations. +e"ause of this some "riti"s "onsider him the most modern of the Gree& traged# writers. Among his maIor wor&s are !edea, whose plot revolves around the revenge ta&en $# the en"hantress !edea on her hus$and Hason= and Hippol#tus, a$out the love of <haedra for her stepson Hippol#tus and his fate after reIe"ting her. + 2omed# -ne of the greatest "omi" poets was Aristophanes, whose first "omed#, aitaleis, now lost, was produ"ed in 54F $". Using dramati" satire, he ridi"uled Euripides in The Erogs and >o"rates in The 2louds. These wor&s represent the -ld 2omed# of Gree& literature. Later Gree& "omed# is grouped into two, !iddle 2omed# A5009**6 $"B and New 2omed# A**69 430 $"B. In !iddle 2omed#, e%emplified $# two later wor&s of Aristophanes, E""lesia'usae and <lutus, $oth written $etween *74 and *GG $", personal and politi"al satire is repla"ed $# parod#, ridi"ule of m#ths, and literar# and philosophi"al "riti"ism. The "hief writers of !iddle 2omed# were Antiphanes of Athens and Ale%is of Thruil= onl# fragments of their wor&s are e%tant. In New 2omed#, satire is almost entirel# repla"ed $# so"ial "omed# involving famil# t#pes, plot and "hara"ter development, and the themes of romanti" love. The "hief writer of New 2omed# was !enander. His "omedies had a strong influen"e upon the Latin dramatists of the *rd and 4nd "enturies $", nota$l# <lautus and Teren"e. -ne "omplete pla# $# !enander is e%tant, The 2urmudgeon, as are fragments of others. 2 Histor# The earliest Gree& historian, Herodotus, writing in the Ioni" diale"t, gave an a""ount of the <ersian Jars A3009557 $"B. His great wor&, Histor#, is valued for the wealth of information it presents a$out an"ient Gree"e and for its "harming st#le. Thu"#dides was the first great Atti" prose writer, and in his Histor# of the <eloponnesian Jar he emerges as the first "riti"al historian. The "hief literar# wor&s of the soldier9historian Qenophon were Ana$asis, an a""ount of Gree& mer"enaries attempting to es"ape from <ersia= !emora$ilia, a refutation of the "harges $rought against >o"rates, together with personal reminis"en"es, in the form of "onversations, of his "hara"ter and philosoph#= and Helleni"a, in whi"h Qenophon "ontinued Gree& histor# from

the point at whi"h Thu"#dides had finished. A later historian, Timaeus, wrote a histor# of >i"il# and reportedl# devised the method of re"&oning time $# the -l#mpiads. -rator# emosthenes -ne of the greatest orators of an"ient Gree"e, emosthenes "omposed powerful spee"hes against the !a"edonian &ings <hilip II and Ale%ander the Great, whom he saw as threatening the freedom of the Gree& "it#9states. This $ust is from the !usei 2apitolini in Rome.>EEPArt Resour"e, N8 Atti" prose rea"hed its highest e%pression in the wor&s of the Athenian orators. -f these the earliest whose wor&s have survived was Antiphon, a tea"her of rhetori". The orator L#sias used a simple, forthright st#le devoid of rhetori"al devi"es. It is said that he wrote a spee"h for >o"rates to use at his trial A*77 $"B. The spee"hes of Iso"rates, on the other hand, are literar# wor&s intended to $e read rather than spo&en. The full perfe"tion of Gree& orator# was a"hieved in the wor&s of emosthenes. Utili'ing all the resour"es of the language, he gave spee"hes that $e"ame models for su$seCuent orators. E <hilosoph# The two maIor Gree& philosophi"al writers in the Atti" period were <lato and Aristotle. <lato developed "ertain aspe"ts of the philosoph# of >o"rates and e%pressed, in the form of written dialogues, the t#pe of philosoph# later "alled idealism. >ee Also Gree& <hilosoph#. <lato1s dialogues are not onl# great philosophi"al wor&s $ut literar# masterpie"es as well, having man# Cualities "ommon to poetr# and drama. His prose st#le is one of the "learest and most $eautiful in Gree& literature. Aristotle, a pupil of <lato, wrote a large num$er of wor&s on logi", metaph#si"s, ethi"s, rhetori", and politi"s. >ome "lassi"al s"holars "onsider these to $e notes ta&en $# students from Aristotle1s le"tures delivered at the L#"eum, his s"hool in Athens. -f Aristotle1s literar# "riti"ism, onl# the se"tions on traged#, epi" poetr#, and rhetori" e%ist. I. THE HELLENI>TI2 <ERI- , *4*9)56 +2 Eollowing the "onCuests of Ale%ander the Great in the 5th "entur# $", Gree& "ulture spread throughout his vast empire. The most outstanding of the man# literar# s"hools that "ame into $eing and the greatest li$rar# of antiCuit# were lo"ated in the "it# of Ale%andria, Eg#pt Asee Ale%andria, Li$rar# ofB. A <oetr# Among the finest Ale%andrian poetr# was that of 2allima"hus, the master of a s"hool in Ale%andria and the "hief li$rarian of the Ale%andrian li$rar#. 2allima"hus is "redited with writing more than G00 volumes, ea"h "ontaining man# wor&s, of whi"h onl# 6 h#mns, 65 epigrams, and a few elegies and other poems are e%tant. He and his followers improved the use of metre and invented the epullion, a t#pe of short stor# in verse. The# also developed the purel# literar# dida"ti" poem and the pastoral, and the# perfe"ted the epigram, whi"h was later adopted $# their Roman dis"iples.

The >i"ilian poet Theo"ritus, who did most of his wor& in Ale%andria and is "onsidered $# man# "riti"s to $e the greatest of the Ale%andrian poets, wrote the Id#lls, a series of pastoral poems. The# were imitated $# his su""essors, su"h as +ion of >m#rna, among whose )G e%tant poems is the famous Lament for Adonis= and the >i"ilian poet !os"hus, who wrote an epi" poem, Europa, and pastoral verse. + <rose <ossi$l# the most important wor& of the Hellenisti" period was done $# the s"ientifi" and s"holarl# writers, parti"ularl# the ph#si"ian Herophilus= the anatomist Erasistratus= the astronomers Hippar"hus and Aristar"hus of >amos Athe first to maintain that the Earth revolves around the >unB= and the mathemati"ian, astronomer, and geographer Eratosthenes, who measured the "ir"umferen"e of the Earth. . THE GRAE2-9R-!AN <ERI- , 4N 2ENTUR8 +295TH 2ENTUR8 A After the Roman "onCuest of Gree"e in )56 $", the Gree& historian <ol#$ius wrote an a""ount of that "onCuest, and a "entur# later the geographer >tra$o "ompiled his Geographi"a, a s#stemati" stud# of pla"es, animals, and o$Ie"ts of interest. In the late )st and earl# 4nd "enturies ad<lutar"h produ"ed his famous <arallel Lives, in whi"h $iographies of "ele$rated Gree&s are mat"hed with those of nota$le Romans. Later in the 4nd "entur# ad, Galen, the greatest of the an"ient anatomists, wrote wor&s that laid the foundations of modern medi"ine. The earl# 2hristian writers who trans"ri$ed and "ompiled the New Testament made use of a variet# of the ;oine AGree&, ,"ommon/B, the "ourt and literar# language of Hellenisti" Gree"e. The ;oine diale"t is distin"t from the one used $# the "lassi"al Gree& writers and their imitators, the so9"alled Atti"ists, the $est of whom was the satirist Lu"ian, author of ialogues of the ead, ialogues of the Gods, and True Histor#, the latter a "omi" narrative wor&. A""ording to modern s"holars, the protot#pe of the novel was pro$a$l# developed in Gree"e sometime $efore the 4nd "entur# ad. The most important e%tant fragments of an earl# Gree& novel, those of the so9"alled Ninos Roman"e, dealing with the love of Ninos, legendar# founder of Ninevoli, are thought to $e of the )st "entur# $". Eive e%tant "omplete Gree& novels were written after ad )00 and $efore ad *00R 2haereas and 2allirhoe, $# 2hariton "onsidered the earliest of the five wor&s= Aethiopi"a, or Theagenes and 2hari"leia Aearl# *rd "entur# adB, $# the s&ilful writer Heliodorus of Emesa= aphnis and 2hloe, $# Longus, the most famous and pro$a$l# the $est of these novelists= Ephesia"a, or Anthia and Ha$ro"omes, $# Qenophon, possi$l# of Ephesus, the least s&ilful of the novelists= and Leu"ippe and 2litophon A$efore ad *00B $# A"hilles Tatius, thought to $e the latest of the five e%tant novels. All of the wor&s are romanti" stories of love and adventure in whi"h virtuous lovers or spouses are separated and made to endure man# perils, $ut are reunited in the end. >toi" philosoph# Asee >toi"ismB was represented in the writings of Epi"tetus and !ar"us Aurelius= the Neoplatonists Asee NeoplatonismB found their "hief e%ponent in <lotinus. >ome of the finest verse of the period "onsists of anon#mous epigrams in the Gree& Antholog#, a "olle"tion of Gree& poetr# and prose "overing almost 4,000 #ears= it is "omposed of two $oo&s

