Taken from http://www.gemair.com/~raischc/, This is a very long outline of the topics covered in the second Semester.

Chapter 21Reaction, Revolution, and Romanticism (1815-1850) [See 5 12, 5 !", 5 !#, 5 !8$ %&'R&(')* The forces of upheaval unleashed during the French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars were temporarily quieted in 1815 as rulers sought to restore stability by reestablishing much of the old order to a Europe ravaged by war. ings! landed aristocrats! and bureaucratic elites regained their control over domestic governments! while internationally the forces of conservatism tried to maintain the new status +uo" some states even used military force to intervene in the internal affairs of other countries in their desire to crush revolutions. #ut the $estern world had been changed! and it would not readily go bac% to the old system. New ideolo,ies! especially li-eralism and nationalism! both products of the revolutionary upheaval initiated in France! had become too powerful to be contained. Not content with the status quo! the forces of change gave rise first to the revolts and revolutions that periodically shoo% Europe in the 18&'s and 18('s and then to the widespread revolutions of 18)8. *ome of the revolutions and revolutionaries were successful" most were not. +lthough the old order usually appeared to have prevailed! by 185' it was apparent that its days were numbered. This perception was reinforced by the changes wrought by the ,ndustrial -evolution. Together the forces unleashed by the F- and the ,- made it impossible to turn bac%. Nevertheless! although these two revolutions initiated what historians li%e to call the modern European world! remnants of the old persisted in the midst of the new. ,. The .onservative /rder! 1815018(' +fter the defeat of Napoleon! European rulers moved to restore the old order This was the goal of the great European powers12reat #ritain! +ustria! 3russia! and -ussia 4 .uadruple /lliance51when the met at the Con,ress o0 &ienna in *eptember 181) to arrange a final peace settlement +. + 3eace *ettlement after Napoleon 1. -estoration of ingdoms 6eader of the congress was the +ustrian foreign minister! 3rince 1lemens von 2etternich 4177(018585! who claimed that he was guided at 9ienna by the principle o0 le,itimac3... To %eep peace and stability in Europe! he said it was necessary to restore the legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions .ontainment of France...another guiding principle of course! was one that had long been the center of European diplomacy -alance o0 po4er...ensuring that no one country could dominate Europe as France had tried to do under Napoleon

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The .onservative :omination; The Concert o0 'urope The peace arrangements of 1815 were the start of a conservative reaction that sought to contain the liberal and nationalist forces unleashed by the F <etternich and his supporters were representative of the ideolo,3 4a political philosophy such as conservatism or liberalism5 of conservatism 1. 'dmund 5ur6e=s Reflections on the Revolution in France as a 2uide .onservatism dates to the publication of this important wor% by #ur%e in 178' >e argued that government was a contract or partnership ?not only b@w those who are living! but b@w those who are living! those who are dead! and those who are to be bornA No one generation has the right to destroy this partnership" each generation has the duty to preserve and transmit it to the neBt #ur%e did not favor the violent overthrow of a government by revolution! but he did not reCect the possibility of change...gradual not sudden &. 3rinciples of Conservatism; a. b. c. (. /bedience to political authority! organiDed religion was crucial to social order! hated revolutionary upheavals! were unwilling to accept either the liberal demands for civil liberties and representative governments or the nationalistic aspirations generated by the FThe community too% precedence over individual rights" society must be organiDed and ordered! and tradition remained the best guide for order *upported by hereditary monarchs! government bureaucracies! landowning aristocracies! and mainstream churches 4both 3rotestant and -.5

From Euadruple to .uintuple /lliance 4F France5 a. b. .oncert of Europe; one method used by the great powers to maintain the status quo they had created was the Concert o0 'urope! according to which 2#! -ussia! 3russia! +ustria! and later France! agreed to meet periodically to discuss their interests and ensure the maintenance of peace in Europe .oncert of Europe failed; the Euintuple +lliance adopted a principle o0 intervention that was based on the right of the great powers to send armies into countries where there were revolutions to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones

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#ritain refused to agree to this principle...it had never been the intention of the alliance to interfere in the internal affairs of other states The other four ignored #ritain! and used military intervention to defeat revolutionary movements in *pain and ,taly and to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones ./E bro%e down when the #ritish reCected the p of i and ultimately prevented the .ontinental powers from intervening in the revolutions in 6atin +merica ). -evolt in 6atin +merica 6atin +merica remained in the hands of the *panish and 3ortuguese up until the early part of the 18 th century $hen the #ourbon monarchy in *pain was toppled by Napoleon! *panish authority in its colonial empire wea%ened From roughly 181'018&5! nearly every country in 6+ achieved their independence! with the help of such ?liberatorsA as Simon 5olivar and 7ose de San 2artin 5. The 8ree6 Revolt! 18&1018(& p of i could be used to support revolution if the great powers found it in their interests to do so in 18&1! the 2ree%s revolted against their /ttoman Tur%ish masters! who had ruled them for over )'' years + revival of 2ree% national sentiment made this a popular cause...2reat #ritain! France! and -ussia aided 2reece in their struggle in the 9reat3 o0 /drianople! the Tur%s agreed to allow -ussia! France! and #ritain to decide the fate of 2reece...in 18('! they declared 2reece an independent %ingdom! and two years later! a new royal dynasty was established up until 18('! this was the only successful revolt in Europe because the great powers themselves supported it .. The .onservative :ominion; The European *tates domestically! conservative governments wor%ed to maintain the old order 1. -ule of the Tories in #ritain 2# governed largely by the aristocratic landowning classes that dominated both houses of 3arliament...within 3arliament! there were two political factions! )hi,s and 9ories...both groups comprised of members of the landed classes! although the $higs were beginning to receive support from the new industrial middle class &. The #ourbon -estoration in France a. b. (. ). #ourbon monarchy restored in the person of :ouis ;&((( 4181)018&)5! who understood the necessity to accept some of the changes brought to France during the F- and Napoleonic eras...he died in 18&)! and was succeeded by his brother! Charles ; .harles= attempt to restore the old regime as far as possible led to public outrage" by 18('! France was on the brin% of another revolution

,taly...after the .ongress of 9ienna still largely dominated by the +ustrians! and all the states had eBtremely reactionar3 governments eager to smother any liberal or nationalist sentiment -epression of 6iberalism in .entral Europe a. b. 2ermany...the 9ienna settlement recogniDed the eBistence of (8 sovereign states 4called the 8ermanic Con0ederation5 in what had once been the >-E...+ustria and 3russia were the two maCor powers" the .onfederation had little real power! but served as an instrument to preserve the conservative status quo The *tagnation of +ustria...a multinational state 411 ethnicities5...forces of nationalism were strong! though <etternich managed to repress the nationalist forces and hold the empire together

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Tsarist +utocracy in -ussia a. b. c. +t the beginning of the 18th c.! -ussia was overwhelmingly rural! agricultural! and autocratic...-ussian tsar still regarded as a divine0right monarch +leBander , 418'1018&55...initially seemed willing to institute enlightened reforms! but after the defeat of Napoleon! implemented reactionary policies The -eaction of Nicholas , 418&5018555...he also turned into a strict reactionary after a military revolt at the beginning of his reign...called the ?3olicemanA of Europe b@c of his willingness to suppress brutally revolutionary movements

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The (deolo,ies of .hange +lthough the conservative forces were in the ascendancy from 1815 to 18('! powerful movements for change were also at wor%...these depended on ideas embodied in a series of political philosophies or ideologies that came into their own in the first half of the 18 th c

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+. 6iberalism owed much to the Enlightenment and the +merican and French -evolutions became more significant as the ,- progressed b@c the industrial middle class largely adopted the doctrine as its own most fundamental belief is that people should be as free from restraint as possible! which is evident in both economic and political li-eralism 1. Economic liberalism 4a%a ?classical economicsA5 a. 6aisseD0faire the state should not interrupt the free play of natural economic forces! especially supply and demand government should not interfere with the economic liberty of the individual and should restrict itself to only ( primary functions :efense of the country 3olice protection of individuals .onstruction and maintenance of public wor%s too eBpensive for individuals to underta%e b. &. Economic liberty...if given this by the state! ultimately individuals would bring about the maBimum good for the maBimum number and benefit the general welfare of society

3olitical liberalism a. .ommon set of beliefs 3rotection of civil liberties or the basic rights of all people 4equality before the law" freedoms of assembly! speech! press" and the freedom from arbitrary arrest5 Freedoms should be guaranteed by a written document -eligious toleration! and a growing support for the separation of church and state -ight of peaceful opposition to the government .reation of laws by a representative assembly elected by qualified voters 6imited su00ra,e 4equal civil rights does not mean equal political rights5 b. ,ts proponents Tied to middle0class and especially industrial middle0class men who favored the eBtension of voting rights so they could share power with the landowning classes 6iberals had little desire to let the lower classes share that power... liberals were not democrats c. 7ohn Stuart 2ill as %ey advocate of liberalism in the 18th century On Liberty...all individuals should have an ?absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subCectsA that needed to be protected from both government censorship and the tyranny of the maCority On the Subjection of Women...the ?legal subordination of one seB to anotherA is wrong...differences b@w men and women have nothing to do with different natures! but simply social practices...with equal education! women could achieve as much as men

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Nationalism the most powerful agent for change in the 18th century 1. /rigins...arose out of an awareness of being part of a community that has common institutions! traditions! language! and customs the community is the ?nationA! and the primary political loyalty of individuals would be to the nation rather than to a dynasty or a city0state or other political unit Nationalism did not become a popular force for change until the F-...from then on! nationalists believed that each nationality should have its own government 4idea of sel0-determination right to establish their own autonomy5 -adical nature...nationalism threatened to upset the eBisting political order! both internationally and nationally! which meant that nationalism was fundamentally radical b@c many states li%e the +ustrian Empire were multinational! it is evident why conservatives tried so hard to repress the radical threat of nationalism a united 2erman or ,talian state also might upset the prevailing balance of power +lliance with 6iberalism...most liberals believed that freedom could be realiDed only by peoples who ruled themselves...many nationalists believed that once each people obtained its own state! all nations could be lin%ed into a broader community of all humanity

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Early Socialism 1. /rigins...in the first half of the 18th c.! the pitiful conditions found in the slums! mines! and factories of the ,- gave rise to another ideology for change %nown as socialism the term eventually became associated with a <arBist analysis of human society 4.h &&5! but early socialism was largely the product of political theorists or intellectuals who wanted to introduce equality into social conditions and believed that human cooperation was superior to the competition that characteriDed early industrial capitalism

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&. ?GtopiansA...to later <arBists! such ideas were impractical dreams! and these early thin%ers were labeled ?utopian socialistsA! a label that has endured to this day 4see .h &' outline5 ey thin%ers include Saint-Simon! Charles <ourier! 6ouis #lanc! Flora Tristan! -obert /wen $ere against private property and the competitive spirit of early industrial capitalism" by eliminating these things and creating new systems of social organiDation! a better environment for humanity could be achieved ,,,. -evolution and -eform! 18('0185' beginning in 18('! the forces of change began to brea% through the conservative domination of Europe...by 18)8! a revolutionary fervor swept Europe +. The Revolutions o0 18=0 1. France a. b. c. &. 7ul3 Revolution...the attempt by ultraroyalists under .harles H 418&)018('5 to restore the old regime as far as possible led to a revolt by liberals in 18(' %nown as the I:ouis->hilippe 418('018)85...moderate liberals appealed to the %ing=s cousin! 6ouis03hilippe to become the constitutional %ing of France...he agreed....harles H fled to France The ?bourgeois monarchA...political support for his rule came from the upper middle class...moderate reforms that favored the bourgeoisie

Nationalist sentiment fuels ( revolutions a. b. c. #elgium...rose up against their :utch rulers! and convinced the maCor European powers to accept an independent! neutral #elgium 3oland...crushed by the -ussians ,talian states...crushed by <etternich and the +ustrians

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#ritain a. -evolution avoided by minor reforms

,ndustrial leaders obCected to the corrupt #ritish electoral system! which eBcluded them from political power The $higs realiDed that concessions to reform were superior to revolution Re0orm /ct o0 18=2 increased the number of male voters! primarily benefiting the upper middle class 4the lower middle class! artisans! and industrial wor%ers still had no vote5 ,ndustrial elite now on same level as landed aristocrats...as a result of these minor reforms! #ritain would not eBperience the revolutionary disturbances during 18)8 #. The Revolutions o0 18!8 4see 5.1&5 :espite the successful revolutions in France! #elgium! and 2reece! the conservative order remained in control of much of Europe. #ut liberalism and nationalism continued to grow. ,n 18)8! these forces of change erupted once more...again! France provided the spar%. 1. France a. b. c. d. .auses; industrial and agricultural depression starting in 18)J" government scandals and corruption" government=s refusal to eBtend suffrage each segment of French society! eBcluding aristocrats and the upper middle class! had grievances /verthrow of monarchy on February &)! 18)8! by a group of moderate and radical republicans 7une ?a3s; wor%ers revolt inspired by closing of the national wor%shops! which had been wor%er0run and owned manufacturing centers Kpublicly financedL and led by :ouis 5lanc" brutally suppressed 2nd <rench Repu-lic proclaimed...by :ecember a National +ssembly had been elected by universal male suffrage...new constitution made France a republic with a unicameral legislature and a president 4elected by universal male suffrage5...disagreements b@w moderates and radicals plagued France and elsewhere...how far is too farM Charles :ouis @apoleon 5onaparte elected...within four years! 3resident Napoleon would become Emperor Napoleon

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.entral Europe a. b. .oncessions...news of events in France inspired similar revolutions in .entral Europe...typically! monarchs tried to hold on to as much of their power as possible by offering concessions to reformers...such things as constitutions! a free press! and Cury trials 2erman states wor% towards unification...the 2erman .onfederation allowed elections! based on universal male suffrage! to elect leaders for a pan02erman parliament! whose purpose was to prepare 2ermany for unification

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c. <ran60urt /ssem-l3...this pan02erman parliament failed >ad no way of compelling the 2erman rulers to accept the constitution they had drawn up *ince 2erman liberals failed! leadership for unification would pass on to the 3russian military monarchy +ustrian empire...see 5.1& ,talian states...see 5.1&

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generally spea%ing! the failure of the revolutionaries to stay united soon led to the reestablishment of the old regimes in 18)8! nationalities everywhere had also revolted in the pursuit of self0government...little was achieved because divisions among nationalities proved utterly disastrous...instead of Coining together against the old empire! minorities fought each other ,9. .ulture in an +ge of -eaction and -evolution; The <ood of Romanticism 4see 5.)J! 5.)7! 5.)85 +t the end of the 18th c.! a new intellectual movement %nown as -omanticism emerged to challenge the Enlightenment=s preoccupation with reason in discovering truth the -omantics tried to balance the use of reason by stressing the importance of feeling! emotion! and imagination as sources of %nowing +. .haracteristics of -omanticism 1. Emotion! *entiment! and the ,nner $orld; The EBample of 8oethe The Sorrows of the Young Werther...the individual who see%s freedom to attain personal fulfillment" the tragic figure who is misunderstood and reCected by society! but believes in his@her own worth through their inner feelings" tragic figure who ends up ?tragicallyA ,ndividualism...rebellion against middle0class conventions...for -omantics of the 18 th c.! long hair! beards! and ?outrageousA clothes served to reinforce the individualism that young -omantics were trying to eBpress The 6ure of the <iddle +ges...passionate interest in the past 4NE*O5...eBamples include the stories of 8rimm -rothers and Aans Christian /ndersen! revival of 2othic architecture! Sir )alter Scott=s Ivanhoe +n +ttraction to the #iDarre and Gnusual...2othic literature of 'd,ar /llan >oe and 2ar3 )ollstonecra0t Shelle3...eBtraordinary states of eBperience focus on the dreamworld! use of drugs li%e cocaine and opium

