Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, August 22-26 2006

Differences in adolescents use of music in mood regulation

Suvi Saarikallio
Department of Music, University of Jyvskyl, Finland. suvila@campus.jyu.fi

ABSTRACT
Mood regulation has been considered as one of the most important reasons for engaging in music. There is, however, a lack of theory-based investigations of the regulatory processes. The current study was based on the authors previous theoretical model on adolescents mood regulation by music. The aim was to explore how adolescents use different mood-regulatory strategies through their everyday musical activities, and how this regulation is related to differences in age, gender, musical background, and abilities of general mood regulation. 1515 Finnish adolescents completed a questionnaire. The results showed that girls used music for mood regulation more than boys and older adolescents more than younger adolescents. Greater use of music in mood regulation was related to a more active musical background, preferences for rock music and heavy metal music, greater attention to ones feelings and greater ability to reappraise ones emotional experiences. The study demonstrated how differences in adolescents use of music in mood regulation were related to a variety of personal factors.

BACKGROUND
Mood regulation refers to processes directed to modifying or maintaining the occurrence, duration, and intensity of both negative and positive moods (Cole, Martin, & Dennis, 2004; Eisenberg & Spinrad, 2004; Gross, 1998; Parkinson, Toterdell, Briner, & Reynolds, 1996). Research on mood regulation has identified music as a regulatory strategy (Gallup & Castelli, 1989; Parker & Brown, 1982; Rippere, 1977; Silk, 2003; Thayer, Newman & McClain, 1994), and research on music has identified mood regulation as one of the most important reasons for music consumption (Christenson & Roberts, 1998, p. 47-49; DeNora, 1999; Laiho, 2004; North, Hargreaves, & O`Neill, 2000; Roe, 1985; Sloboda & ONeill (2001); Wells & Hakanen, 1991). Some group differences in the use of music for mood regulation have been found. In general, women are shown to use music for mood regulation more than men (Wells & Hakanen, 1991). Girls seem to be more likely to engage with music to cope with personal problems and interpersonal conflicts, whereas for boys, music is more a way of increasing energy levels and positive moods, and creating an expression of being cool (Behne, 1997; Christenson & Roberts, 1998, p. 51; Larson, 1995; Larson Kubey, & Colletti, 1989; North et al., 2000; Sloboda & ONeill, 2001; Wells & Hakanen, 1991). Out of all age groups, music seems to have its strongest importance especially in youth (Christenson, DeBenedittis & Lindlof, 1985; Christenson & Roberts, 1998; Gabrielsson & Lindstm Wik, 2003; North et al., 2000; Roe, 1985, Zillmann & Gan, 1997). It has been shown that already very young adolescents know how to use music for mood regulation (Behne, 1997), but age differences in adolescents mood-regulatory uses of music have not been thoroughly investigated. However, research on adolescents coping abilities in general has demonstrated that the use of different coping strategies increases with age, and age 15 is

Keywords
Music, Mood Regulation, Adolescence
In: M. Baroni, A. R. Addessi, R. Caterina, M. Costa (2006) Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Music Perception & Cognition (ICMPC9), Bologna/Italy, August 22-26 2006.2006 The Society for Music Perception & Cognition (SMPC) and European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM). Copyright of the content of an individual paper is held by the primary (first-named) author of that paper. All rights reserved. No paper from this proceedings may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the paper's primary author. No other part of this proceedings may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information retrieval system, without permission in writing from SMPC and ESCOM.

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considered as a turning point in the use of more efficacious coping strategies (Seiffge-Krenke, 1995, 220-222; Mullis & Chapman, 2000). The use of music for mood regulation seems to be related to musical background. Music majors respond emotionally more strongly to their preferred music than nonmusic majors (Lehmann, 1997), and experimental studies have shown that music effectively decreases arousal due to stress especially in adolescents, females, and musicians (Pelletier, 2004). However, some studies have reported that music-related emotional experiences of non-musicians and musicians are quite alike (Schubert, 2001). In addition, it seems that the emotional use of music may not differ according to the type of musical activity, since adolescents reasons for listening and playing are shown to be quite similar to each other (North et al., 2000, Saarikallio & Erkkil, in press). Mood-regulatory use of music may also be related to musical preferences. Diversity in musical preference has been shown to correlate with emotionality in listening (Behne, 1997; Wells & Hakanen, 1991), and eclectic musical preference has been considered to reflect flexibility in using music for mood-related needs (Schwartz & Fouts, 2003). In Roes (1985) exploratory study atmosphere creation/mood control factor correlated with preferences for rock and new wave but not with preferences for jazz, country, classical music, and mainstream pop. Preference for harder forms of music has been found to be positively correlated with emotional difficulties like psychological turmoil and behavioral problems (Took & Weiss, 1994), emotional problems and expression of anger (Epstein, Pratto, & Skipper, 1990), feelings of loneliness (Davis & Kraus, 1989), moodiness, pessimism, and impulsiveness (Schwartz & Fouts, 2003). In contrast, preference for upbeat and conventional pop music has been found to be negatively correlated with depression (Rentfrow & Gosling, 2003).