"onIoined in the )0th and )5th "enturies ad, &nown, respe"tivel#, as the <alatine Antholog# and the <lanudean Antholog#. .I THE +8@ANTINE <ERI- , !I 95TH9)3TH 2ENTURIE> A Erom the $eginning of the reign of 2onstantine in ad *4*, until the fall of the Eastern Empire in )53* Asee +#'antine EmpireB, Gree& literature la"&ed the homogeneous "hara"ter of the earlier periods and was strongl# influen"ed $# $oth Latin and -riental elements. The greater part of the writings of this period are theologi"al and atta"& the various heresies that arose during the first millennium of the 2hristian era. Thus, >t Athanasius in the 5th "entur# assailed Arianism, and, later, Anastasius of Antio"h and Leontius of +#'antine A6th "entur#B atta"&ed the !onoph#sites. The 2appado"ian EathersO>t +asil of 2aesarea, >t Gregor# of N#ssa, and >t Gregor# of Na'ian'usOwere of importan"e $oth as writers and as influen"es on su$seCuent theolog#. In the Gth "entur# the last of the great Gree& theologians, >t Hohn of amas"us, wrote polemi"s against the I"ono"lasts Asee I"ono"lasmB, as well as one of the earliest $oo&s on 2hristian dogma, The Eoundation of ;nowledge. >#meon !etaphrastes is important as the editor of the A"ts of the !art#rs, whi"h revised and "ompared older a""ounts of saints1 lives. Numerous h#mns were "omposed $# Romanus !elodus and $# the earl# Eathers of the 2hur"h, parti"ularl# $# >t Gregor# of Na'ian'us and $# 2osmas of Herusalem. +e"ause of e""lesiasti"al influen"e, the writing of se"ular verse de"lined. An important legendar# and histori"al poem, however, was the remar&a$le popular epi" igenes A&ritas A)0th9))th "entur#B, a wor& that originated among the "ommon people and was spread orall# $# fol& singers $efore $eing written down. Also of importan"e from the literar# point of view were the +#'antine historians, "riti"s, and philosophers. Noteworth# among the historians were <ro"opius, Emperor 2onstantine .II <orph#rogenitus, !i"hael <sellus, Anna 2omnena, Georgius <a"h#meres, and Hohn .I 2anta"u'ene. The greatest of the +#'antine "riti"s was <hotius, whose summaries and e%tra"ts of 4G0 "lassi"al wor&s still e%tant in the 7th "entur# preserved mu"h that might otherwise have $een lost. In the )4th "entur# Eustathius of Thessaloni"a wrote a "ommentar# on the wor&s of "lassi"al authors, in"luding Hesiod, <indar, and the Gree& tragedians. -f importan"e among +#'antine philosophers was the highl# original thin&er Georgius Gemistus <letho, who introdu"ed <latoni" philosoph# to the Italian Renaissan"e. .II THE !- ERN <ERIThe Eourth 2rusade, laun"hed in )405, "arried with it a horde of Eran&ish invaders who esta$lished themselves in "entral and southern Gree"e with su"h titles as du&es of Athens or $arons of The$es Asee 2rusadesB. A maIor literar# wor&, and the result of this o""upation, was The 2hroni"le of the !orea A)5th "entur#B, a long epi" poem in Gree& verse, pro$a$l# written $# a Gree&9spea&ing Eren"hman of the third generation. The epi" is remar&a$le for the $eaut# of the poetr#, its dramati" for"e, and the eas# flow of a vividl# des"riptive "olloCuial idiom. In the mid9)3th "entur# the +#'antine Empire and the remnant of the Eran&s in Gree"e were swept awa# $# the -ttoman Tur&s, and Gree& literature suffered an e"lipse. Until the end of the )Gth "entur# it "ontinued to flourish onl# on the peripher# of the Gree& world, outside the -ttoman Empire.