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-omantic 3oets and the 6ove of Nature 3oetry ran%ed above all other literary forms as it was the direct eBpression of one=s soul 1. &. (. >erc3 53sshe Shelle3 4178&018&&5... Prometheus nboun! :ord 53ron 41788018&)5..."hil! #arol!$s Pilgrimage% &on 'uan )illiam )ords4orth 4177'0185'5...to $$! nature contained a mysterious force that the poet could perceive and learn from...this worship of nature led some to pantheism

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-omanticism in +rt and <usic -omantic artists typically believed that all artistic eBpression was a reflection of the artist=s inner feelings 4for instance! a painting should mirror the artist=s vision of the world and be the instrument of his own imagination5 reCected the principles of classicism 4restraint! symmetry! balance5 1. -epresentative artists Ksee http;@@artchive.com@ftpPsite.htmL a. &. Caspar ?avid <riedrich...his landscapes convey a sense of mystery and mysticism... (an an! Woman )a*ing at the (oon 4pg. ))'5 b. 'u,ene ?elacroiB...Liberty Lea!ing the Peo+le! which glorified the French -evolution of 18(' -epresentative musicians + probe into human emotions a. :ud4i, van 5eethoven 4177'018&75...bridge between classical and romantic styles

Chapter 22/n /,e o0 @ationalism and Realism (1850-18#1) %vervie4* +cross the .ontinent! the revolutions of 18)8 had failed. The forces of liberalism and nationalism appeared to have been decisively defeated as authoritarian governments reestablished their control almost everywhere in Europe by 185'. +nd yet within &5 years! many of the goals sought by the liberals and nationalists during the first half of the nineteenth century seemed to have been achieved. National unity became a reality in ,taly and 2ermany! and many European states were governed by constitutional monarchies! even though constitutional0parliamentary features were frequently facades. +ll the same! these goals were not achieved by liberal and nationalist leaders but by a new generation of conservative leaders who were proud of being practitioners of real+oliti,! the ?politics of realityA. ,. The France of @apoleon (((

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+fter the largely unsuccessful -evolutions of 18)8! a new generation of conservative leaders came to power in Europe...foremost among them was Napoleon ,,, 4185&0187'5 +. 6ouis Napoleon and the *econd Napoleonic Empire 1. 3atience in $inning *upport of the 3eople resorted to a coup dCetat after the National +ssembly voted that he could not stand for re0election to the presidency restored universal male suffrage! then as%ed the French people to restore the empire in a ple-iscite! which they did with a resounding 87Q affirmative response &. Election as Emperor of the Second 'mpire /n :ecember &! 185&! 6ouis Napoleon became Napoleon ,,, 3olicies of the *econd Napoleonic Empire 1. +uthoritarian Napoleon ,,, controlled the armed forces! police! civil service" only he could introduce legislation and declare war &. 2overnment ,ntervention in the Economy and EBpansion of ,ndustrial 2rowth *ubsidies for construction of railroads! harbors! roads! and canals (. -ebuilding 3aris by 5aron von Aausmann Narrow streets and old city walls of 3aris replaced with broad boulevards! spacious buildings! public squares! an underground sewage system! a new water supply! and gaslights" many lower class sections tore down 4had to move to neighboring villages5 #road streets made it difficult for revolutionaries to erect barricades ). D:i-eralE 'mpire...as opposition to some of his policies mounted! Napoleon ,,, loosened his grip a bit and liberaliDed the empire 6egaliDed trade unions and granted them the right to stri%e" legislative branch given more control These concessions initially strengthened his regime! but the disastrous Franco03russian $ar would be his ?$aterlooA and lead to the Third -epublic

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Foreign 3olicy; The Crimean )ar 4185)0185J5 K*ee 5.1JL 1. &. ?'astern .uestionA $hat should be done with the disintegrating /ttoman Empire...potential balance of power issues in the #al%ans -ussian right to protection of .hristian shrines in 3alestine denied by /ttomans spar%ed the war -ussia vs the /ttomans Fearful of -ussian gains 4?ardanelles5! 2reat #ritain and France declare war -ussia and attac%ed them on the .rimean peninsula in the #lac% *ea +ustria refused to help -ussia! leaving them without ?friendsA among the great powers after the war 4+ustria believed -ussia would remember their ?ingratitudeA5 /utcomes -ussians lose! and have to accept the neutrality of the #lac% *ea by the Treaty of 3aris Not as many soldiers die due to efforts of <lorence @i,htin,ale...professionaliDation of nursing .rimean $ar effectively destroyed the Concert o0 'urope...that led to

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National Gnification <ovements The brea%down of the .oncert of Europe opened the way for the ,talians and the 2ermans to establish national states...their successful unification transformed the power structure of the .ontinent +. ,taly 4*ee 5.1&! 5.185 1. &. (. Failure of 2aFFini=s Goun, (tal3 movement 4Risor,imento5 and -evolution of 18)8 led to focus on the northern ,talian state of 3iedmont to help achieve unity The >ouse of Savo3 and &ictor 'mmanuel ((...rulers of 3iedmont and *ardinia Camillo da Cavour 4181'018J15 appointed prime minister Economic eBpansion meant more R for army + realist! he %new his little ,talian state could not defeat the +ustrians made alliance with Napoleon ,,, in 1858 3rovo%ed war with +ustria early victory for ,talians@French France given Nice and *avoy! 3iedmont received 6ombardy Early success inspired similar revolts in 3arma! Tuscany! and <odena 4see p J5'5...Coined forces with the 3iedmontese 8iuseppe 8ari-aldi 418'70188&5 and the Red Shirts 4see picture pg J515 6eader of the southern ,talian unification movement 9ictory in *icily on to the mainland Naples and %ingdom of the Two *icilies fall by *eptember 18J' 2aribaldi=s forces chose to turn over their conquests to .avour=s 3iedmont forces

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5. Gnification not complete yet because 9enetia still held by +ustria" -ome remained under French control ,taly gained 9enetia for siding with 3russia in the +ustro03russian war of 18JJ" in 187'! the Franco03russian $ar resulted in the withdrawal of French troops from -ome ,talian army anneBed -ome in *eptember! 187'" -ome became new capital" 3ope given 9atican *tate in -ome" 9ictor Emmanuel ,, made ing of ,taly

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2ermany 4*ee 5.1& and 5.175 . Failure of <ran60urt /ssem-l3 3russia and +ustria being only & states powerful enough to unify 2ermany 3russian ascendancy due to the Hollverein 43russian customs union that attempted to get rid of internal tariffs! which would lead to better trade among 2erman states5 )illiam ( AohenFollern...tried to eBpand and strengthen the 3russian army" bloc%ed by the 3russian legislature led to the appointment by $illiam , of #ismarc% as 3rime <inister #ismarc% would dominate 2erman and European politics until 188' %tto van 5ismarc6 and Realpolitik #ismarc% ignored the legislature and made his famous ?iron and -loodA speech ?2ermany does not loo% to 3russia=s liberalism but to her power...Not by speeches and maCorities will the great questions of the day be decided1that was the mista%e of 18)8018)81but by iron and bloodA #ismarc% as the consummate realpoliti6 practitioner 4relationship to <achiavelli5 >is active foreign policy led to war and 2erman unification... though this was not his original intent 9he ?anish )ar 418J)5...refer to map on J5) 3russia and +ustria gain *chleswig and >olstein To be master of 2ermany! #ismarc% realiDed +ustria would have to be eBcluded from 2erman affairs or at least be willing to accept 3russian domination of 2er. 9he /ustro->russian )ar 418JJ5 #ismarc% made alliances@agreements with -ussia! France! and ,taly 2oaded +ustria in to war in 18JJ 3russians aided by better guns 4breech0loading needle gun5 and a superior networ% of railroads +ccording to the terms of peace! +ustria was now eBcluded from 2erman affairs" the 2erman states north of the <ain -iver were organiDed into a @orth 8erman Con0ederation 43rotestant5 controlled by 3russia *outh 2erman 4-oman .atholic5 states forced into signing military agreements with 3russia 9he <ranco->russian )ar 4187'018715 #ismarc% realiDed the French would never be content with a strong 2erman state to its east b@c of the potential threat to French security ,mmediate cause of war was a dispute over succession to the *panish throne 4throne of *pain offered to a >ohenDollern prince5 3russian armies invaded France" French army destroyed and Napoleon ,,, was captured French had to pay an indemnit3 of 5 billion francs" lost /lsace and :orraine Gnification /n Ianuary 18! 1871! $illiam , was proclaimed 6aiser or emperor of the Second 8erman 'mpire ?2ermany had been merged into 3russia! not 3russia into 2ermanyA /utcomes; 2erman unification a victory for authoritarian and militaristic values over liberal! constitutional sentiments" 2erman would emerge as the strongest power on the .ontinent...a new balance of power was at hand

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Nation #uilding and -eform; the National *tate at mid0.entury +. The +ustrian Empire 4see 5.1&" map on page J575 1. &. EBcluded from 2ermany after the +ustro03russian $ar of 18JJ >ungarian 3roblem resulted in the /us,leich o0 18"# creation of the dual monarchy of +ustria0>ungary" both nations were independent in domestic affairs Gnited under Francis Ioseph in foreign affairs 4Emperor of +ustria and ing of >ungary5 :omination by the 2ermans and <agyars *till a multinational state with nationalist sentiments! such as the *lavs

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,mperial -ussia 1. /leBander (( 41855018815 and the Emancipation of the *erfs in the wa%e of -ussia=s defeat in the .rimean $ar serfs emancipated in 18J1" though given land by the government! they were subCected to their mir (villa,e commune, 4hich 4as collectivel3 responsi-le 0or the land pa3ments to the ,ovCt) The Zemstvos +ssemblies 4local governmentSmoderate degree of self0government public services! education! famine relief! and road and bridge maintenance5

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#ritain=s &ictorian /,e

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Iust as in the -evolutions in 18(' and 18)8! #ritain avoided the strife that plagued the .ontinent by ma%ing both social and political reforms that enabled the country to remain stable and prosperous 1. .ueen &ictoria 418(7018'15...pious complacency" moral respectability and propriety 4see notes on .h &( and the ?cult of domesticityA and other middle0class values5 &. 5enIamin ?israeli 4Conservative5 and the -eform of 18J7 more than doubled the number of potential voters led to 6iberal victory in the elections of 18J8 (. )illiam 8ladstone and the :i-eral 3arty ,9. ,ndustrialiDation and the <arBist -esponse +. ,ndustrialiDation of the .ontinent...b@w 185'01871 1. &. 6ess #arriers to ,nternational Trade 6ed to an eBpansion of mar%ets $ea% Trade Gnions -eal change for the proletariat would only occur after the formation of socialist parties and socialist trade unions! which owed their ideas to...

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<arB and <arBism 1. The Communist Manifesto written by the 2ermans 1arl 2arB 418180188(5 and <riedrich 'n,els 418&'018855 in 18)8 ,ntellectual debt to >egel...<arB posits dialectical materialism 4clash of economic classes throughout history5 ?+ spectre is haunting Europe! the spectre of .ommunismA ?The history of all hitherto eBisting society is the history of class strugglesA ,ndustrial Europe pitted the -our,eoisie vs the proletariat ,n the end! the proletariat would overthrow their bourgeois masters and establish a ? dictatorship o0 the proletariatA 4socialism5! which when complete would lead to a classless society with no state 4 communism5 ?$or%ing men of the world! GniteOA <arB=s 6eadership in the (nternational )or6in, 2enCs /ssociation

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*cience and .ulture in an +ge of -ealism #@w 185'0187'! the two maCor intellectual developments were the growth of scientific %nowledge and a shift from -omanticism to -ealism +. + New +ge of *cience 1. 3roliferation of :iscoveries :a4s o0 thermod3namics the focus of 18th century physics :ouis >asteur and the germ theory of disease ?mitri 2endele3ev and the periodic law of elements 2ichael <arada3 and electromagnetic induction Faith in *cience=s #enefits due to the increasing and often dramatic material gains generated by science and technology led to a growing faith in the benefits of science 18th century as a century of increasin, seculariFation...belief in materialism! especially after :arwin=s theories

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Charles ?ar4in and the Theory of 'volution 4see - . / 0iogra+hy Notes too5 1. &. (. ,deas of Iean0#aptiste 6amarc%! .harles 6yell! and Thomas <althus :arwin=s Trip on the #1(1S1 0eagle On the Origins of Species by Means of Natural Selection 418585 /rganic evolution 4at first! only plant and animal species5 @atural selection 4?survival o0 the 0ittestA5 The escent of Man 418715 +nimal origins of human beings 6i%e the .opernican revolution! :arwin=s ideas fundamentally challenged the special status of human beings" some tried to apply :arwinian principles to society Social ?ar4inism 4see .h &)5

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+ -evolution in >ealth .are 1. &. (. ). New clinical medicine a result of clinical observation and %nowledge gained from detailed autopsies...first achieved in 3aris hospitals :ouis >asteur and the ,erm theor3 o0 disease >asteuriFation 'd4ard 7enner and *mallpoB &accination 7oseph :ister and the antiseptic principle

9
5. J. :. development of anesthesia also helped surgeons New medical schools...the Iohns >op%ins model 4188(5 would be emulated worldwide $omen in <edicine...'liFa-eth 5lac64ell

Realism in 6iterature and +rt 4see 5.)J! 5.)7! 5.)8" also refer to >istory +live handout that compares neoclassicism! romanticism! and realism5 The belief that the world should be viewed realistically! frequently eBpressed after 185'! was closely related to the materialistic outloo% Evident in the real+oliti, of #ismarc% and .avour! realism became a movement in the literary and visual arts as well 1. The -ealistic Novel a. 8ustave <lau-ert...(a!ame 0ovary b. )illiam 9hac6era3...2anity Fair c. Charles ?ic6ens111#ar! Times% )reat /3+ectations% Oliver Twist% etc &. -ealism in +rt Ksee http;@@artchive.com@ftpPsite.htmL a. 8ustave Cour-et...The Stonebrea,ers b. 7ean-<rancois 2illet...The )leaners

E.

<usic; The Twilight of -omanticism 1. &. <ranF :isFt...introduced the concept of the modern piano recital Richard )a,ner...and a 2erman national opera Chapter 2=2ass Societ3 in an D/,e o0 >ro,ressE (18#1-18J!)