musical activities was inductively constructed (Saarikallio, 2006; Saarikallio & Erkkil, in press). The purpose of the current study was to investigate how differences in mood regulation by music were related to differences in age, gender, musical background, musical preferences, and abilities of general mood regulation. Based on earlier research, it was hypothesized that girls would use music for mood regulation more than boys. It was also expected that the amount of mood regulation by music would slightly increase with age. Greater use of music in mood regulation was expected to correlate with more active musical background, greater versatility of musical preference as well as with preference for rock music. In addition, greater use of music in mood regulation was expected to be related to better abilities of mood regulation in general.

METHOD
A large survey study was conducted to measure differences in adolescents use of music in mood regulation. The survey was based on the authors previous theoretical model of mood regulation by music. The model consists of seven regulatory strategies: Entertainment, Revival, Strong Sensation, Diversion, Discharge, Mental Work, and Solace. Based on those strategies, a new scale was developed. The scale was labeled Music in Mood Regulation (MMR), and it was employed to measure the differences in musicrelated mood regulation.

Subjects
The survey sample consisted of 1515 adolescents, 652 boys and 820 girls, whose mean age was 15.01 years. The universe for the survey was Finnish adolescents, and a stratified random sampling method was used. The questionnaire was conducted at schools. Three age groups were included, and the questionnaire was delivered to pupils from three different school levels: to 6th-graders of elementary school (mean age=11.76), 2nd-graders of junior high school (mean age=13.76), and 2nd-graders of senior high school (mean age=16.67). Schools of each school level were randomly chosen from each county of Finland in proportion to the number of inhabitants of the county. Each pupil on a given grade in the chosen school was asked to answer the questionnaire. A total of 25 schools participated.

AIM
The underlying motivation of the current study was to increase understanding of the emotional and psychological meaningfulness of music in the context of everyday life. The study focused on exploring the use of music in regulating mood, and how this regulatory activity was related to various individual differences. The perspective is comparable to the uses and gratifications approach, which studies individuals use of media for their personal needs. The use of music in emotional management is well acknowledged, but there has been little theory development on the different regulatory goals and strategies. The current study aimed to patch this deficiency, and was firmly grounded on a theoretical model. The conceptualization of mood regulation by music in the current study was based on the authors previous qualitative work, in which a theoretical model of the mood-regulatory processes related to

Measures
Music in Mood Regulation (MMR) is a 40-item scale, which consists of seven sub-scales measuring the seven mood-regulatory strategies identified in the previous research. Each strategy is measured by 4-7 items, and together the strategies comprise a big second-order factor that represents the use of music in mood regulation. Responses to item statements are made on a 5-point Likert-scale ranging from Strongly disagree to Strongly agree. Items are in a random order, and include reverse scored items. The factor structure of MMR was tested with a series of con-

