Solutions to Selected Problems

Chapter 7
7.17 Consider a single crystal of some hypothetical metal that has the FCC crystal structure and is
oriented such that a tensile stress is applied along a

[102]direction. If slip occurs on a (111) plane

and in a

[101]direction, compute the stress at which the crystal yields if its critical resolved shear
stress is 3.42 Ma.
Solution
This problem asks for us to determine the tensile stress at which a FCC metal yields when the
stress is applied along a

[1 !]direction such that slip occurs on a (111) plane and in a

[1 1]
direction" the critical resol#ed shear stress for this metal is $.%! &'a. To sol#e this problem we use
()uation 7.%" howe#er it is first necessary to determine the #alues of and . These determinations
are possible using ()uation 7.*. +ow, is the angle between

[1 !]and

[1 1]directions.
Therefore, relati#e to ()uation 7.* let us take u
1
- .1, v
1
- , and w
1
- !, as well as u
!
- .1, v
!
- ,
and w
!
- 1. This leads to

cos
1
u
1
u
!
+v
1
v
!
+w
1
w
!
u
1
!
+v
1
!
+w
1
!
( )
u
!
!
+v
!
!
+w
!
!
( )





1
]
1
1
1

cos
1
(1)(1)+(0)(0)+(2)(1)
(1)
2
+(0)
2
+(2)
2
[ ]
(1)
2
+(0)
2
+(1)
2
[ ]

'

cos
1
$
1




_
,


1/.%
+ow for the determination of , the normal to the (111) slip plane is the 01111 direction. 2gain using
()uation 7.*, where we now take u
1
- .1, v
1
- , w
1
- ! (for

[1 !]), and u
!
- 1, v
!
- 1, w
!
- 1 (for
01111). Thus,

cos
1
(1)(1)+()(1)+(!)(1)
(1)
!
+()
!
+(!)
!
[ ]
(1)
!
+(1)
!
+(1)
!
[ ]

'

cos
1
$
13




_
,


$4.!
5t is now possible to compute the yield stress (using ()uation 7.%) as

crss
coscos

$.%! &'a
$
1




_
,


$
13




_
,


%.*3 &'a
7.!% !he lower yield point for an iron that has an average grain diameter of " 1#
$2
mm is 13" Ma
%1&,"## psi'. (t a grain diameter of ) 1#
$3
mm, the yield point increases to 2*# Ma %3+,"## psi'. (t
what grain diameter will the lower yield point ,e 2#" Ma %3#,### psi'-
Solution
The best way to sol#e this problem is to first establish two simultaneous e6pressions of ()uation
7.7, sol#e for
and .
y
, and finally determine the #alue of d when
y
- !3 &'a. The data pertaining
to this problem may be tabulated as follows7

y
d (mm) d
819!
(mm)
819!
1$3 &'a 3 1
8!
%.%7
!* &'a / 1
8$
11.1/
The two e)uations thus become

135MPa=
0
+(4.47).
y

260MPa=
0
+(11.18).
y
:hich yield the #alues,
- 31.7 &'a and .
y
- 1/.*$ &'a(mm)
19!
. 2t a yield strength of !3 &'a

205MPa=51.7MPa+18.63MPa(mm)
1/2
[ ]
d
-1/2
or d
819!
- /.!$ (mm)
819!
, which gi#es d - 1.%/ 1
8!
mm.
7.$* %a' /hat is the driving force for recrystalli0ation-
%,' For grain growth-
Solution
(a) The dri#ing force for recrystalli;ation is the difference in internal energy between the strained
and unstrained material.
(b) The dri#ing force for grain growth is the reduction in grain boundary energy as the total grain
boundary area decreases.
7.<* ( cylindrical rod of copper originally 1*.# mm %#.*2" in.' in diameter is to ,e cold wor.ed ,y
drawing1 the circular cross section will ,e maintained during deformation. ( cold$wor.ed yield
strength in e2cess of 2"# Ma %3*,2"# psi' and a ductility of at least 12345 are desired. Furthermore,
the final diameter must ,e 11.3 mm %#.44" in.'. 42plain how this may ,e accomplished.
Solution
=et us first calculate the percent cold work and attendant yield strength and ductility if the
drawing is carried out without interruption. From ()uation 7./