%&'R&(')* 3lease read the eBcellent introduction to this unit in *pielvogel! pp )J)0)J5 ,. The 2rowth of ,ndustrial 3rosperity 4Second (ndustrial Revolution5 First ,- had concentrated in areas of teBtiles! railroads! iron ore! and coal...*econd ,- focused on steel! chemicals! electricity! and the internal combustion engine +. New 3roducts and New <ar%ets 1. &. (. The *ubstitution of Steel for ,ron...Aenr3 5essemer...made for lighter! smaller! faster machines and engines! as well as railways! ships! and armaments Chemicals...2ermans and French...al%alies 4teBtile! soap! T paper industries5! dyes! photographic plates and film! fertiliDers 'lectricit3! the New *ource of Energy...powered homes! shops! and industrial enterprises...led to new inventions Kli,ht-ul-1Edison and *wan" telephone1+.2. #ell" radio1<arconiL...illuminated houses! cities! and factories...used to power streetcars and subways...in factories! conveyor belts! cranes! machine tools...electricity allowed countries w@o big coal reserves to industrialiDe The (nternal Com-ustion 'n,ine...widespread use after developments in refining gas and oil 4petroleum5...gave rise to automo-ile and airplane...coupled with interchan,ea-le parts 4'li )hitne35 assem-l3 line of automobiles by >enry Ford

4.

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New 3atterns in an ,ndustrial Economy . &. (. ). 5. in population demand...faster transportation in transportation costs in prices spending on consumer products b@c more disposable income...mass mar%eting leads to stores in which a vast array of products are offered 4department store5 2ermany *urpassed #ritain as ,ndustrial *uperpower of Europe" both lag behind G* The Gnion of *cience and Technology...importance of technical education The .reation of Two Europes...western Europe more industrialiDed...central@eastern Europe less industrialiDed + $orld Economy dominated 4EBploited byMMM5 by Europeans competition for foreign mar%ets for raw materials and mar%ets to buy manufactured goods...New ,mperialism protective tariffs at home in most countries to protect domestic mar%ets Cartels to stifle competition and potential for cheaper consumer prices

..

$omen and New Iob /pportunities wor%ed in white0collar low wage Cobs 4cler%s! typists! secretaries! file cler%s! sales cler%s5...teachers 4more needed b@c of compulsory education laws5...nurses 4creation of modern hospital services5...some lower0class women had to still turn to prostitution to ma%e it 4legal but regulated by governments in most European countries5

:.

/rganiDing the $or%ing .lass 1. &. *ocialist 3arties...desire to improve their wor%ing and living conditions led many industrial wor%ers to form political parties and labor unions 42erman *ocial :emocratic 3arty...inspired many *:3=s throughout Europe5 + -evision of <arBist Thought...'duard 5ernstein a. Evolution! Not -evolution...<arB was wrong on the imminent collapse of capitalism and worsening conditions of proletariat...discard emphasis on revolutionary socialism...instead wor% within the political

10
process to elect own candidates and have them pass legislation to help wor%ing classes 4importance of eBpanding suffrage5... ,radualism b. The :ivisiveness of Nationalism...<arB thought ?the wor%ing men have no countryA...in reality! socialist parties varied from country to country and remained tied to national concerns and issues and not to a worldwide struggle The -ole of 9rade Knionism...often tied to socialist parties...wor%ed for better wages! benefits! and wor%ing conditions... The /narchist +lternative...2ichael 5a6unin...prominent in less independent and democratic countries...turned to assassination

(. ). ,,.

The Emergence of <ass *ociety +. 3opulation 2rowth 1. &. (. #. ,mproved 3ublic *anitation 4clean water and better sewage systems5" vaccination programs +n ,mproved :iet 4food hygiene5 ,ncreased Emigration 4J' million leave Europe b@w 18)J018(&5 Ksee 5.&JL

Transformation of the Grban Environment KindustrialiFation L pop eBplosion M ur-aniFationL . &. (. The 2rowth of .ities...many driven to cities by rural unemployment! hunger! physical want" lure of the big city Cobs! better living conditions ,mproving 6iving .onditions...*NNT>E*,* #@$ 6,#E-+6,*< +N: */.,+6,*<O a. *anitation...water and sewage b. >ousing...government intervention and codes -edesigning the .ities...at times at the eBpense of lower class housing

..

The *ocial *tructure of <ass *ociety 4see 5.(55 1. 2. (. The Elite 45Q5; $ealth and *tatus...blending of aristocracy and new wealthy industrial classes...aristocrats buy city houses" wealthy industrial class buy country homes Kthin% >oward=s EndOL The <iddle .lasses 415Q5; 2ood .onduct...middle class values progress! science! hard0wor%! churchgoers! propriety in everything Kthin% >oward=s EndOL The 6ower .lasses 48'Q5; *%illed! *emis%illed! Gns%illed...importance of education

:.

The -ole of $omen K?)oman .uestionA...reminiscent of Euerelles des FemmesL gender0defined social roles; legally inferior! economically dependent! largely defined by family and household roles 1. The Cult o0 ?omesticit3...woman glorified in their role as mother and wife 2. #irth .ontrol... in birthrates Kcoitus interruptus! abortion! infanticide! abandonmentL (. The <iddle0.lass Family...employed servants...women thus have more leisure time and time to care for children...AtogethernessA 4Hmas! Iuly )th5...education of females important so they can be competent mothers ). The $or%ing0.lass Family...whenever possible! followed middle class customs" if need R everyone wor%s...eventually! children viewed as dependents and not wage earners 4due to compulsory education laws and child labor laws5...1' hour wor%day@*aturday afternoon off

E.

Education and 6eisure in +n +ge of <ass *ociety 1. 3rimary Education for +ll...Abeing educated became a state enterpriseA a. For a <ore Efficient $or% Force...need to be more technical !. For a <ore ,ntelligent Electorate...because of suffrage c. <eans of *ocial .ontrol 4conservatives5" a better! richer life 4liberals5 d. + :emand for Teachers e. The ,ncrease in 6iteracy...mass ?literatureA li%e newspapers! magaDines! and pulp fiction <ass 6eisure...leisure as the opposite of wor% 4what people did for fun after wor%5 6eisure time U evenings after wor%! wee%ends! vacation a. :ance >alls! +musement 3ar%s 4eBperience technology li%e Ferris $heels5! and #eaches on the )ee6end 4via improved transportation5 b. Tourism...recreational and relaBing travel c. *ports...strictly organiDed w@ sets of rules...professionaliDation...primarily for entertainment...becomes itself a big business...passive mass audiences 4well! usuallyO5

&.

,,,.

The National *tate +. 3olitical :emocracy in $estern Europe 1. #ritish -eform...the growth of political democracy was one of the preoccupations of #ritish politics after 1871! and its cause was pushed along by the eBpansion of suffrage...agricultural wor%ers en0ranchised...members of the >ouse of .ommons given a salary...gra!ual reform through +arliamentary institutions ha! become the way of 0ritish +olitical life France=s 9hird Repu-lic...*econd Empire collapsed after humiliating defeat in Franco03russian $ar...the .onstitution of 1875 created the Third -epublic but only after the National +ssembly had crushed the >aris Commune ,taly=s ,nstability...differences b@w north and south" trouble with the papacy" government corruption widespread 4a problem that still haunts ,taly5" lost colonial possessions in +frica to Ethiopia

&. (.

11
#. 3ersistence of the /ld /rder in .entral and Eastern Europe . 2ermany; #ismarc%=s .onservatism...2erman parliament dominated by the army 4considered themselves loyal to the emperor5 and #ismarc% 4not responsible to the 3arliament! but the emperor5... 1ultur6amp0 4?struggle for civiliDationA distrustful of -oman .atholic loyalty to new 2erman state5...tried to minimiDe socialist gains by spearheading the most progressive social securit3 s3stem the world had ever seen 4sic%ness! accident! and disability benefits as well as old0age pensions...financed by compulsory contributions from wor%ers! employers! and the state5 +ustria0>ungary...problem of minorities continued to plague +> +bsolutism in -ussia...autocratic rule the norm...revolution fomenting Chapter 2!* /n /,e o0 2odernit3 and /nBiet3, 18J!-1J1! /verview; #efore 181)! most Europeans continued to believe in the values and ideals that had been generated by the *cientific -evolution and the Enlightenment. -eason! science! and progress were still important words in the European vocabulary. The ability of human beings to improve themselves and achieve a better society seemed to be well demonstrated by a rising standard of living! urban improvements! and mass education. *uch products of modern technology as electric lights! phonographs! and automobiles reinforced the popular prestige of science and the belief in the ability of the human mind to comprehend the universe through the use of reason. Near the end of the 18th century! however! a dramatic transformation in the realm of ideas and culture challenged many of these assumptions. + new view of the physical universe! an appeal to the irrational! alternative views of human nature! and radical innovative forms of literary and artistic eBpression shattered old beliefs and opened the way to a modern consciousness. These changes served to provo%e a sense of confusion and anBiety before 181) that would become even more pronounced after the war. ,. Toward the <odern .onsciousness; ,ntellectual and .ultural :evelopments +. The ?New 3hysicsA 1. 2. *cience was one of the chief pillars underlying the optimistic and rationalistic view of the world...supposedly based on hard facts and cold reason! science offered a certainty of belief in the orderliness of nature that was comforting to many people for whom religion no longer had much meaning ,n the 18th century! the Newtonian view of the universe still prevailed universe a giant machine in which time! space! and matter were obCective realities that eBisted independently of those observing them...matter was thought to be composed of indivisible and solid material bodies called atoms... classical !Newtonian" physics rested on the fundamental belief that all phenomena could be predicted if they could be completely understood 4see VJ5 2arie and >ierre Curie...their research on radium demonstrated that atoms were not simply hard! material bodies but small worlds containing su-atomic particles li%e electrons and protons that behaved in seemingly random and ineBplicable fashion 2aB >lanc6...+uantum theor3 posits that energy is radiated discontinuously...raised fundamental questions about the subatomic realm of the atom /l-ert 'instein...relativit3 theor3 space and time are not absolute! but relative to the observer! and both are interwoven into what Einstein called a four0dimensional space0time continuum...neither space nor time had an eBistence independent of human eBperience...matter and energy reflect the relativity of time and space )erner Aeisen-er,...li%e .uries! 3lanc%! and Einstein! upset Newtonian physics... uncertaint3 principle no one could determine the path of an electron because the very act of observing the electron w@ light affected the electron=s location shattered confidence in predictability and dared to propose that uncertaint3 was at the root of all physical laws 4the antithesis to all thought since the EnlightenmentO5

&. (.

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Toward a New Gnderstanding of the ,rrational 1. &. *ome intellectuals attac%ed the idea of optimistic progress! dethroned reason! and glorified the irrational <riedrich @ietFsche...$estern bourgeois society was decadent and incapable of any real cultural creativity! primarily because of its emphasis on reason at the eBpense of emotions! passions! and instincts 4relationship to -omanticism5...he believed that humans were at the mercy of irrational life forces...blamed .hristianity! the ?slave moralityA that tried to inculcate pity and humility NietDsche believed ?8od is deadA no longer able to believe in cosmic order 4another blow to the ?world machineA5 no longer dependent on the ?religion of pityA it was now possible to create a higher %ind of being superman 4uber0man5 -e3ond ,ood and evil 4not possible without a divine moral law5! the supermen would create their own values and lead the masses 4dominated by the ?herd mentalityA5...since the masses are sheep! NietDsche reCected political democracy! social reform! T universal suffrage 8eor,es Sorel...advocated violent action as the only sure way to achieve the aims of socialism...do so by the general stri%e...new socialist society! though! would have to be governed by a small elite ruling body b@c the masses were incapable of ruling themselves

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Si,mund <reud and >s3choanal3sis 4see + T E #iography wor%sheet5 1. 2. >is theories undermined the rational nature of the human mind...added to the uncertainties of the age Inter+retation of &reams 418''5 basic foundation for psychoanalysis a. >uman behavior strongly determined by the unconscious 4the ?second mindA that was the home to the repressed eBperiences and inner drives of which people were largely oblivious5 b. To eBplore the unconscious! he relied on h3pnosis 4origin of the psychiatrist=s couch5 and the dream 4orld 4?royal road to the unconsciousA5

12
The inner life of humans as a battleground b@w the id 4center of the unconscious drives and ruled by the pleasure principle5! e,o 4seat of reason and coordinator of the inner life...ruled by the reality principle5! and the supere,o 4locus of conscience and represented the inhibitions and moral values that society in general and parents in particular imposed upon people5 d. Ego and superego restrain the unconscious id and repressed or %ept out of consciousness what they wanted to according to Freud! the most important repressions were seBual %edipus compleB 4'lectra compleB5 3sychoanalysis as a dialogue b@w psychotherapist and patient in which therapist probed deeply into memory in order to retrace the chain of repression all the way bac% to its childhood origins by ma%ing the conscious mind aware of the unconscious and its repressed contents! the patient=s psychic conflict was resolved /ther Freudian buDDwords; oral sta,e, anal sta,e, li-ido, denial, <reudian slip, trans0erence c.

$. ). :.

The ,mpact of :arwin; Social ?ar4inism and -acism . Aer-ert Spencer societies were organisms that evolved through time from a struggle with their environment...progress came from the struggle for survival...the ?fitA survived...applied to wor%ing classes! *: undercut social reform programs b@c the ?fitA had risen to the top of the social ladder :arwinian concepts co0opted by racists and nationalists 4especially in 2ermany /r3anism5...also used to Custify the ?newA imperialism of the 18th century

2. E.

The +ttac% on .hristianity and the -esponse of the .hurches 1. 2. $. The growth of scientific thin%ing as well as forces of moderniDation presented new challenges to the .hristian churches ,ndustrialiDation and urbaniDation had an especially adverse effect on religious institutions organiDed religion had less influence on new urban wor%ing class *cience and religion clash :arwinian theory...seemed to contradict divine creation...many 3rotestants and .atholics refused to accommodate .hristianity to modernism" others! attempted to reinterpret .hristianity in the light of new developments 4li%e a compromise b@w old and new5" )illiam 5ooth and his Salvation /rm3 tried to reclaim the wor%ing classes for the church

F.