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firmatory factor analyses, which demonstrated that the factor structure was supported by the data. The internal consistency reliabilities of MMR and its seven subscales were also good. They ranged from .76 to .92 for the subscales, and averaged .96 for the whole MMR. Musical background was assessed by five different factors. The amount of music listening was reported by selecting one of the three options: less than one hour a day, one to three hours a day, and more than three hours a day. Having playing or singing as a hobby was measured by the number of years of playing different instruments, and grouped for the analysis into four levels: has not played anything, has played, but not over one year, has played one instrument over one year, and has played several instruments over one year. The subjects were asked whether or not they had made songs by themselves, and whether or not somebody else in their family played an instrument. The subjective experience of the importance of music in ones life was rated with a 9-point scale ranging from not at all important to very important. The respondents were asked to choose from a list one musical activity that they would prefer if they wanted to influence their mood. To compare listening with playing, one item from each regulatory strategy of MMR scale was answered in relation to both listening and playing by those who had reported playing as their hobby. The preferences for different musical styles were assessed by a five-point Likert-scale ranging from I dont like at all to I like a lot. The versatility of musical preference was assessed by the amount of styles that the respondent had rated with either number 4 (I like quite a lot) or number 5 (I like a lot). General mood regulation abilities were assessed by four measures: a scale for Negative Mood Regulation expectancies (NMR) (Catanzaro & Mearns, 1990), the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ), which consists of two subscales of Reappraisal and Suppression (Gross & John, 2003), a mood regulation scale by Lischetzke and Eid (2003), and the Trait Meta Mood Scale (TMMS), which consists of three subscales of Attention, Clarity, and Repair (Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, & Palfai, 1995). The reliability and validity of these measures are well documented, for example in the papers referred above. The scales were translated into Finnish using back translation and the help of non-professional judges and a professional translator.

Gender and Age

There was a significant interaction effect between gender and age for MMR (F (2) = 6.09, p .01), and, therefore, gender differences were explored separately in each age group. In all age groups, girls used music for mood regulation more than boys. In the youngest group, the difference was significant for MMR and all other strategies (all tvalues > 5.54, all p-values .001) except for Discharge, which was used more by boys but for which the difference was not significant (t (345) = -1.15, p = .25). In the second age group, girls used all strategies more than boys, and the difference was significant for MMR and all strategies (for Discharge, t (460) = 3.12, p .01, all other t-values > 5.96 and all other p-values .001). In the oldest age group, girls also used all strategies more than boys. The difference was not significant for Discharge (t (654) = 1.07, p= .283), but was significant for all other strategies and for the whole MMR (For MMR, Entertainment, Diversion, Mental Work and Solace all t-values > 3.77 and p-values .001, for Revival and Strong Sensation t-values > 2.70 and p-values .01). The use of music in mood regulation increased by age for both boys and girls, but the change occurred later for boys. Indicated by ANOVAs, there was a significant difference in MMR between the three age groups for girls (F (2) = 10.85, p .001). The post hoc tests (Tukey, Bonferroni, LSD) showed that the difference was almost significant for girls both between the two younger age groups (p .05 by LSD) and the two older age groups (p .05 by all post hoc tests). The increase occurred for girls in all strategies, but it was statistically significant only for Entertainment (F (2) = 20.64, p .001), Strong Sensation (F (2) = 33.39, p .001), Discharge (F (2) = 5.87, p .01), and Mental Work (F (2) = 7.70, p .001). For boys, there was also a significant difference in MMR between the three age groups indicated by ANOVAs (F (2) = 25.37, p .001). However, the post hoc tests (Tukey, Bonferroni, LSD) showed that the difference was not significant between the two younger groups, but highly significant between the two older age groups (p .001 by all post hoc tests). The difference between age groups for boys, indicated by ANOVAs, was significant for all other strategies (all Fvalues > 7.93, all p-values .001) except for Discharge, for which the difference was not statistically significant.

Musical Background
As predicted, musical background of the adolescents was related to their use of music in mood regulation. The daily amount of listening had a very strong connection to MMR. Indicated by ANOVAs, the use of MMR and all its strategies was greater for those adolescents who listened more. The post hoc tests (Tukey, Bonferroni, LSD) showed that the difference was significant for MMR and all its strategies between all three categories of the daily amount of listening (all p-values .001 by all post hoc tests). The

RESULTS
The mostly used regulatory strategies for both boys and girls in all age groups were the same: Entertainment, Revival, and Strong Sensation. However, the results also showed significant differences in the use of music in mood regulation based on gender, age, musical background, and general mood regulation abilities.

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estimated means of MMR in the three listening groups are shown in Figure 1. Having playing or singing as a hobby was also related to MMR. Indicated by ANOVAs, MMR and all its strategies were used more by those adolescents who played or sang. The post hoc tests (Tukey, Bonferroni, LSD) showed that there was no significant difference for MMR between those who hadnt played at all and those who had played less than one year. Instead, there was a significant or almost significant difference (all p-values .05 by all post hoc tests) for MMR between those who had played less than one year and those who had played one instrument over one year. Furthermore, there was a highly significant difference (all p-values .001 by all post hoc tests) between those who had played one instrument over a year and those who had played several instruments over a year. Thus, the results indicated that the use of music in mood regulation is related to both commitment to and versatility in playing. Songwriting was also related to MMR. Those who made songs used MMR and all its strategies significantly more (p .01 for Discharge, p-values .001 for other strategies and whole MMR). Having someone else in the family singing or playing was not related to Entertainment and Discharge, but it was significantly related to other strategies and the whole MMR (all p-values .001). The subjective experience of the importance of music was also related to MMR. Those who experienced music as being more important part of their life used MMR and all its strategies significantly more (correlations ranging from .30 to .66).
4,00