A 2retan Jritings 2rete, under the "ontrol of the .enetians, was the literar# "entre of Gree"e during the )6th and )Fth "enturies. ramas written during this period, su"h as the Erophile of Georgios Hortat'is, were largel# patterned after Italian models. The period also saw the produ"tion of two of the greatest 2retan wor&s in demoti", or "olloCuial, Gree&, the Romanti" poem Erot?&ritos $# .it'(nt'os ;arn:ros, now ran&ed $# some as a national epi", and The >a"rifi"e of A$raham A)6*3B, a ps#"hologi"al drama of famil# relationships $# an anon#mous author, perhaps ;orn:ros= $oth were translated into English in )747. A large num$er of popular songs were written at this time, in"luding the pastoral poem The Eair >hepherdess, a well9&nown version of whi"h was pu$lished in )64F. The "omposition of su"h songs also a$ounded on 2#prus and the Aegean Islands. The flourishing 2retan s"hool was all $ut terminated $# the Tur&ish "apture of the island in the )Fth "entur#.The $allads of the &lephts, however, survive from the )Gth "entur#= these are the songs of the Gree& mountain fighters who "arried on guerrilla warfare against the Tur&s. + 2lassi"al versus emoti" Gree& Towards the end of the )Gth "entur#, dreams of li$eration $egan to inspire the Gree&s. Jhile patriots and poets wrote "opiousl#, a language pro$lem developed that was to affli"t Gree& literature for man# de"ades. Under Tur&ish domination the edu"ation of all Gree&s was underta&en $# the 2hur"h. Instru"tion was "onservative, and the language used preserved the antiCue forms of +#'antine Gree&. Eurthermore, man# of the Gree& patriots writing a$road, assuming that an"ient Hellas was a$out to arise from its ashes, for"ed the modern idiom into unnatural antiCue patterns. Adamantios ;orais, a learned "lassi"ist living in <aris, urged the use of a "om$ined language, one that was neither an"ient nor modern. The language di"hotom# "an easil# $e tra"ed in the area of poetr#. >in"e the !iddle Ages a ri"h, orall# transmitted, self9perpetuating fol& poetr# had flourished as the real poetr# of Gree"e. It was written in demoti" Gree&, a natural medium for narrative and l#ri"al verse. In the )Gth "entur# some poets $egan following the "lassi"al tradition instead. Among these were ;onstantinos Rhigas and Ia&ovos Rhi'os Neroulos. A num$er "arried on the "lassi"al tradition in the )7th "entur#, among them Ale%andre Ri'os Ranga$(, poet, historian, and novelist. In the )7th "entur#, however, poets tended in"reasingl# to use the more e%pressive demoti" Gree&, and for de"ades fier"e "ontrovers# raged. Toda# demoti" is used for literature and a more "lassi"al form of Gree& for professional and s"ientifi" writing. 2 Literature of the Li$eration !ovement In the first de"ades of the )7th "entur#, literature, and parti"ularl# poetr#, was mainl# patrioti". The rousing verse of the leader of the Ionian s"hool of poetr#, ion#sios >olom?s, en"ouraged the nation emerging from Tur&ish $ondage. His fine H#mn to Li$ert# A)G4*B, has $e"ome the national anthem of Gree"e. <erhaps the $est poet of the Ionian s"hool was Andreas Ioannides ;alvos, a great "lassi"al s"holar= his stirring poems, in a diale"t of his own ma&ing and of singularl# harmonious te%ture, resound with e"hoes of the an"ient Gree& paeans.