The .ulture of <odernity 4see J.5'! J.51! J.5&5 The revolution in physics and psychology was paralleled by a revolution in literature and the arts...rebelling against traditional literary and artistic styles that had dominated European cultural life since the -enaissance...these changes referred to as <odernism @aturalism literature should be realistic" this style of writing differed w@ realism b@c it was fairly pessimistic about Europe=s future and often portrayed characters caught in the grip of forces beyond their control representative writers include Emile Wola 4see :reyfus +ffair5! Fyodor :ostoevs%y! and 6eo Tolstoy S3m-olism poets who thought obCective %nowledge of the world was impossible" art should function for its own sa%e 4ars gratia artis5 instead of serving! criticiDing! or see%ing to understand society $illiam #utler Neats and -ainer <aria -il%e 3ainting...since the -enaissance! artists had tried to represent reality as accurately as possible Ksee http;@@artchive.com@ftpPsite.htmL (mpressionism...impact of the camera...sought to put into painting their impressions of the changing effects of light on obCects in nature 4<onet painted the -ouen .athedral 1' different times at different times of the day for different light5... Claude 2onet, 'douard 2anet, 'd,ar ?e,as, >ierre-/u,uste Renoir, Camille >issarro, 5erthe 2orisot, 2ar3 Cassat b. >ost-(mpressionism...still an emphasis on light and color! but 3, artists shifted from painting obCective reality to subCective reality 4personal statements of what reality is5 and! in so doing! began to withdraw from the artist=s traditional tas% of depicting the eBternal world... >aul CeFanne, &incent van 8o,h, >aul 8au,in, 8eor,es Seurat, 9oulouse-:autrec c. $hy reCect visual realism in artM new psychology and physics questioned what reality really was! impact of photography 4this artistic medium mirrored reality perfectly5! individual consciousness became the source of meaning 4the artist coul! now create their own reality5 d. Cu-ism...used geometric shapes as visual stimuli to re0create reality in the viewers mind... >a-lo >icasso 4remember his )uernica5O e. /-stract 'Bpressionism ...art should directly spea% to the soul...to do so! it must avoid any reference to visual reality and concentrate on color... &asil3 1andins63, >aul 1lee <usic...Claude ?e-uss3 and impressionist music...(,or Stravins63 and musical primitivism 4the irrational in music sharp dissonance5 a.

1.

2.

3.

4. ,,.

3olitics; New :irections and Gncertainties The uncertainties in European intellectual and cultural life were paralleled by growing anBieties in European political life +. The <ovement for $omen=s -ights

13
1. $omen sought improvements by focusing on specific goals repeal marriage laws that made divorce difficult and property laws that gave husbands almost complete control over the property of their wives...greater access to education and male dominated professions... su00ra,e movement %ey leader was the radical 'mmeline >an6hurst 4suffrage not achieved on wide scale until after $$,5...peace movement...A ne4 4omenA 4sought new freedom outside the household and new roles other than those of wives and mothers...2aria 2ontessori 4doctor and education reformer5

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Iews within the European Nation0*tate 4see 5.&55 1. 3ersecution for centuries 4confined to ,hettos5" greater freedom by the mid018th century...?re30us /00air 4'mile Hola saved the day with 7C/ccuse! reminiscent of 9oltaire fighting for a convicted 3rotestant in the .alais +ffair5 evidence of anti-Semitism in France...revival of racism and eBtreme nationalism produced an new right0wing politics aimed at Iews culminated in the >olocaust Hionism Iewish nationalism...led by 9heodor AerFl and his influential boo% The 'ewish State called for a Iewish state in 3alestine

&.

C.

The Transformation of 6iberalism by the end of the 18th century! liberal governments often followed policies that undermined the basic tenets of liberalism...for instance in #ritain! the 6iberals and .onservative 3arty challenged by the new :a-our >art3 4comprised of trade union wor%ers and Fabian *ocialists Kadhered to #ernstein=s evolutionary socialismL...to halt the influence of 6abour party! 6iberals and .onservatives abandoned classical principles of laisseD0faire and voted for a series of social reforms

,9.

The X@e4 (mperialism= 4see ,mperialism +ctivity notes" 5.&'5 #eginning in the 188's! European states engaged in an intense scramble for overseas territory...this revival of imperialism! or the ?new imperialismA led Europeans to carve up +sia and +frica +. .auses of the New ,mperialism 4compare to old imperialism=s ( 2s5Smotives were economic! political! religious! eBploratory! and ideological in nature

1. &. (. 4. 5. #.

,ndustrial -evolution strengthens the $est Newly industrialiDed nations see% new mar%ets and raw materials 4remember 6enin=s Im+erialism% the #ighest Stage of Worl! "a+italism5 European nations compete for power and prestige Europeans feel duty to spread western culture )hite 2anCs 5urden *ocial :arwinism

,mmediate Effects 1. &. (. ). Europeans claim and conquer large empires in +frica and +sia ,ndigenous empires attempt reforms to meet imperialist challenge 6ocal people resist European domination 45oBer Re-ellion in .hina5 Iapan moderniDes along western lines

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6ong0Term Effects 1. &. (. ). 5. New global economy emerges Traditional cultures and economies disrupted around the world $estern culture spreads around the globe -esistance to imperial rule evolves into nationalist movements 4will succeed! but only after $$,,5 European competition for empire contributes to outbrea% of $$, and $$,,

,9.

,nternational -ivalry and the .oming of $ar #efore 181)! Europeans had eBperience almost 5' years of peace. There had been wars 4including wars of conquest in the non0$estern world5! but none had involved the 2reat 3owers +. The 5ismarc6ian S3stem o0 /lliances 4read 5.&( carefully for conteBt of $$,O5 1. &. + unified 2ermany had upset the balance of power...by %eeping the peace! #ismarc% understood he could preserve the new 2erman state XEastern Euestion= still a thorn in Europe=s flesh...subCect people in the 5al6ans calling for independence from /ttomans a. -ussia v +ustria both have differing interests in the #al%ans 4led to the failure of the Three Emperors= 6eague 4(0way alliance w@ 2ermany5 b. #ulgaria created by Treaty of *an *tefano in 1878 4#al%an states of *erbia and <ontenegro had revolted against /ttomans" -ussia helped them win5" #ulgaria viewed as a -ussian satellite c. Con,ress o0 5erlin 418785 dominated by #ismarc%...overturned Treaty of *an *tefano...*erbia! <ontenegro! and -omania given independence" #ulgaria greatly reduced" -ussian humiliated" #osnia and >erDegovina +ustrians protectorates d. +fter .ongress of #erlin a new system of alliances and a series of crises 4read about them in 5.&(5 resulted in; 9riple /lliance; 2ermany! +ustria0>ungary! and ,taly

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9riple 'ntente; -ussia! France! and 2reat #ritain (. .rises in the #al%ans 418'80181(5...read 45.&( one more time5...alliances harden! suspicions increase! tensions simmer...a potentially X2reat $ar= only needs a spar%O

.hapter &5; The 2reat $ar ,. .auses of the 2reat $ar 4<+,N5 K*ee 5.&(L +. Europe at ,ts 3ea% . ,ndustrial -evolution at its pea%...by 181)! western European nations were the most technologically advanced! wealthiest societies on earth. +ll aspects of life were affected by this moderniDation transportation! medicine! food production! education! housing and heating are but a few eBamples" standards of living rose! which life eBpectancy and infant mortality Europe had &5Q of world population00highest Q of any time in history <oderniDation led to sense that Europeans were at the pea% of world civiliDation and created a feeling of superiority among many Europeans

&. (. #.

(mperialism 1. To maintain strong industrial economies! European nations competed for colonies" European nations carved out overseas empires! which served as sources of ineBpensive raw materials! pools of cheap labor! and outlets for finished products ,n the late 18''s! a race for overseas colonies and economic dominance developed! which in several cases nearly led to war b@w European countries 4see 5.&( handout5

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<ilitarism 1. 2. European nations adopted a militaristic stance in the late 18''s in order to acquire and protect colonies! as well as to dissuade aggression by rivals. <ilitarism! the glorification of armed strength and the ideals of war! was a fashionable political theory at the turn of the &'th century in Europe rise of large sophisticated armies and navies 2ermany competed against EnglandYs naval superiority #ritain felt that its navy had to be as big as the neBt two biggest navies on the continent! a strategy %nown as the ?two0power ruleA when 2ermany the siDe of its navy! so too did England 4dreadnou,hts5" by 181)! -ussia had mo-iliFed over J million troops

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Nationalism 1. &. (. ). 2reat pride in oneYs country or aspiring to become oneYs own country 2ermany and ,taly had only recently become united! independent countries <any countries torn by tensions of different nationalist groups 4+ustria0>ungary! -ussia! #ritain5 .ombined with militarism and imperial competition! this increased tensions in Europe

E.

The *ystem of /lliances . ,mperialism! militarism! and nationalism all contributed to a sense that war was an inevitable end to European competition...no European power wanted to be left to fight by itself with no diplomatic or strategic allies web of treaties to protect themselvesS#ismarc% had wanted to 15 avoid &0front war &5 isolate France diplomatically as result of Franco03russian $ar 4France see%s revenge5 (5 ( power rule 9riple /lliance; 2ermany! +ustria0>ungary! and ,taly 9riple 'ntente; France! -ussia! and 2reat #ritain The alliance system! begun by #ismarc% and hardened over the years! left Europe in a tenuous position in 181); its great economic! imperial powers! armed with massive! modern armies and inclined to support the idea of a war for national glory! were tied to one another in a series of binding military treaties

&. (. ).

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$ar Erupts

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+. Nationalism in the 5al6ans 1. 2. (. ). 3eople with diverse ethnic bac%grounds! languages! and religions +s /ttoman Empire receded! new nations were born 42reece! *erbia! <ontenegro! -omania! #ulgaria! and +lbania5" early history was violent two #al%an wars were fought in these countries in 181& and 181( -ussia and +ustria competed for control of new nations +ustria0>ungary anneBed #osnia in 18'8! which *erbia resented 4wanted to Coin the *lavic #osnians to form own nation5

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The +ssassination of the +rchdu%e 1. &. (. /rchdu6e <ranF <erdinand of +ustria visited #osnian capital of *araCevo on Iune &8! 181) 4Iune &8 was the anniversary of *erbia=s most important battle11(885" the archdu%e=s visit on this day was a reminder of foreign rule 7 assassins from the 5lac6 Aand! a *erbian nationalist group! plot against him 180year0old 8avrilo >rincip shot the +rchdu%e and his wife 4fateful wrong turn5" both died instantly" 3rincip was arrested and later died in prison from tuberculosis

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+ustria0>ungary=s Gltimatum 1. &. (. 2ermany gave ?-lan6 chec6A of military support to +ustria0>ungary no matter what happened with the *erbians +ustria0>ungary=s severe ultimatum to *erbia *erbia refuses to let +ustria0>ungary=s officials run an investigation in *erbia 4tantamount to relinquishing its own sovereignty5 %nowing that it had the full support of -ussia +ustria0>ungary declared war on *erbia on Iuly &8! 181)

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The +lliance *ystem 6eads to $ar 1. &. -ussia supported *erbia and 2ermany supported +ustria0>ungary $ithin one wee%! almost all of Europe plunged into war; a. b. 2ermany declares war on -ussia and France #ritain declares war on 2ermany after the 2ermans decided to attac% France through the flat coastal plains of #elgium! as opposed to through the rugged terrain of the Franco02erman border 4violation of #elgian neutrality5

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+lliances and Fronts of the $ar K*ee J.'( and J.'5L +. The +lliances . &. #. 9riple 'ntente; #ritain! France! and -ussia /llies Central >o4ers; 2ermany! +ustria0>ungary! #ulgaria! /ttoman Empire

The )estern <ront 1. &. 2ermany tried to ta%e France quic%ly with the Schlie00en >lan on the $estern Front and then turn to fight -ussia ,nstead! battle lines formed in northeastern France and changed little 4war of attrition5 181J #attle of 9erdun J8'!''' casualties 181J #attle of the *omme 1!'''!''' F casualties

16
1817 2erman retreat bac% to the heavily fortified >indenburg line! entry of G*+ into the war in +pril! and the -ussian -evolution in November 1818 +llied naval bloc%ade the .entral 3owers created dramatic shortages of food and raw materials in 2ermany and +ustria

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The 'astern <ront 4#altic *ea to #lac% *ea5 1. 6ac% of modern technology caused -ussia enormous defeats" Z of -ussian troops went into battle without weapons

,9.

,n November 1817! &ladimir :enin led a revolution that overthrew the -ussian government and immediately too% -ussia out of the war 4see separate handout on -ussian -evolution5 Treaty signed with revolutionary government in -ussia 4 9reat3 o0 5rest-:itovs651-ussia lost [ of country :. The 5al6an <ront 1. The +llies abandoned attempts to land in #al%ans after losing %ey battles along the 2allipoli 3eninsula

9.

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/nly victories in this front were in the <iddle East! where #ritish soldier 9 ' :a4rence 46awrence of +rabia5! rallied +rab support against the /ttomans E. The (talian <ront 1. F. ,talians Coined the Triple Entente in 1815 and fought +ustria0>ungary

The $ar Ends 1. &. (. #ulgaria and the /ttoman Empire were first .entral 3owers to be defeated -evolts inside +ustria0>ungary and 2ermany helped end the war quic%ly /rmistice signed on 11 hour of the 11 day of the 11 month 4Nov 11! 18185

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New $eapons Gsed in $ar The 2reat $ar was a different war from any that had ever been fought in human history b@c of the moderniDation that had ta%en place in Europe during the ,-" advances that had been made to manufacturing speed and efficiency were easily transferable to the tools of war +. The <achine 2un 1. &. #. +rtillery 1. 2. .. 2reater power and carried much further &) million shells used in the #attle of &erdun alone ?rain of shellsA <odern industry replaced the single0fire! short0range rifle #ritish machine guns fired 8 rounds per second! at a distance of &!8'' yards

$eapons of the ,ndustrial +ge 1. &. (. ). 5. 75 different types of poison0gas bombs used Flame throwers Tan%s +irplanes *ubmarines 42erman attac% on the 6usitania is an eBample5

17
:. .asualties of <odern $eaponry . &. (. Tactics of sending masses of men toward enemy didn=t wor% against modern weapons ?massA style of fighting championed by the early 18th c. military strategist von .lausewitD 4On War5 #ritain suffered 57!5)' casualties on the first day of the #attle of the *omme Total casualties for $$, eBceeded &1 million" 1' million died! of which more than J million were French! -ussian! 2erman! and +ustrian

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The -eality of *oldiers= 6ives +. 3atriotic Fervor . #. <any Europeans loo%ed forward to war at the start nationalism@patriotism" many thought the ?boys would be bac% by .hristmasA eBpressing a commonly held belief that the war would be short

+ttitudes .hange 1. *oldiers changed Europeans= optimistic fervor through letters about the horrors of war

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The -eturn >ome . No crowds or heroes= welcome after the war the reality of the scale of death led most people to see% escape from thoughts of the war

,H.