Musical Activities
The most important musical activity for regulating mood was listening. Listening alone was chosen among different musical activities to be the number one choice to influence ones mood by over half of the respondents in all age groups by both boys and girls. Furthermore, more than half of also those subjects who had reported playing as their hobby, still chose listening alone as their first choice for regulating mood. Listening was slightly preferred over playing in relation to items picked from MMR. Adolescents who had playing as a hobby, still used listening significantly more than playing for items representing Entertainment (t (731) = 6.98, p .001), Revival (t (731) = 7.15, p .001), Diversion (t (735) = 5.19, p .001), and Mental Work (t (732) = 8.19, p .001). However, the difference was not significant for items representing Strong Sensation (t (734) = -.54, p = .13), Discharge (t (735) = 1.53, p = .13), or Solace (t (733) = -1.47, p=.14).

Musical Preferences
The most liked musical styles for both boys and girls and in all age groups were rock, pop, heavy, and rap. Boys preferred heavy and techno more than girls, whereas girls preferred classical music, pop and gospel more than boys. Indicated by ANOVAs, the preference for classical music, rock, jazz, folk, and gospel increased with age. Instead, the preference for pop gradually decreased with age. As expected, the versatility of musical preference was significantly related to MMR and all its subscales. The correlations ranged from .16 to .31. Separate musical preferences were also related to MMR and its subscales. Preferences for classical music (r = .21), rock (r = .29), heavy metal (r = .18), jazz (r = .22), folk (r = .12), and gospel (r = .19) correlated significantly with MMR. When the effects of gender and age were controlled, MMR still correlated with the same musical preferences, but the strongest correlations appeared with rock (r=.25) and heavy (r=.30). Preferences for pop, rap, techno, or evergreens did not significantly correlate with MMR. However, preference for pop was positively correlated to two subscales, Entertainment (r=.10) and Revival (r=.08). Preferences for rap (r=.15) and techno (r=.16) also correlated with Entertainment. Correlations between MMR, its subscales and preferences for different musical styles are presented in table 1. Table 1. Correlations between MMR and musical preferences when gender and age were controlled

Error Bars show 95,0% Cl of Mean

3,00

Mean MMR
2,00

1,00

less than 1 hour a day

1-3 hours a day

more than 3 hours a day

MMR Classical Rock .12 ** .25 ** Pop .03

e -.06 * .24 ** .10

r .08 ** .19 ** .08

ss .26 ** .21 ** .03

div .10 ** .15 ** -.03

dis -.07 * .28 ** -.03

mw .20 ** .16 ** .02

s .16 ** .14 ** .02

Listening to music
Figure 1. Estimated means of MMR in the three listening groups

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** Heavy .30 ** Rap/ HipHop Jazz/ Blues Techno .17 ** .06* .04 .20 ** .15 ** .09 ** .16 ** Evergreens Folk -.02 -.02 ** .17 ** .06 * .14 ** .07 * -.03 .04 -.04 -.10 ** .09 ** Gospel .13 ** .01 -.03 .06 * .08 * .16 ** .19 ** .08 ** .10 ** -.05 * -.02 .16 ** .20 ** .13 ** .19 ** .05 .01 .25 ** .03 .14 ** .01 .05 .01 .19 ** .02 .16 ** .01 .20 ** .02 .19 ** 02 .46 ** -.03 .19 ** .03 .15 ** .01