Eollowing the emergen"e of Gree"e as an independent state in )G*4, literature developed with new vigour, e%pressing the spirit of a highl# arti"ulate people. <rominent writers of fi"tion in the )7th "entur# in"luded Emmanuel Roidis, whose earliest wor& was the novel <ope Hoan A)G63B, translated into English in )735 $# the +ritish writer and translator Lawren"e urrell. Roidis was also a satirist, a literar# "riti", and an important translator of English and Eren"h authors. Ale%andros <apadiamantis, novelist and short9stor# writer, wrote l#ri"al vignettes of village life and island s"ener#. <apadiamantis1s wor& was "ompletel# free of foreign influen"e. A posthumous "olle"tion of his $est stories, Ta rodina a&ro#ialia AThe Roseate >horesB, was pu$lished in )7)*. Another author of pure Gree& inspiration is the Ionian stor#9writer Arg#ris Eftaliotis. His $est9&nown wor& is Nisioti&es istories AIsland Tales, )G7FB. -utstanding among the )7th9"entur# poets of the postli$eration period was Aristotelis .alaoritis, a poet noted for his vigour and des"riptive imager# who wrote in demoti" Gree&. Another important writer of the period is the >#m$olist poet Ioannes <apadiamantopoulos, who wrote in Eren"h under the name Hean !or(as. !or(as had a "onsidera$le influen"e on #ounger Gree& poets, among them ;onstantinos Had'opoulos, a fine writer of fi"tion as well as poetr#, and !iltiades !ala&asses, who started his "areer writing in Eren"h $ut soon turned to Gree&. Important also is Georgios >ouris, the great politi"al satirist in the tradition of Aristophanes= >ouris pu$lished in verse a wee&l# Iournal that proved a livel# and "austi" "ommentar# on pu$li" affairs. The first important Gree& dramatists of the )7th "entur#, emetrios .ernada&is and >p#ridon .asiliadis, wrote in the "lassi"al manner. The realisti" and satiri"al dramas of Ioannis ;am$isis a$out Athenian life were written in the verna"ular. Influen"ed $# Russian Realism, novelist and pla#wright >p#ros !elas wrote the dramas Ios tou is&#ou A>on of the >hadow, )70FB and ;o&&ino pou&amiso ARed >hirt, )70GB. The pla#s of Gregorios Qenopoulos, parti"ularl# >tella .iolanti A)707B, were influen"ed $# the )7th9"entur# Norwegian dramatist Henri& I$sen. The Gree& >#m$olist movement found its e%pression in pla#s su"h as @ontani &e pethameni AThe Living and the ead, )703B $# emetrios Tangopoulos. !odern <oetr# -ne of the most popular poets in the earl# part of the 40th "entur# was Georgios rosines. rosines $egan writing in the purified literar# diale"ts $ut later adopted and advo"ated the use of the verna"ular. His wor& in"ludes the volumes of poems <hotera s&otadia ALight Through ar&ness, )70*9)7)5B and ;lista vlephara A2losed E#elids, )7)59)7)FB. Ran&ed $# "riti"s as one of the most important poets in Europe was rosines1 "ontemporar#, ;ostis <alamas, some of whose $est poetr# is "ontained in Asalephti 'oi AImmuta$le Life, )705B. <alamas1s long poem <hlo#era tou vasilia AThe ;ing1s Elute, )7)0B presents a pageant of +#'antine histor#. His epi" poem and masterpie"e The Twelve Jords of the G#ps# A)70F= trans. )765B e%presses the hopes and aspirations of the Gree& people. It is generall# a""epted $# "riti"s that 2onstantine 2avaf# is one of the greatest and most influential poets of modern Gree"e= his wor& is internationall# re"ogni'ed. He was $orn and lived most of his life in Ale%andria, Eg#pt. The "it# was the "entre of Gree& "ulture at the turn of the 40th "entur#, as it was in the Hellenisti" period, and forms the $a"&ground of man# of 2avaf#1s distur$ingl# nostalgi" histori"al poems. A +audelairean melan"hol# pervades $oth his