Trench $arfare +. The -ace to the *ea

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$hen the 2reat $ar began! generals on both sides believed charges of massed soldiers would lead to quic% victories modern weapons completely destroyed this tactic" to escape the constant barrage of bullets and shells! soldiers ?dug inA &. (. #. )75 miles of trenches were dug across northern France 4from North *ea to *wiss border5 #ritish troops used over 1' million shovels during the war 4in 181)! only had allocated &!5'' shovels5

6ife in the Trenches

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Trench warfare U mass charges by infantrymen preceded by long artillery bombardments 1. &. $. .harging Nover the topC! crossing Nno manCs landC to reach enemy trenches :angerous 4snipers! artillery! later airplane attac%s5! boring 4stir craDy5! terrifying 4caused shell-shoc6 in some5 >orrible living conditions dugouts! trench foot! rats! flies

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Effect of the $ar on the >ome Front +. <obiliDing for 9otal )ar 1. &. #. .ivilians bac% home made huge sacrifices 2overnments controlled industries! rationing! resorted to conscription

New Iobs for $omen 1. &. (. $or%ed in Cobs traditionally held only by men! who were at the front Number in paid employment rose by over one million $or%ed in paramilitary organiDations to support soldiers at front

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.. $omen=s $ages 1. &. :. 3aid less than men for same wor% ,ndustrial and civil wor% provided better pay and wor%ing hours than traditional Cobs

$omen=s .hanging -ole 1. &. (. $omen discovered the benefits of financial autonomy and greater mobility *ome refused to return to domestic service $omen won right to vote throughout Europe" growth of feminism 4eBpectation for change in their position and status in society5

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The >aris >eace Con0erence [See " 0!$ +. The victorious allies met in 3aris on Ianuary 18! 1818! to begin negotiating terms of peace 3eace of Iustice 1. &. 6eaders of +llied and .entral 3owers met at the >alace o0 &ersailles :irected by the #ig Four; #ritish 3rime <inister :avid 6loyd 2eorge" French 3resident 2eorges .lemenceau" ,talian 3resident 9ittorio /rlando" and! G.*. 3resident $oodrow $ilson (. #. 3resident $ilson=s 1! >oints supported self0determination for all nations and a Cust peace

3eace of 9engeance 1. &. (. ,taly and #ritain wanted territory France wanted to punish 2ermany ,taly and Gnited *tates left! leaving peace settlement to France and #ritain

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9reat3 o0 &ersailles with 2ermany 1. &. France and #ritain created a severe treaty that punished 2ermany 2ermany had to; a. b. c. d. e. f. -eturn +lsace06orraine region to France eep area near France! called -hineland! demilitariDed 6ost all overseas colonies...mandate system No navy allowed" army could not have more than 1'' soldiers 3ay war reparations of (& billion dollars +gree to infamous N4ar ,uilt clauseC

:.

The New Europe K*ee J.'5L 1. Treaties similar to 2ermany=s signed with other .entral 3owers &. (. ). <any countries eBperienced a change in their borders...,taly! 2reece! #ulgaria! -omania! #elgium! :enmar%! and France #ulgaria! +ustria0>ungary! 2ermany! and -ussia lost territory <any new countries were created...3oland! 6atvia! 6ithuania! Estonia! Finland! .Dechoslova%ia! Tur%ey! and Nugoslavia R'&%:K9(%@ (@ RKSS(/ 4see 5.&)5

%vervie4* 6i%e the +merican and French revolutions! the -ussian -evolution began with a small incident1bread riots in the capital. #ut it soon mushroomed into one of the most important events of the century. 6eaders li%e 6enin were determined to create a new society based on the ideas of arl <arB. .ertain that capitalism was destined to fall! they harbored ambitions to spread communist revolution around the world.

19
The worldwide revolution that <arB had predicted never too% place. #ut 6enin and his successors would transform tsarist -ussia into the communist *oviet Gnion. For almost 75 years! *oviet eBperiments in one0party politics and a state0run economy would serve as a model for revolutionaries from .hina to .uba.

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Revolution o0 1J05

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-ussia began to industrialiDe on a wide scale in the 188's under the leadership of *ergei $itte...by 18''! world=s ) th largest producer of steel *ocialist thought and socialist parties developed alongside the emerging factory system...repressive government forced these wor%ers= parties underground :efeat in war leads to domestic unrest 1. &. (. ). 5. -ussian territorial eBpansion in northern orea led to a confrontation with Iapan... Russo-7apanese )ar -ussians decisively defeated in a series of naval battles...humiliating loss for a ?great powerA + massive food shortage in -ussian cities led to a peaceful wor%ers= protest in February that was staged at the tsar=s $inter 3alace in *t. 3etersburg Tsar=s troops opened fire...A5lood3 Sunda3A...hundreds %illed +fter a general stri%e! the government capitulated cDar @icholas (( granted civil liberties and created a legislative body...the ?uma

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.onstitutional monarchy would be short lived...after the assassination of his chief adviser! the tsar resorted bac% to autocracy

The -ussian -evolution +. The ,mpact of the 2reat $ar 1. -ussia was unprepared both militarily and technologically for the total war of $$, &. Nicholas ,, KRomanov...since 1J1(L! alone of all European monarchs! insisted upon ta%ing personal charge of the armed forces despite his lac% of ability and training for such an awesome burden (. -ussian industry was unable to produce the weapons and supplies it needed for its army suffered incredible losses b@w 181) and 181J siB million casualties by 1817! the -ussian will to fight had vanished ). <iddle class! aristocrats! peasants! soldiers! and wor%ers grew more disenchanted with the government! eBacerbated by the influence of Rasputin The <arch -evolution 1. *eries of stri%es erupted in 3etrograd 4formerly *t. 3etersburg...sounded more X-ussian=5 led by women industrial wor%ers called for ?3eace and #readA and ?:own with +utocracyA 2. $omen soon Coined by other wor%ers general stri%e $. + significant number of soldiers Coined the wor%ers members of the :uma 4.onstitutional :emocrats5 established a >rovisional 8overnment that urged the tsar to a-dicate he did on <arch 15 ). The 3rovisional 2overnment=s program consisted of 18th century liberalism...primarily a program established by the middle0class and liberal aristocrats" foolishly! they decided to continue in the war effort 5. /pposed by the soviets! councils of wor%ers= and soldiers= deputies a. -epresented the more radical interests of the lower classes and were largely composed of socialists of various %inds b. *ocial :emocrats had split in 18'( 2enshevi6s...wanted *:s to be a mass electoral socialist party who would cooperate temporarily in a democracy while wor%ing toward the ultimate achievement of a socialist state 5olshevi6s...led by 6enin! they advocated violent revolution only means to destroy the capitalist system" uniquely! he argued an elite ?vanguardA of activists must form a small party of well0disciplined professional revolutionaries to accomplish this tas% ?+pril ThesesA 1. 6enin had been in *witDerland when the <arch -evolution erupted" with the help of the 2erman high command! he and a group of his followers were sent on a private train to -ussia &. /n +pril &'! he issued his ?/pril 9hesesA a. 6enin revised <arB by arguing that -ussia could directly move into socialism without first have a proletarian revolution that overthrew the bourgeois capitalists 4-ussian industrialiDationM5 b. The soviets of soldiers! wor%ers! and peasants were groups that the #olshevi%s must gain control of...they would help them overthrow the 3rovisional 2overnment c. #olshevi%s would gain support through promises; end to the war! redistribution of all land to the peasants! transfer of factories and industries from capitalists to committees of wor%ers d. Slo,ans of #olshevi% program ?3eace! 6and! #readA" ?$or%er .ontrol of 3roductionA! ?+ll 3ower to the *ovietsA

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The #olshevi% -evolution +. #olshevi%s overthrow 3rovisional 2overnment

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1. &. #olshevi%s were able to gain a maCority in the powerful 3etrograd soviet 6enin and :eon 9rots63 organiDed a <ilitary -evolutionary .ommittee within the 3etrograd soviet to plot the overthrow of the government $. /n November J07! #olshevi% forces seiDed the )inter >alace! the seat of the 3rovisional 2overnment collapsed quic%ly with little bloodshed $inning the masses 1. ,mmediately! the #olshevi%s 4renamed the Communists5 tried to win mass support asap by fulfilling their promises; &. 6enin declared the land nationaliFed and turned it over to local rural soviets (. 6enin turned over control of the factories to committees of wor%ers 4. 6enin signed the 9reat3 o0 5rest-:itovs6 on <arch (! 1818! with 2ermany -ussians lost eastern 3oland! G%raine! Finland! and the #altic provinces .ivil $ar 1. /pposition...6enin and his .ommunists faced great opposition from groups loyal to the cDar! but also from bourgeois and aristocratic liberals and anti06enin socialists li%e the <enshevi%s &. ,n addition! thousands of +llied troops were eventually sent to different parts of -ussia in the hope of bringing -ussia bac% into the war (. *howdown between the Red /rm3 4#olshevi%s5 and the )hite /rm3 4anti0#olshevi%5 resulted in a victory for the -eds...howM a. Trots%y turned the -ed +rmy into a well0disciplined and formidable fighting force...re0instituted the draft and even recruited former tsarist officers b. >ad interior lines of defense and could move its troops easily 4see pg 77&5 c. :isunity of anti0.ommunist forces vs .ommunists= single0minded sense of purpose d. #olshevi%s implemented ?)ar communismA nationaliDation of ban%s and most industries! the forcible requisition of grain from peasants! and the centraliDation of state administration under #olshevi% control e. #olshevi%s implemented ?revolutionary terrorA -ed secret police %nown as the Che6a eliminated all internal enemies 4reminiscent of -obespierre=s -eign of Terror5...set stage for *talinist purges that reached into the millionsO This fact alone is reason enough for many #mericans to fear $communism% f. Foreign presence helped #olshevi%s appeal to -ussian patriotism .ommunist victory 1. #y 18&1! .ommunists had succeeded in retaining control of -ussia &. ,n the process! -ussia was transformed into a bureaucratically centraliDed state dominated by a single party (. $ith 6enin=s death in 18&)! a power struggle would emerge in the .ommunist 3arty...see .hapter &J Chapter 2"9he <utile Search 0or a @e4 Sta-ilit3* 'urope -O4 the )ars (1J1J-1J=J) ,. +ftermath of the 2reat $ar &. '. +mericans retreat into isolationism" :ea,ue o0 @ations very ineffective could only resort to economic sanctions French 3olicy of .oercionS2ermans were unable to pay annual reparations by 18&&! so France invaded the -uhr valley and were paid Xin %ind= by operating and using the mines and factories thereSmany 2erman wor%ers refused to wor%S2erman government starts printing large quantities of paper money to support wor%ers spiraling inflation ?a4es >lanSinternational commission that stepped in to help 2ermany reduced 2erman reparations! stabiliDed 2ermany=s payments on the basis of its ability to pay! granted 2ermany a R&'' million economic recovery loan 1ello,,-5riand pactSinaugurated in 18&8" J( nations eventually signed it" pledged to ?renounce war as an instrument of national policyASenforceableMMM *uspicion of *ovietsSmany western European powers suspicious! especially in light of *oviet support of the Comintern! which agitated for worldwide communist revolutions 8reat ?epression K*ee J.((! J.()! J.(5LSfactors that led to 2: included overproduction from $$,! debts from $$,! European dependence on +merican loans! too much credit! wages for factory wor%ers! in farmers= earnings due to overproductionS spar%ed by collapse of +merican stoc% eBchange in 18&8Sled to in trade! in tariffs to protect domestic mar%ets! in production! in unemployment 4for instance! by 18(&! &5Q unemployment in 2#! )'Q in 2ermany5S the failure of liberal reme!ies to solve )& o+ene! the !oor to more e3treme an! sim+listic4!ictatorial solutions

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(. :. E. ).

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-etreat from :emocracy; +uthoritarian and 9otalitarian *tates 4*ee J.'7! J.&8! J.&8! J.('! J.(15 &. '. /rigins the total warfare of $$,! when gov=ts! even democratic states! eBercised virtual control over economic! political! and personal freedom in order to achieve victory +im of Totalitarian regimes to control not only the economic! political! and social aspects of life! but the intellectual and cultural as wellSregimes eBpected the active loyalty and commitment of citiDens to the regime=s goalsSused mass propaganda techniques and high0speed communications to further their goals /rganiDation usually led by a single leader and a single party fundamentally reCected liberal idea of limited governmentsS individual freedom was to be subordinated to the collective will of the masses .haracteristics led by a dictator! one0party rule! primacy of the state! economic control! secret police 4terror and repression of opposition5! censorship! propaganda! indoctrination

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Fascist ,taly K*ee J.&8 and J.'7L +. #. .. #eginningsSin the early 18&'s! in the wa%e of economic turmoil! political disorder! and the general insecurity and fear stemming from $$,! 5enito 2ussolini 4X(l ?uceC5 and his 5lac6 Shirts burst upon the ,talian scene with the first 0ascist movement in ,taly +ccording to <ussolini! ?Fascism is totalitarian! and the Fascist state! the synthesis and unity of all values! interprets! develops! and gives strength to the whole life of the people.A 3oliciesSin theory! a parliamentary democracy! in reality a fascist dictatorship led by <ussolini bogus elections! assassination of opposition leaders! censorship of press! police state! no freedom of assembly or due process of law! anti0Fascist parties

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:. outlawed! indoctrination of the young 4Noung Fascists5! ?women into the homeAS<ussolini=s gov=t did provide discipline and order! put many to wor% with massive public wor%s= proCects! and ?made the trains run on timeA" made peace with -.. in the :ateran /ccords $hat is <ascismM authoritarian regime that is not communistSrooted in eBtreme nationalism" glorified action! violence! and discipline 4blind loyalty to the state5" antidemocratic" importance of the individual serving the state" pursued aggressive foreign eBpansion" anti0socialist and anti0communist" found allies among the business leaders and wealthy landowners! as well as the lower middle class

,9.

NaDi 2ermany 4*ee J.'75 +. #. .. Failure of the )eimar Repu-licSrepublican gov=t established at end of 2reat $arSmany blamed it for peace of vengeance that was meted out at the 3aris 3eace .onferenceSassailed from all sides! both left 4communists5 and right 4NaDis5SA The !e+ression +ave! the way for social !iscontent% fear% an! e3tremist +artiesA /dol0 Aitler and Mein &ampf ideas hammered out during his formative 9ienna yearsScore ideas include racism! anti0 *emitism! eBtreme 2erman nationalism! *ocial :arwinism 4nation=s struggle" the fit will flourish5! anti0communism! and 'ebensraum The -ise of the @S?/> 4National *ocialist 2erman $or%ers= 3arty5@ @aFisS>itler had Coined the 2erman $or%ers= 3artySsought to gain support from the wor%ing classes and fellow nationalistsSbecame a mass political movement that utiliDed flags! party badges! uniforms 45ro4n Shirts5! newspapers! police force 4S/ thugs ?*torm TroopsA5S>itler able to garner more support with charismatic oratorical s%illSNaDis effectively employed mass propaganda and modern electioneering tactics 1. +bortive 5eer Aall >utsch in November 18&(Scoup failedS>itler Cailed for 8 monthsSwrites <ein ampfSimportantly! #itler reali*e! that the 5a*is coul! not overthrow the Weimar Re+ublic by force% but woul! have to use constitutional means to gain +ower 2. >itler made .hancellor by Ianuary 18((S-eichstag fire of Feb 18(( blamed on .ommunists >itler given emergency powers that suspended the basic rights of all citiDensSby +ug 18()! >itler assumes combined offices of president! chancellor! and commander of armed forces on death of 3resident 3aul >indenburg NaDis dominate 2ermanySstart of 9hird Reich $. 8leichschaltun, coordination of all activities under NaDi control <ass demonstrations and spectacles 4propagandaS@urem-er, rallies" 9riumph o0 the )ill5 Economic sphereSfactories not nationaliDed! secret rearmament helped solve unemployment! which led to acceptance of NaDis 2erman 6abor Front single state0controlled unionS%eep eye on socialist movements Terror and repression under Aeinrich Aimmler=s SS -eligion and education brought under NaDi control" many intellectuals flee ,ndoctrination of the young through the Aitler Gouth@:ea,ue o0 8erman 2aidens +nti0*emitism Nuremberg 'aws and &ristallnacht are eBamples 4see .h &7 on XIewish problem=5 $omen traditional roles glorifiedSA2et ahold of pots and pans and broom and you=ll find a groomOA 6eisure 4emphasis on physical activity5 promoted and controlled by NaDis ?*trength through IoyA .ensorship public bonfires to burn dangerous and anti0NaDi wor%s

9.