DISCUSSION
Results of the current study demonstrated how several personal factors are related to differences in adolescents use of music in mood regulation. The results supported most of the hypothesized differences related to age, gender, musical background, musical preferences, and abilities of general mood regulation. In interpreting the results of the current study, however, it must be remembered that the large sample size could make also very small group differences and correlations statistically significant. As expected, music was used in mood regulation more by girls than by boys. The difference was significant in all age groups. Even though music presumably is just as important to boys as it is to girls in general, it seems to have more significance to girls in relation to mood regulation. The result may also imply that girls are more willing to report about their mood-regulatory behaviors. The use of music in mood regulation increased with age for both girls and boys. The result is in accordance with previous research, which has demonstrated that different coping strategies are acquired with age (SeiffgeKrenke, 1995, 220-222; Mullis & Chapman, 2000). The strategies of MMR include elements that the adolescents are often not conscious about in their daily engagement with music (Saarikallio, 2006; Saarikallio & Erkkil, in press). The cognitive development and increased ability of abstract comprehension may also help older adolescents to be more conscious about their regulatory uses of music. Greater use of music in mood regulation was related to a more active musical background, and all variables of musical background were significantly related to the use of music in mood regulation. However, listening seemed to be particularly important for mood regulation. The daily amount of listening was significantly related to the use of music in mood regulation and listening alone was clearly the most often chosen musical activity for regulating mood. The results imply that music may serve as an important means for mood regulation also for those adolescents who just listen to music. In addition, it seems that listening is the most important means for mood regulation even for those adolescents who do play an instrument. The use of music in mood regulation was related to the versatility of musical preference, which supports the notion that mood regulation by music is about an ability to employ different musical styles for different emotional needs (Schwartz & Fouts, 2003). The use of music in mood regulation correlated most strongly with preferences for rock music and heavy metal music. These musical genres may provide a useful resource for adolescents mood regulation because their strong intensity, volume, and roughness seem to reflect the erratic and intense emotional experience characteristic to youth. The connection between a preference for harder forms of music and the use of music in mood regulation also has an interesting link to previous studies reporting that harder forms of music are related to

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). MMR-subscales: (e)=Entertainment, (r)=Revival, (ss)=Strong Sensation, (div)=Diversion, (dis)=Discharge, (mw)=Mental Work, and (s)=Solace

General Mood Regulation Abilities

As expected, MMR correlated with measures of general mood regulation abilities. However, overall, the correlations were relatively low, which suggests that MMR assesses a distinct regulatory dimension. MMR correlated positively with NMR, Reappraisal, Mood Regulation, Attention, and Repair, indicating relatedness with adaptive mood regulation strategies. The strongest correlations were with Reappraisal and Attention. No correlation existed between MMR and Clarity or Suppression. The correlations are presented in table 2. Table 2. The correlations between MMR and measures of general mood regulation abilities when controlling for gender and age
Measures for general mood regulation abilities NMR Reappraisal Suppression Mood Regulation scale Attention Clarity Repair MMR .11** .30** -.00 .10** .28** .02 .15**

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

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different emotional disturbances (Davis & Kraus, 1989; Epstein et al., 1990; Schwartz & Fouts, 2003; Took & Weiss, 1994). When faced with hard times, adolescents may find help from hard music. Preferences for pop, rap and techno did not correlate with the MMR scale, but they did correlate with the subscale of Entertainment. These styles seem to have their role as a provider of nice feel and positive experiences. In relation to that, it is important to remember that mood regulation by music is not only about coping with problems, but also about getting positive experiences and emotional resources from music. Strategies that were most closely related to positive emotional experiences, Entertainment, Revival, and Strong Sensation, were actually the mostly used ones. As expected, the abilities of general mood regulation correlated with mood regulation by music. However, the correlations were relatively low, and established musicrelated mood regulation as a distinct construct. MMRs positive correlations with scales that reflect favorable regulatory strategies suggest that music might be an adaptive means for mood regulation. The strongest correlations were with Attention and Reappraisal. This is well in line with notions made by several music researchers that music is able to give form to emotional experiences and that it facilitates psychic processing and restructuring of thoughts and feelings (Behne, 1997; DeNora, 1999; Larson, 1995; Lehtonen, 1986; Ruud, 1997b; Sloboda, 1992; Sloboda and ONeill, 2001). In essence, music is one form of attending to and reappraising emotional experiences. The current study demonstrated how several personal factors are connected to differences in the mood-regulatory uses of music. The strength of the current study was its foundation on substantial qualitative work about the regulatory processes, which enabled theory-based exploration. Strong dialogue between empirical findings and theoretical concepts is essential also for further inquiries of musicrelated mood regulation.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I want to express my gratitude to the Pythagoras Graduate School, Ministry of Education Finland, and Academy of Finland for funding this research. Special thanks to professor Esko Leskinen and docent Kaisa Aunola for their constructive advice in statistics.

REFERENCES
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