homoeroti" poems and those that evo&e deepl# moving human tragedies of an"ient times. ,Ta vimata/ A,Eootsteps/, $efore )7))B, for e%ample, is an impressive poem a$out the Roman emperor Nero, l#ing asleep as the Euries, who pursue the wi"&ed, approa"h. 2avaf#1s verse is written in a $lend of literar# and demoti" Gree&Oharmonious, l#ri"al, and pleasing to the ear. Also worth# of mention is Angelos >i&elianos, whose poetr# is somewhat ritualisti" and often <indari" in mood Asee <indarB. He was one of the first modern Gree& poets to write in free demoti" verse, whi"h often re"alls the mood of an"ient l#ri"s and "hori" odes. Among his finest wor&s are Aphierosi A2onse"ration, )744B= the poeti" drama 2hristos sti Romi A2hrist in Rome, )756B= Thanatos tou igeni AThe eath of igenis, )75GB= and L#ri&os vios AThe L#ri" +reath of Life, * vols., )75FB, a "olle"tion of l#ri" poems. Together with his Ameri"an9$orn wife Eva An(e <almer, )GG39)734B, >i&elianos organi'ed the elphi" Eestival in Athens and the impressive produ"tion and dire"tion of the pla#s of Aes"h#lus at the san"tuar# of Apollo on !ount <arnassus. E !odern <rose -ne of the most widel# &nown Gree& writers of the 40th "entur# was Ni&os ;a'ant'a&is, 2retan novelist and poet, whose wor&s, written largel# in his own adaptation of 2retan diale"t, have $een translated into several languages. His $est9&nown poem is The -d#sse#R A !odern >eCuel A)7*G= trans. )73GB, a long epi" $eginning where Homer1s -d#sse# ends. Among his most popular novels, availa$le in English, are @or$a the Gree& A)75*= trans. )734B, later made into a film and a musi"al, and The Gree& <assion A)75G= trans. )735B. -ther writers also "ontri$uted to the literature of the period. Elias .ene'is, a super$ master of st#le and realisti" des"ription, wrote Galene A>erenit#, )7*7B and +e#ond the Aegean A)75*= trans. )733B. >tratis !#rivilis, a novelist of great romanti" "harm, produ"ed The Tea"her with the Golden E#es A)7*4B, on the first Jorld Jar, >mall Elames A)754B, and The !ermaid !adonna A)733B. <andelis <revela&is, dramatist, novelist, essa#ist, poet, and former follower of ;a'ant'a&is, wrote su"h dramati" wor&s as In the Hands of the Living God A)733B and The Last Tournament A)736B= his "olle"ted poems were pu$lished in )767. ;osmas <olitis, an a""omplished st#list, has proven himself an idealist with a fine insight into the "hara"ter of women. <olitis manages to "om$ine )7th9"entur# Romanti"ism with a sense of 40th9"entur# realities= "hief among his novels are Lemonodasos AThe Lemon9Tree Grove, )74GB, He&ate A)7**B, and Eroi"a A)7*GB. George Theoto&as is a novelist and dramatist, and onetime dire"tor of the National Theatre of Gree"e. Among his wor&s are The emon A)7*GB, an anal#sis of the modern Gree& temperament= the novel Leonis A)750B= and two volumes of pla#s A)755 and )75FB. Important among "ontemporar# Gree& writers is I. !. <ana#otopoulos, poet, novelist, essa#ist, "riti" of literature and art, and re"order of his travels. <ana#otopoulos is a prolifi" writer, having produ"ed more than *0 wor&s, and an influential "ontri$utor to the "ultural life of Gree"e. His 2aptive A)73)B is a stor# e%tending from pre9war da#s through the German o""upation of Gree"e. E <ost9Jorld Jar II Trends uring and following Jorld Jar II man# writers, refle"ting their parti"ipation in the struggle of the Gree& people for survival, $egan a new &ind of literar# a"tivit#. Themos ;ornaros des"ri$ed in Haidari A)756B the attempts of German soldiers during Jorld Jar II to $rea& the morale of