*oviet -ussia K*ee J.&8! J.('! J.(1L +. '. (. *. 6enin=s @e4 'conomic >olic3 KNE3LSa modified version of the old capitalist system introduced in the *oviet Gnion by 6enin in 18&1 to revive the economy after the ravages of the civil war and 4ar communismSpeasants could sell produce and %eep the profits" small businesses could operate under private ownership *truggle in >olit-uro after 6enin=s death b@w supporters of :eon 9rots63 and 7oseph Stalin" *talin as general secretary able to galvaniDe mass support" Trots%y fled to <eBicoSassassinated in 18)' *talin=s <ive-Gear >lan overarching goal was the transformation of -ussia from an agricultural country into an industrial stateSinclude collectiviFation of agriculture and the elimination of the 6ula6 class of farmers 4had prospered under 6enin=s NE35 ?<an of *teelA *talin %ept a firm grip over the *oviet bureaucracy through a series of pur,es

9,.

*pain under 8eneral <ranco Ksee J.'JLSFranco had led an authoritarian@conservative revolt 418(J5 against the republican governmentS actively supported by 2ermany and ,talyS>itler wanted to test his new weapons the bombing of the city of 2uernica! which had no military value resulted in the deaths of 1J'' civilians! and led >a-lo >icasso to paint his massive painting (uernica! one of the masterpieces of the &'th c. EBpansionist <ass .ulture and <ass 6eisureSbroadcasting corporations established 4often state0owned! li%e the #ritish ##.5 mass radio" movies also became popular during this timeS>itler effectively used both media to further his aims

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.ultural and ,ntellectual TrendsSa sense of despair and disillusionment dominated 4*ee J.51! J.5&5 +. #. %s4ald Spen,ler in his The ecline of the )est! this 2erman historian prophesied the collapse of western civiliDation +rt@+rchitecture@<usic@6iterature Ksee http;@@artchive.com@ftpPsite.htm for :adaist@*urrealist paintingsL ?adaismSartistic movement that glorified the purposelessness of lifeSTristan TDara! >annah >och SurrealismSartistic movement influenced by Freud=s theory of the unconsciousS*alvador :ali <unctionalismS=school= of architecture that sought to have ?form follow functionAS6ouis *ullivan! Fran% 6loyd $right! $alter 2ropius

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/tonal 2usicS+rnold *chonberg DStream o0 consciousnessE Iames Ioyce! 9irginia $oolf! $illiam Faul%ner

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Chapter 2#9he ?eepenin, o0 the 'uropean Crisis* )orld )ar (( (1J=J-1J!5) 4*ee J.'8! J.'8! J.1'! J.11! J.1(! and J.1)5 3relude to $ar 418((018(85 /nly twenty years after the Xwar to end all wars=! Europe plunged bac% into the nightmare of total war. The efforts of collective security1the 6eague of Nations! attempts at disarmament! pacts and treaties1all proved meaningless in view of the growth of NaDi 2ermany. &. '. The -ole of >itler...'ebensraum...believed a nation=s power depended upon the amount and %ind of land it occupied...2ermany needed more land to support a larger population and be a great power ultimate priDe is -ussia The ??iplomatic RevolutionA 418((018(J5 K*ee map pg 818L...violated several provisions of the 9reat3 o0 &ersailles...France and England did not want war and most li%ely also felt the peace had been too harsh" also! some #ritish statesmen believed the NaDis were bulwar% against *oviet communism appeasement...diplomatic victories for >itler included 2erman military rearmament 4creation of the 'uftwaffe and military draft5! +nglo02erman Naval 3act 42erman navy could be (5Q of #rits5! sent troops into the demilitariDed -hineland with no repercussions The 3ath to $ar 418(7018(85 . >itler anneBed +ustria 4the #nschluss5 in <ar 18(8! which violated T of 9ers...>itler demanded Sudetenland 4N$ .Dech5 Xawarded= this at the 2unich Con0erence contrary to .hamberlain=s views! ?peace 0or our timeA had not been achieved...by <ar 18(8! 2ermany occupied all of .Dechoslova%ia...>itler then demanded return of :anDig...signed @on-/,,ression >act with *oviet Gnion in +ug 18(8 4wouldn=t fight each other and would divide 3oland between them5...invaded 3oland in *ept 18(8 2. France and 2# had vowed to declare war on 2ermany if 3olish invasion $$,,

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The .ourse of $orld $ar ,, Ksee maps! pages 8&) and 8&5L +. 9ictory and *talemate...NaDis utiliDed 5litF6rie, style of warfare send in >anFer divisions! supported by 6uftwaffe stri%es! which would be followed up with regular infantry units to hold the newly conquered territory...France had built up fortifications along the 2a,inot :ine...after stunning and swift victories over 3oland! :enmar%! Norway! #elgium! and Netherlands! the 2ermans invaded France through 6uBembourg and the +rdennes forest...by Iune 18)'! the French surrendered 4same railroad car as the one the 2ermans had signed the armistice in $$,...great personal victory for >itler5 but (('!''' #ritish soldiers saved at the ?miracle of ?un6ir6A &ich3 Re,ime set up in France part of France not occupied by the 2ermans" authoritarian regime under Aenri >etain 4NaDi Xpuppet= state5" <ree <rench movement led by Charles de 8aulle 4eBile government stationed in England5 +fter >itler=s failure at the 5attle o0 5ritain 4?The #litDA bombing of civilians XCust war=M5! he briefly turned to the <ed *ea! but then quic%ly focused on his long0sought invasion of -ussia 4>itler obviously had not learned from .harles H,, and NapoleonO5" to invade -ussia! he obviously bro%e the non0aggression pact 2ermans stalled in the winter of 18)1018)& b@c of an early winter and uneBpected *oviet resistance G*+ declares war on Iapan in :ec 18)1 4after >earl Aar-or" before this time had been supplying the +llies through the :end:ease /ct5" >itler declares war on G*+ 4/Bis >o4ers U 2ermany! Iapan! and ,taly5 The Turning 3oint of the $ar 418)&018)(5 from 18(8018)1! +Bis 9ictories...things start to change... 1. North +frica #ritish forces stopped the ?:esert FoBA! 'r4in Rommel! at El +lamein in the summer of 18)& and then forced them bac% across the desert" in Nov 18)&! #ritish and +merican forces invaded French N. +frica and forced the 2erman and ,talian troops to surrender by <ay 18)( 4led by #ritish general 2ont,omer3 and the +merican generals 'isenho4er and >atton5 2. North +tlantic +llied use of the convo3 s3stem! long0range aircraft patrols! quic%0response anti0submarine warships! and improved radar 4sonar too5 made the 2erman K--oats increasingly vulnerable and minimiDed the amount of supplies torpedoed by the 2ermans 3. Eastern Front 2erman surrender at Stalin,rad has been called the Xturning point of the war= (''!''' 2ermans surrendered" by Feb 18)(! 2erman forces in the *oviet union were bac% to their positions of Iune 18)& 4. +sia G* success in 18)& in the +sian theater at the #attles of the .oral *ea! <idway ,sland! and the *olomon islands 5. the tide had turned against the #+is powers, it would take a long time to achieve the #llied goal of -unconditional surrender. of the / #+is powerSdid such a stance unnecessarily prolong the warM The 6ast Nears of the $ar 1. 5attle o0 1urs6 4Iuly 18)(5 greatest tan% battle of $$,, 2erman forces defeated by the *oviets 4demonstrates their industrial war capacity5" *oviets then lifted the siege of :enin,rad and moved into the #altic states" entered #erlin in +pril 18)5 2. (nvasion o0 (tal3 4*ept 18)(5 fell to +llied forces on Iune )! 18))! two days before... 3. %peration %verlord 4Iune J! 18))5 nic%named ?-?a3! this was history=s greatest naval invasion 15'!'''F +merican! #ritish! and .anadian soldiers stormed the Normandy beaches in northern France w@in ( months! they had landed & million soldiers and 5''!''' vehicles that pushed inward and bro%e through 2erman defensive lines" liberated 3aris in +ug 18))" last 2erman offensive repulsed at the 5attle o0 the 5ul,e" by <arch 18)5! +llies had crossed the -hine -iver and advanced into 2ermany 4. >itler committed suicide on +pril ('! 18)5" <ussolini had been %illed on +pril &8" on <ay 7! 2erman commanders surrendered &' ?a3 5. KS dropped atomic -om-s on 7apan in +ug 18)5 4why they did so has been the source of much controversy...please review the video notes5" Iapan surrendered on +ug 1)! 18)5 &7 ?a3

#. C.

:. E.

*ven though F.

23
,,,. The NaDi New /rder +. The Aolocaust 4see map on pg 8(55...the NaDis tried to solve the ?7e4ish pro-lemA through different methods...at first! emigration...then! the <adagascar 3lan...then! the *insat0gruppen 4mobile %illing units that created severe morale problems among soldiers and was perceived to be inefficient5...and then! the <inal Solution death camps...administrative responsibility for the Final *olution was left to -einhard >eydrich" +dolf Eichmann was the head of transportation that trained in Iews from concentration camps all over Europe to the death camps +t the end of the war! NaDi leaders would be tried for ?crimes a,ainst humanit3A 4e.g. @urem-er, 9rials5" escaped NaDis would be hunted down throughout the world 4*imon $iesenthal helped bring to Custice over 1!1'' NaDi officials5

#.

,9.

The >ome Front +. The 2o-iliFation of 3eoples li%e $$,! the total 4ar of $$,, led to planned economies! government intervention! women in the wor%force 4?Rosie the RiveterA5! rationing! propaganda! and imprisonment of its own people 4+merican internment camps of Iapanese0+mericans5 9he <rontline Civilians* 9he 5om-in, o0 Cities...some leaders believed the public outcry generated by the bombing of civilian populations would be an effective way to coerce gov=ts into ma%ing peace...the +llied bombings of :resden! the NaDi bombing of 6ondon and .oventry! the dropping of the atomic bombs on >iroshima and Nagasa%i 4& cities that had been left untouched by incendiary bombing raids so the Iapanese could see the full effect of the atom bombs5 7ust )arM

#.

9.

The +ftermath of the $ar; The Emergence of the .old $ar Ksee map page 8)(L The total victory of the -llies in Worl! War II was not followe! by a real +eace% but by the beginnings of a new conflict ,nown as the Cold )ar that !ominate! /uro+ean an! worl! +olitics until the en! of the 6789s1 The origins of the "ol! War stemme! from the military% +olitical% an! i!eological !ifferences% es+ecially between the Soviet nion an! the nite! States% that became a++arent at the -llie! war conferences hel! in the last years of the war1 -lthough -llie! lea!ers were mostly +reoccu+ie! with how to en! the war% they also were strongly motivate! by !iffering% an! often conflicting% visions of +ostwar /uro+e1 +. $artime .onferences . 9ehran Con0erence 4Nov 18)(5 .hurchill! *talin! -oosevelt +llies will invade the continent through France" will meet up with the *oviets in 2ermany! which meant the -ussians would liberate 4and dominate5 Eastern Europe" agreed to a partition of 2ermany 2. Galta Con0erence 4Feb 18)55 approved the :eclaration of a 6iberated Europe 4not followed by *oviets5" approved establishment of the Knited @ations" *oviets promised to help +mericans against Iapan" 2ermany would be divided up into ) occupation Dones 4same for city of #erlin5 $. >otsdam Con0erence 4Iuly 18)55 contentious conference" maCor disagreement over free elections in Eastern Europe 4according to *talin! ?a freely elected gov=t in any of these East European countries would be anti0*oviet and that we cannot allowA5" Truman got word the G* had a wor%ing atom bomb 4*talin %new this b@c of spies...Truman tried to fleB +merican strength by using it against IapaneseM5" Truman committed +merican troops to Europe for an indefinite amount of time The origins of the Cold )ar ideological conflict b@w the *oviet Gnion and the G* after $$,, ?(ron CurtainA ,mmediate Effects of $$,, :evastation and loss of life in Europe and +sia >orror of the >olocaust /verthrow of fascism Founding of Gnited Nations :emilitariDation of 2ermany and Iapan -ise of G*+ and G**- as superpowers 4/8' %< 'KR%>' A/? '@?'? 1!J2-1J!55 *oviet control of Eastern Europe 6ong0Term Effects .old $ar! :ivided 2ermany! Formation of @/9% and )arsa4 >act military alliances! development of nuclear capability! rise of nationalism in colonial territories

'. ..

:.

Chapter 28Cold )ar and a @e4 )estern )orld (1J!5-1J#0) ,. The :evelopment of the .old $ar Even before $$,, had ended! the two maCor +llied powers1the G* and the *G1had begun to disagree on the nature of the postwar European world. Gnity had been maintained during the war b@c of the urgent need to defeat the +Bis powers! but once they were defeated! the differences b@w the +mericans and the *oviets again surged to the forefront... +. .onfrontation of the *uperpowers 1. .auses...intense combination for political and military supremacy had long been a feature of $estern civiliDation...heirs of that European tradition of power politics Kin a sense all modern politics originates with <achiavelli ;5L

24
2. <utual distrust...b@c of its need to feel secure on its western border! the *G was not prepared to give up the advantages it had gained in Eastern Europe from 2ermany=s defeat...but neither were the +mericans willing to give up the power and prestige the G* had gained throughout the world b@w 18)5018)8! a number of events entangled the two in continual conflict a. :isagreement over Eastern Europe...G* and 2# had championed self0determination...*talin feared if given free elections! E. European nations would return to traditional anti0*oviet attitudes as liberators of E. Europe! the *oviets won out and established pro0*oviet regimes in 3oland! -omania! #ulgaria! and >ungary only another war could reverse this situation! something the ?$estA was unwilling to do !. 2reece and the Truman :octrine...Ksee J.&7L....ommunists and anti0.ommunist forces clashed in 2reece...fearful of the spread of communism! Truman enunciated the 9ruman ?octrine the G* would provide R to countries that claimed they were threatened by .ommunist eBpansion c. $estern Europe and the 2arshall >lan Ksee J.(JL...on the heels of Truman :octrine came the <3! which was intended to rebuild prosperity and stability by providing R1( billion for the economic recovery of war0torn Europe...underlying this program was the belief that .ommunist aggression and eBpansion fed off economic turmoil...*oviets perceived the <3 as economic imperialism in the sense that the receiving countries would be indebted to the G* d. The 8eor,e 1ennan Theory of Containment...+merican fears of *oviet aims led to it not retreating into isolationism...in 18)7! diplomat 2 advocated a policy of containment against further aggression by the *oviets e. The Troubled .ity of 5erlin and the /irli0t...Ksee J.&'L...#erlin! li%e 2ermany! had been partitioned! though it lay in the *oviet section of 2ermany...when the +llied sectors of 2ermany prepared for the creation of a $est 2erman fed. gov=t! the *oviets responded w@ a bloc%ade of $est #erlin that allowed neither truc%s nor trains to enter the three western Dones of #erlin...no one wanted $$,,,... to ?brea%A the bloc%ade! 1(!''' tons of supplies were daily flown to #erlin *oviets lifted the bloc%ade in 18)8 #erlin remained a divided city and a source of contention! especially w@ the creation of the 5erlin )all in 18J1 f. /rms Race see J.&J...mutual deterrence 4or 2/?5...(C52...space race with launching of Sputni6 ( in 1857 g. The .reation of @/9% and the )arsa4 >act...see J.&5 h. The 1orean Con0lict Ksee J.&)L i. The Cu-an 2issile Crisis and ?Ptente +. G.*. ,nvolvement in &ietnam...Adomino theor3A... li%e the war in +fghanistan fought by the *oviets! the 9ietnam war demonstrated that the Xsuperpowers= could be frustrated by ultra0nationalist guerrillas

,,.

-ecovery and -enewal in Europe $ithin a few years after the defeat of 2ermany and ,taly! economic revival brought renewed growth to European society! although maCor differences remained b@w $estern and Eastern Europe. <oreover! many Europeans found that they could even adCust to decoloniFation &. The End of European .olonies...not only did $$,, leave Europe in ruins! but it also cost Europe its supremacy in world affairs ...not a belief in the morality of self0determination but economic necessity brought an end to the imperial powers of Europe halted the long0held ascendancy of the $estern European nations 1. 2. (. +sia Ksee map on page 855L...3hilippines! ,ndia! 3a%istan! ,ndonesia! 9ietnam +frica@<iddle East Ksee map on page 857 T 858L...creation of the state of ,srael in 18)8 +rab@,sraeli conflict! all of the ?<iddle EastA! +lgerian crises for the French! .ongo The Third $orld Ksee map on page 8J7L...9hird )orld 4newly created states that were beset by poverty! and not ?moderniDedA technologically or industrially , Second )orld 4*oviet Gnion and its ?satellitesA5, <irst )orld 4advanced industrial countries ...Iapan and the states of $estern Europe and North +merica5

#.

The *oviet Gnion; From *talin to hrushchev 1. *pectacular Economic -ecovery...$$,, devastated the *G...*talin implements Five0Near 3lan of 18)J...by 18)7! -ussian industrial production at prewar levels...*oviet laborers were eBpected to produce goods for eBport w@ little in return for themselves...the incoming capital from abroad could then be used to purchase machinery and $estern technology <ilitary #uildup and Technological +dvance...little focus on the production of consumer goods heavy industry grew at a rate three times that of personal consumption @i6ita 1hrushchev and :estabiliDation...w@ *talin=s death in 185(! hrushchev emerged as the chief *oviet policyma%er...pursued a policy of destaliniFation ended the system of forced labor camps 4,ula,s5! condemned *talin for his ?administrative violence! mass repression! and terrorA! certain degree of intellectual freedom now permitted! reduced powers of secret police 4 2#5! emphasis more on consumer goods in the economy! closed some of the *iberian prison camps =s *talin0bashing encouraged a spirit of rebellion in *oviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe...crushed revolt in >ungary and thereafter downplayed their campaign of destaliniDation... military spending hurt the *oviet economy 4though Sputni6 (! the first space satellite! was launched in 18575" this ?class clownA was ousted after the .uban <issile .risis debacle and succeeded by :eonid 5reFhnev Eastern Europe; #ehind the ,ron .urtain Kread carefully J.&1 and J.&&L +t the end of $$,,! *oviet military forces had occupied all of Eastern Europe and the #al%ans 4eBcept for 2reece! +lbania! and Nugoslavia5. +ll of the occupied states came to be part of the *oviet sphere o0 in0luence and! after 18)5! eBperienced similar political developments

2. $.

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25
a. 9ito and Nugoslavia...moved toward the establishment of an independent .ommunist state in Nugoslavia based on <arBist06eninist principles! not on *talinism! which meant they would pursue a more decentraliDed economic and political system in which wor%ers could manage themselves and local communes could eBercise some political power *taliniDed *tates...instituted *oviet0style five0year plans with an emphasis on heavy industry rather than consumer goods" began to collectiviDe agriculture" established institutions of repression secret police" #GT ./<<GN,*<! + F/-E,2N X3-/:G.T= :,: N/T :E9E6/3 :EE3 -//T* +</N2 T>E 3E/36E* /F E+*TE-N EG-/3E...revolts seemed to be inspired by the destaliniDation movement in the *G until hrushchev=s forces crushed reforming movements in 3oland! >ungary! and .Dechoslova%ia

b.

..

$estern Europe=s -evival of :emocracy and the Economy Than%s to the economic aid of the <arshall 3lan! the countries of $estern Europe recovered relatively rapidly from the devastation of $$,, 1. France and .harles de 2aulle a. The /l,erian Crisis and the Fall of the <ourth Repu-lic...France suffered their ?9ietnamA in French ,ndochina 4future country of 9ietnam...why didn=t the G* learn from this eBperienceMMM5...led to troubles for the newly formed Fourth -epublic...problems eBacerbated with the +lgerian .risis paved way for strong presidency of.... Charles ?e8aulle and the <i0th Repu-lic...established in 1858...greatly enhanced the power of the 3residency! who now had the right to choose the prime minister! dissolve parliament! and supervise both defense and foreign policy...all these measures were meant to restore France to a great +ower ...consented to +lgerian independence! pulled out of N+T/ 4wanted to be independently strong5! detonated their first nuclear bomb in 18J'! economic decision ma%ing was centraliDed 4became a maCor eBporter of automobiles and armaments5...overspending led to big deficits...the series of student inspired revolts in 18J8! followed by a general stri%e of the labor unions! undermined the French people=s respect for :e 2aulle he resigned from office in 18J8 and died w@in a year

b.

&.

$est 2ermany +s a result of the pressures of the .old $ar! the unification of the three western Dones into the Federal -epublic of 2ermany became a reality in 18)8 a. 1onrad /denauer and -earmament... +! the leader of the Christian ?emocratic Knion! served as chancellor from 18)8018J(! and became the ?founding hero of the $est 2ermanyA...sought respect for $2 by cooperating w@ the G* and the other $estern European nations...sought reconciliation w@ France...rearmed in 1855 and became a member of N+T/...+denauer best remember for the Xeconomic miracle= of $est 2ermany! led by... 6udwig Erhard 4minister of finance5 and Economic -ecovery...although $2 had only 75Q of the population and 5&Q of the territory of prewar 2ermany! by 1855 the $est 2erman 8@> eBceeded that of prewar 2ermany...to maintain its economic eBpansion! $2 even imported hundreds of thousands of ? ,uest 4or6ersA primarily from ,taly! *pain! 2reece! Tur%ey! and Nugoslavia...+denauer resigned in 18J8! and Erhard followed him as chancellor ?enaFi0ication...continued war crimes trials" began to ma%e payments to ,srael and >olocaust survivors and their relatives in order to ma%e some restitution for the crimes of the NaDi era

b.

c. (.

2reat #ritain and the $elfare *tate the end of $$,, left #ritain with massive economic problems a. Clement /tlee and Economic NationaliDation...+tlee=s 6abour 3arty defeated .hurchill=s .onservative 3arty! promising far0reaching reforms! particularly in the area of social welfare! and in a country with a tremendous shortage of consumer goods and housing! its platform was quite appealing created the #ritish welfare state! which would become the model for most European states after the war Ksee J.)(L...+tlee=s program included nationaliDation of the #an% of England! the coal and steel industries! public transportation! and public utilities such as gas and electricity" also! national medical insurance plan established 6oss of *uperpower *tatus...cost of the welfare state at home forced the #ritish to reduce eBpenses abroad dismantling of the #ritish Empire and reduction of military aid to such countries as 2reece and Tur%ey

!.

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$estern Europe=s <ove Toward Gnity Ksee J.(7L <ilitary unity was not the only %ind pursued after 18)5 1. The Common 2ar6et 4'uropean 'conomic Communit3! or ''C5 established in 1857 w@ the 9reat3 o0 Rome...it promoted free trade to its members! established an eBternal tariff! and encouraged cooperation and standardiDation" the 1881 2aastricht 9reat3 created the 'uropean Knion ('K) one of its first goals was the creation of a common currency! the euro

,,,.

The Emergence of a New *ociety Kread J.)& and J.)) carefullyL :uring the postwar era! $estern society witnessed remar%ably rapid change. .omputers! television! Cet planes! contraceptive devices! and new surgical techniques all dramatically and quic%ly altered the pace and nature of human life. The rapid changes in postwar society!

26
fueled by scientific advances and rapid economic growth! led many to view it as a Xnew society.A ,n the 18J's! a wave of protests roc%ed this new society as blac%s demanded civil rights! young people marched for an end to the war in 9ietnam and a ban on nuclear weapons! and women argued for equal rights with men +. The *tructure of European *ociety 1. Further Kr-aniFation...still more and more people moving from rural to urban areas! which meant that the number of individuals in agriculture declined middle classes greatly augmented with new group of managers and technicians! as large companies and gov=t agencies employed numbers of white0collar supervisory and administrative personnel -ising ,ncomes and <ore 6eisure Time... in real wages led even the lower classes to participate in ?consumer societ3A installment plan" rising wages with shorter wor%ing hours created an even greater mar%et for leisure activities popular culture becomes commercialiDed music! sports! media The )el0are State power of the state over the lives of its citiDens 4too muchM5...stated goal of the welfare state was to ma%e it possible for people to live better and more meaningful lives underlying belief is that the society 4the state5 has a responsibility to care for all its citiDens Kcombat poverty and homelessness! provide medical services for all! compulsory education! protection of the elderly! wor%ers= benefits! pensions!L...eBpansion of welfare state led to deficit spending $omen in the 3ostwar $estern $orld...in general! removed from the wor%force at the end of the war to provide Cobs for the soldiers returning home ?-a-3 -oomA...by the end of the 185's though! family siDe began to decline! largely due to -irth control Kcondoms! and especially a new invention! the ?pillAL women as a group then eBperienced fewer ?child rearingA years number of married women in the wor%force" still tended to earn salaries than men for the same wor% Feminism and the *earch for 6iberation...participation of women in the world wars helped them achieve one of the maCor aims of 18th c. women=s movement suffrage...after the ?traditionalA late )'s and 5's! there was a renewed interest in 0eminism Kwomen=s liberation movementL...inspired in part by Simone de 5eauvoir=s The Secon! Se3! in which she argued that as a result of male0dominated societies! women had been defined by their differences from men and consequently received second0class status

&.

$.

4.

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The X>ermissive Societ3=...yet another term to describe the new society of post0$$,, Europe 1. &. (. *eBual Freedom...seB education in schools! decriminaliDation of homoseBuality! birth control pill! Xpublic= appearance of pornography! Playboy :ivorce...new standards were evident in the brea%down of the Xtraditional= family in divorce rates and premarital@eBtramarital seBual eBperiences :rugs...emergence of a drug culture mariCuana! those interested in ?mind eBpansion into the higher levels of consciousnessA 6*:

..

Education and *tudent -evolt New attitudes toward seB and the use of drugs were only two manifestations of a growing youth movement in the 18J's that questioned authority and fostered rebellion against an older generation. *purred on by the 9ietnam $ar and a growing political consciousness! the youth rebellion became a youth protest movement by the second half of the 18J's

Why stu!ent revoltsM desire for reform w@in universities Kclassrooms w@ too many students! professors who paid little attention to their students! authoritarian administratorsL" protesting the 9ietnam war product of western style imperialism 4revolts spread to Europe5" attac%ed aspects of western society! li%e rampant materialism! and concern that they were becoming cogs in the large and impersonal bureaucratic Cungles of the modern world" concern about democratic decision ma%ing" some inspired by >erbert <arcuse! who had argued that capitalism had undermined the dissatisfaction of the oppressed masses by encouraging the consumption of material things most famous revolt was 1J"8 <rench student revolt 3arisian students demanded a greater voice in the administration of the university! too% over buildings and then eBpanded the scale of their protests by inviting wor%ers to support them 4general stri%e followed5...de 2aulle resigned the neBt year Chapter 2J9he Contemporar3 )estern )orld (Since 1J#0) /verview; #etween 18)5 and 187'! Europe not only recovered from the devastating effects of $$,,! but also eBperienced an economic recovery that seemed nothing less than miraculous to many people. *ome historians have even labeled the years from 185' to 187( ?the golden age of the European economy.A Economic growth and virtually full employment continued so long that the first postwar recession in 187( came as a shoc% to $estern Europe. #y that time! too! after more than two decades of the .old $ar! Europeans had become accustomed to a new division of Europe b@w East and $est. + prosperous $estern Europe allied to the G.*. stood opposed to a still0struggling Eastern Europe that remained largely subCect to the *oviet Gnion. The division of 2ermany symboliDed the new order that seemed so well established. +nd yet! within two decades! a revolutionary upheaval in the *oviet Gnion and Eastern Europe brought an end to the .old $ar and ended the long0standing division of postwar Europe. Even the *oviet Gnion ceased to eBist as a single nation.

27
,n the midst of the transformation from .old $ar to post0.old $ar! other changes also shaped a new $estern world. New artistic and intellectual currents! the growth of science and technology! a religious revival! new threats from terrorists! the realiDation of environmental problems! the surge of a women=s liberation movement1all these spo%e of a vibrant! ever0changing! and yet challenging new world. ,. From .old $ar to 3ost0.old $ar; Toward a New $orld /rderM #y the 187's! +merican0*oviet relations had entered a new phase %nown as d\tente! which was mar%ed by a reduction of tensions b@w the two superpowers...symbol of detente was the /52 9reat3 o0 1J#2! which limited their antiballistic missile systems" Aelsin6i /,reements o0 1J#5 recogniDed the borders in central T eastern Europe that had been established since $$,, 4tantamount to recogniDing *oviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe5 and committed the signatories to recogniDe and protect the human rights of their citiDens &. 7imm3 CarterCs >uman -ights and Ronald Rea,an=s ?Star )arsA...*oviet invasion of +fghanistan in 1878 4underta%en to restore a pro0*oviet regime5 hardened relations b@w superpowers... boycotted 188' *ummer /lympics in <oscow 4*oviets did the same at the 188) *ummer /lympics in 6+5 and placed em-ar,o on grain shipments to the G**-...under 3res. -eagan! a return to harsh rhetoric called the *G an ?evil empireA and began a military buildup that stimulated a new arms race 4focus on cruise missiles and S?(5 G* becomes biggest debtor nation The End of the .old $ar The accession of 2i6hail 8or-achev to power in the *G in 1885 eventually brought about a dramatic end to the .old $ar 1. The 2orbachev Era 2orbachev was willing to rethin% many of the fundamental assumptions underlying *oviet foreign policy! and his ?@e4 9hin6in,A! as it was called! opened the door to a series of stunning changes a. (@< 9reat3 o0 1J8# agreement w@ G* to eliminate intermediate0range nuclear weapons b. Gnder 2.! the *G no longer militarily supported .ommunist gov=ts that were face w@ internal revolt opened the door to the overthrow of .ommunist regimes K*ee ,, below] 2. The 8ul0 )ar Test...provided the first maCor opportunity for testing the new relationship b@w the *oviets and G* in the post0.old $ar era ?New $orld /rderA

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Toward a New European /rder +. -evolution in the *oviet Gnion Ksee J.&(L hrushchev succeeded by :eonid 5reFhnev who followed a ?no eBperimentationA philosophy 4reluctant to reform5...asserted the 5reFhnev doctrine the right of the *G to intervene if socialism was threatened in another ?socialist stateA led to the use of *oviet troops in .Dechoslova%ia in 18J8 *oviet economy had two maCor problems...15 gov=ts insistence on central planning led to a huge! compleB bureaucracy that discouraged efficiency and reduced productivity Kthe *oviet system! based on guaranteed employment and a lac% of incentives! bred apathy! complacency! absenteeism! and drun%ennessL &5 +gricultural woes...collective farms lac%ed incentives! series of droughts! heavy rains! and early frosts left the *oviets dependent on grain from the $est! particularly the G*...T>E-E $+* + 2-/$,N2 3E-.E3T,/N T>+T T>E */9,ET *N*TE< $+* /N T>E 9E-2E /F ./66+3*E

1.