Gree& prisoners. -ther do"umentar# wor&s of literar# merit were written a$out the Gree& Resistan"e movement, as well as several patrioti" poems dealing with the Resistan"e and the ensuing "ivil war. Among the writers who emerged to "arr# on the wor& of Ni&os ;a'ant'a&is after his death in )73F was .assilis .assili&os, the author of over 40 novels, in"luding the protest novel @ A)766B, whi"h was translated into English in )76G and later made into a "ompelling film. This wor& "on"erns the violent ta"ti"s of the "orrupt politi"ians and arm# offi"ers who prote"ted the Gree& monar"h#. Later wor&s in"lude three length# novellas, pu$lished under the title ;roup Ell:s A)7F6B. The title stor# "on"erns a vast munitions fa"tor# Athe ;rupp wor&sB that "ontrols the lives of its wor&ers and ma&es possi$le mass war deaths. >everal novelists $egan, in the )730s, to turn awa# from fi"tion spe"ifi"all# a$out the war and its aftermath to novels dealing with other aspe"ts of e%isten"e. >tratis Tsir&as des"ri$ed the life of Gree&s e%iled in Eg#pt during the war in his trilog# The 2lu$ A)760B, Ariagni A)764B, and The +at A)763B. Antonis >amara&is wrote of individuals "aught in the pressures of modern so"iet#, as in The Elaw A)763= trans. )766B= Galatia >arandi dealt with the "ontemporar# ps#"hologi"al stress of women= and Nestoras !atsas has written a$out the Hews in wartime Gree"e. >in"e the war a vigorous group of inspired poets has appeared in Gree"e. Their modernit# is not impaired $ut rather enhan"ed $# their "ontinuation of an old tradition of nostalgi" sentimentO e%pressed in fresh new wa#s. George >eferis, whose evo"ative s#m$olism, Cuiet understatement, and nostalgi" tou"h e%"ite the intelle"t and stir the emotions, won the No$el <ri'e in )76*. His 2olle"ted <oems, )7459)733, whi"h was translated into English $# Edmund ;eele# and <hilip >herrard, was pu$lished in a $ilingual edition in )76F. The wor& of the politi"al radi"al 8annis Ritsos dating from )73F ma# $e found in English translation in >ele"ted <oems A)7F5B. !ore re"ent poetr# appears in Eighteen >hort >ongs of the +itter !otherland A)7F5B. -d#sseus El#tis, $orn in 2rete, a painter and translator as well as a poet, is one of the few >urrealists in Gree& literature. His maIor theme is the redemption of human $eings despite all o$sta"les, and his wor& "onve#s the spe"ial light and ar"hite"tural features of the Gree& lands"ape. Eor his a"hievements El#tis was awarded the No$el <ri'e in )7F7. His maIor wor&s in"lude The >overeign >un A)75*= trans. )7F5B and A%ion Esti A)737= trans. )7F5BOa title ta&en from the first words of a h#mnR ,It is worth#/. rama, whi"h up to the end of Jorld Jar II had remained untou"hed $# international developments, $egan to "hange in the )730s. In "ontrast to the tragedies of >i&elianos and ;a'ant'a&is, set in antiCuit# and +#'antine times, pla#s of #ounger writers deal with "ontemporar# pro$lems. !i"rosoftK En"artaK En"#"lopedia. L )77*9400) !i"rosoft 2orporation. All rights reserved.