2i6hail 8or-achev; 1erestroika and (lasnost...came to power after brief leadership of Nuri +ndropov and onstantin .hernen%o...from the start! he preached the needs for radical reforms... a. 1erestroika...cornerstone of 2=s radical reforms...this ?restructuringA called for a reordering of economic policy called for the beginning of a mar%et economy w@ limited free enterprise and some private property b. (lasnost...2. understood that the economic sphere was intimately tied to the social and political spheres...this ?opennessA allowed for *oviet citiDens and officials to discuss openly the strengths and wea%nesses of the *G Prav!a started to print the Xtruth=! banned arts allowed c. /ther changes under 2...two0candidate elections introduced! dissidents li%e +ndrei *a%harov were released! new *oviet parliament was created 4competitive elections5! legaliDation of other political parties! created a new state presidency 4separation of state from .ommunist party 2. became the first president of the *G5 Nationalist <ovements...G**- contained 8& nationalities and 11& recogniDed languages...with glasnost! ethnic tensions resurfaced...ethnic groups call for sovereignty of the republics and independence from the -ussian0based rule centered in <oscow K6ithuania declared itself independent in 188'L The End of the G.*.*.-. 2. started to cooperate closely with the new president of the -ussian republic! 5oris Geltsin...conservative forces in the *G feared its dissolution Karmy! gov=t! 2#! and military industriesL a group of these rightists arrested 2. and try to stage a coup...2. unwillingness to wor% with the conspirators and the brave resistance in <oscow of Neltsin and thousands of -ussians who had grown accustomed to their new liberties caused the coup to disintegrate rapidly a. *oviet republics soon moved for complete independence...2orbachev resigned on :ec. &5! 1881! and turned over his responsibilities as commander0in0chief to Neltsin! the president of -ussia...*G ?ceased to eBistA and was replaced by the Common4ealth o0 (ndependent States 4.,*5 b. -ussia! in its transition to a free mar%et economy! was plagued by economic hardship and social disarray! made worse by a dramatic rise in the activities of organiDed crime mobs" hardliners on both sides of the political fence dismayed at -ussia=s lost of prestige in world affairs" Neltsin also criticiDed for crushing .hechen resistance 4had wanted to secede from -ussia and set up their own independent republic5...succeeded by &ladimir >utin

&.

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#. .ollapse of the .ommunist /rder in Eastern Europe :iscontent always simmered beneath the surface of the *oviet bloc! and after 2orbachev made it clear that his gov=t would not intervene militarily! the .ommunist regimes fell quic%ly in the revolutions of 1888 . :ech )alesa=s Solidarit3 in >oland...labor party that mounted tremendous threat to communist gov=t...$alesa arrested in 1881! *olidarity outlawed! and 3oland was under martial la4...by 1888! martial law had not solved 3oland=s serious economic problems 3olish regime allowed free parliamentary elections...in 188'! $alesa chosen as new president...free mar%et reforms led to severe unemployment and popular discontent...$alesa defeated by a communist in 1885! but his successor continued 3oland=s move toward an increasingly prosperous free mar%et economy &aclav Aavel in CFechoslova6ia...oppressive .Dech gov=t collapsed in 1888 after nationwide protests...the dissident playwright 9aclav >avel elected president...ethnic tensions flared .Dechs and *lova%s disagreed over the ma%eup of the new state agreed to peaceful division of the country .Dech -epublic and *lova%ia @icolae Ceausescu and Romania...see J.&(

2.

(. ..

The Reuni0ication of 8erman3 Gntil 1888! the eBistence of $. 2ermany and E. 2ermany remained the most powerful symbol of a divided post0war Europe 1. .ommunist :isarray...E. 2ermany! as a faithful *oviet satellite! had nationaliDed its industry and collectiviDed its agriculture...eBodus of mostly s%illed laborers to $est #erlin led to the creation of the #erlin $all in 18J1... 'rich Aonec6er ruled E. 2ermany with an iron fist 4made use of his secret police! the *tasi5...by Nov 1888! the .ommunist gov=t was in complete disarray... <all o0 the 5erlin )all...on Nov 8! it opened the entire border with the west collapse of the #erlin $all Ksee pg 888L...by <arch 188'! E. 2ermany had its first free elections! won by the .hristian :emocrats supported reunification with $. 2ermany achieved in /ct 188'

2.

:.

The :isintegration of Gu,oslavia Ksee map on pg 88&L .omprised of siB republics K*lovenia! .roatia! #osnia0>erDegovina! <acedonia! *erbia! and <ontenegroL and two autonomous provinces K osovo and 9oCvodinaL held together by in!e+en!ent communist! 9ito! after $$,," caught up in the reform movements sweeping through Europe at the end of the 188's...non0.ommunist parties elected in *lovenia! .roatia! #0>! and <acedonia in 188' clamored for independent government

2.

(. ).

*erbian Nationalism...Slo-odan 2ilosevic! leader of the *erbian .ommunist party! reCected separatism" maintained that these republics could only be independent if new border arrangements were made to accommodate the *erb minorities in those republics who did not want to live outside the boundaries of a 2reater *erbian state negotiations failed...*lovenia and .roatia declared their independence <ilosevic sent in the Nugoslavian army 4which he controlled5 captured 1@( of .roatian territory before cease fire $ar in 5osnia...turned guns on #0> by early 188&...by mid0188(! controlled 7'Q of #osnian territory...the *erbian policy of ?ethnic cleansin,A1%illing or forcibly removing #osnian <uslims from their lands1revived memories of NaDi atrocities in $$,,...European gov=ts failed to ta%e a decisive and forceful stand against the *erbs &5'!''' #osnians 4mostly civilians5 were %illed! and & million others were left homeless! often driven from their homes by ?ethnic cleansingA ?a3ton /ccords...+ir stri%es by N+T/ bombers were launched in retaliation for *erb attac%s on civilians and wea%ened the *erb military positions...sides met in :ayton! /> in Nov 1885 for negotiations...a formal peace treaty was signed in 3aris in 181)...#0> split into a *erb -epublic and #0> Federation Ksee pg 88&L...J' N+T/ soldiers %ept the peace $ar in 1osovo...war erupted b@w ethnic +lbanians and *erbs in 1888 as <ilosevic pursued a ruthless policy of ethnic cleansing Kagainst the ethnic +lbaniansL! which forced hundreds of thousands of ethnic +lbanians to flee their homeland

,.

+fter the Fall...E. European countries would be plagued in the coming years with the following problems had little or no eBperience with democratic systems of government...ethnic divisions! which had been forcibly submerged under .ommunist rule! reemerged...rapid conversion to mar%et economies was painful 4dubbed ?shoc% therapyA5 unemployment" in many countries! former .ommunist officials were able to retain important positions of power or become the owners of newly ?private propertyA + Gnified 2ermany...Aelmut 1ohl elected first chancellor of a unified 2ermany...euphoria gave way to new problems the realiDation that the revitaliDation of eastern 2ermany would ta%e far more R than was originally thought 2reat #ritain; 2ar,aret 9hatcher and Thatcherism...problems still with N. ,reland 4see J.&75...in 1878! .onservatives returned to power under Thatcher! who became the first woman to serve as 3rime <inister in #ritish history...this ?,ron 6adyA pledged to lower taBes! reduce gov=t bureaucracy! limit social welfare! restrict union power! and end inflation 4policies tended to benefit business class5" li%e -onald -eagan! Thatcher too% a hard-line approach toward communism...success in the <al6lands )ar! when +rgentina tried to ta%e over one of #ritain=s last colonial outposts...ousted in 188'...replaced by another conservative! 7ohn 2aIor...6abour 3arty led by 9on3 5lair assumed leadership in 1887 Gncertainties in France...after the resignation of :e 2aulle! France=s worsening economic situation in the 187's brought a shift to the left politically culminated in the presidency of *ocialist <rancois 2itterand...policies largely failed to wor%! which led to the resurgence of .onservative coalitions 7ac+ues Chirac elected president in 1885

). 2.

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,. ,,,. ,taly...politics in the post0$$,, era have been plagued by corruption...over 5' gov=ts since $$,, New :irections and New 3roblems in $estern *ociety &. The )omenCs 2ovement Ksee J.)&L...women need to average &.1 children to ensure a natural replacement of a country=s population in many European countries! the population stopped growing in the 18J's and the trend has continued since then K,taly has a rate of 1.&! the lowest in the worldL...at the same time! the number of women in the wor%force continues to ...women were also entering new employment areas! once the eBclusive domain of men law! gov=t! business! and education Kwhole process aided by access to education! something women had clamored for since the late <iddle +ges...remember Christine de >iFanML...women sought and gained a measure of control over their own bodies by insisting that they had the right to both contraception and abortion...female professors also tried to change the curriculum of the universities field of 4omenCs studies...women were prominent in the anti-nuclear movement Kwhich recalls a poignant line from >oward=s End! in which <rs. $ilcoB states that if women were in charge there would be no war...ML...women also played a maCor role in the ecolo,ical movement...women in the $est have also reached out to wor% with women from the rest of the world in international conferences to change the conditions of their lives Kwomen from $estern and non0$estern countries often had different priorities thoughL Terrorism...acts of terror by those opposed to governments became a frightening aspect of modern $estern society...these terrorist acts garnered considerable media attention! which may have been a catalyst for some terrorist groups...eBamples include; the (rish Repu-lican /rm3 4,-+5! which see%s to unify Northern ,reland with the -epublic of ,reland...3alestinian terrorists %idnapped and %illed 11 ,sraeli athletes at the <unich /lympic 2ames in 187&...3an +merican flight 1'( from Fran%furt to New Nor% eBploded over 6oc%erbie! *cotland! %illing all &58 on board Kperpetrated by two 6ibyan terroristsL...governments fought bac% with counterterrorism calculated policy of direct retaliation against terrorists 8uest )or6ers and ,mmigrants...labor shortages led to reliance on foreign wor%ers ethnic conflicts 4Benopho-ia5 The 2reen <ovement...beginning in the 187's! environmentalism became an important item on the European political agenda...environmental concerns forced the maCor political parties in Europe to advocate new regulations for the protection of the environment...the *oviet nuclear power disaster at Cherno-3l in 188J made Europeans even more aware of potential environmental haDards...ecological awareness led to formation of 8reen >arties

'.

(. :.

,9.

The $orld of $estern .ulture <odern art continued to prevail at eBhibitions and museums...for the most part! the G* dominated the art world! much as it did the world of popular culture...after 18)5! New Nor% became the artistic center of the western world

&.

-ecent Trends in +rt! <usic! and 6iterature Ksee http;@@artchive.com@ftpPsite.htmL 1. Iac%son 3ollac%=s /-stract (mpressionism...bro%e all conventions of form and structure...drip paintings! with their total abstraction and randomness! were eBtremely influential with other artists...painted with the canvas laid on the floor +ndy $arhol=s 3op +rt...too% images of popular culture and transformed them into wor%s of fine art K.ampbell soup cans! photographs of <arilyn <onroeL...mass produced art Kli%e :urerL...=in the future! everyone will have their 15 minutes of fame=

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The 3hilosophical :ilemma; 'Bistentialism...maCor philosophical movement of the past half0century...%ey philosophers are 7ean>aul Sartre and /l-ert Camus...human AeBistence precedes essenceA...though the world might be absurd! it could not be absurd unless individuals chose to view it as such people must ta%e full responsibility for what they are! and this can only be done through their involvement in life only through a person=s acts can one determine his or her values an ethical system of action Kfor instance! *artre was a %ey player in the anti0nuclear movement in France! and a powerful voice for +lgerian independenceL -evival of -eligion...theologians tried to reinterpret traditional .hristian teachings with modern eBistence...revival of .atholicism after &atican Council ((! which liberaliDed a number of .atholic practices 4for instance! mass said in 6atin no longer required5 and under the popular pope! 7ohn >aul (( *cience and Technology...before $$,,! theoretical science and technology were largely separated...pure science was underta%en by university professors who were far removed from the practical technological concerns of technicians and engineers...but during $$,,! university scientists were recruited to wor% for their gov=ts and develop new weapons and practical instruments of war radar! self0propelled roc%ets! Cet airplanes! the computer 4+lan Turing5! the atomic bomb...by 18J5! almost Z of all scientific research funds in the G* came from the gov=t Amilitar3-industrial compleBA EBplosion of 3opular .ulture the history of popular culture in a deep sense is the history of the economic system that supports it! for this system manufactures! distributes! and sells the images that people consume as popular culture... 0ol6 culture is somethin, people ma6e 4hereas popular culture is somethin, people -u3 1 &. /mericaniFation of the $orld...through movies! music KCaDD! blues! r T b! rap! and roc% and rollL! advertising! and television K0aywatch phenomenon] Television and radio...in Europe! these mass entertainment media have largely been controlled by the state

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(. ). 9. <ass *ports...cheap form of entertainment for the consumer as fans did not have to leave their home to enCoy athletic competitions...the /lympics now are primarily by +merican television contracts...these television contracts are paid for by advertising sponsors! mostly for products to be consumed along with the sport; beer! soda! snac% foods 3oliticiDation of sports.../lympic games and nationalism...$orld .up football tournament...Awar without weaponsA

Toward a 2lobal .iviliDation....anadian media critic and popular philosopher 2arshall 2c:uhan predicted in the 18J's that advances in mass communications technology! such as satellites and electronics! would eventually lead to a shrin%ing of the world! a lessening of cultural distinctions! and a brea%ing down of cultural barriers! all of which would in time transform the world into a single ? ,lo-al villa,eA...critics of <c6uhan point out that the mass media! created by these technological brea%throughs! are dominated by an increasingly smaller number of multinational corporations that ?coloniDe the rest of the worldA by disrupting the traditional cultures of less developed countries and inculcate new patterns of behavior as well as new desires and new dissatisfactions