%CW=

d
0
2



_
,

2

d
d
2



_
,

2

d
0
2



_
,

2
100

16.0 mm
2



_
,

2

11.3 mm
2



_
,

2

16.0 mm
2



_
,

2
100=50%CW
2t 3>C:, the copper will ha#e a yield strength on the order of $$ &'a (%/, psi), Figure 7.14a,
which is ade)uate" howe#er, the ductility will be about %>(=, Figure 7.14c, which is insufficient.
5nstead of performing the drawing in a single operation, let us initially draw some fraction of the
total deformation, then anneal to recrystalli;e, and, finally, cold work the material a second time in
order to achie#e the final diameter, yield strength, and ductility.
?eference to Figure 7.14a indicates that !1>C: is necessary to gi#e a yield strength of !3 &'a.
Similarly, a ma6imum of !$>C: is possible for 1!>(= 0Figure 7.14c1. The a#erage of these two
#alues is !!>C:, which we will use in the calculations. Thus, to achie#e both the specified yield
strength and ductility, the copper must be deformed to !!>C:. 5f the final diameter after the first
drawing is

d
0
'
, then, using ()uation 7./

22%CW=

d
0
'
2




_
,


2

11.3mm
2



_
,

2

d
0
'
2




_
,


2
100
2nd, sol#ing for

d
0
'
from the abo#e e6pression yields


d
0
'
=
1 1 . 3 m m
1
2 2 % C W
1 0 0
= 1 2 . 8 m m ( 0 . 5 0 i n . )
Chapter 9
4.1* ( magnesium$lead alloy of mass "." .g consists of a solid 6 phase that has a composition that is
7ust slightly ,elow the solu,ility limit at 2##C %3&#F'.
%a' /hat mass of lead is in the alloy-
%,' If the alloy is heated to 3"#C %**#F', how much more lead may ,e dissolved in the 6 phase
without e2ceeding the solu,ility limit of this phase-
Solution
(a) This portion of the problem asks that we calculate, for a 'b8&g alloy, the mass of lead in 3.3
kg of the solid phase at !C @ust below the solubility limit. From Figure 4.!, the solubility limit
for the phase at !C corresponds to the position (composition) of the 8 A &g
!
'b phase
boundary at this temperature, which is about 3 wt> 'b. Therefore, the mass of 'b in the alloy is @ust
(.3)(3.3 kg) - .!/ kg.
(b) 2t $3C, the solubility limit of the phase increases to appro6imately !3 wt> 'b. 5n order
to determine the additional amount of 'b that may be added (m
'b
), we utili;e a modified form of
()uation %.$ as

C
Pb
=25wt%=
0.28kg+m
Pb
5.5kg+m
Pb
100
Sol#ing for m
'b
yields m
'b
- 1.%* kg.
4.$% Consider the hypothetical eutectic phase diagram for metals ( and 8, which is similar to that for
the lead$tin system, Figure &.). (ssume that %1' 6 and 9 phases e2ist at the ( and 8 e2tremities of the
phase diagram, respectively1 %2' the eutectic composition is 4+ wt3 8$"3 wt3 (1 and %3' the
composition of the 9 phase at the eutectic temperature is &2.* wt3 8$+.4 wt3 (. :etermine the
composition of an alloy that will yield primary 6 and total 6 mass fractions of #.3"* and #.*&3,
respectively.
Solution
:e are gi#en a hypothetical eutectic phase diagram for which C
eutectic
- %7 wt> B, C

- 4!.* wt
> B at the eutectic temperature, and also that /
C
- .$3* and /

- .*4$" from this we are asked to

determine the composition of the alloy. =et us write le#er rule e6pressions for /
C
and /

=
C

;C
0
C

=
92.6 C
0
92.6 C

=0.693

/
'
=
C
eutectic
; C
0
C
eutectic
; C

=
47 C
0
47 C

=0.356
Thus, we ha#e two simultaneous e)uations with C

and C

as unknowns. Sol#ing them for C

gi#es
C

- $!.* wt> B.
9.44 Solution
Below is shown the phase diagram for these two 2 and B metals.
4.31 Consider 2." .g of austenite containing #.*" wt3 C, cooled to ,elow +2+C %1341<F'.
%a' /hat is the proeutectoid phase-
%,' =ow many .ilograms each of total ferrite and cementite form-
%c' =ow many .ilograms each of pearlite and the proeutectoid phase form-
%d' >chematically s.etch and la,el the resulting microstructure.
Solution
(a) Ferrite is the proeutectoid phase since .*3 wt> C is less than .7* wt> C.
(b) For this portion of the problem, we are asked to determine how much total ferrite and
cementite form. For ferrite, application of the appropriate le#er rule e6pression yields

=
C
Fe
3
C
C
0
C
Fe
3
C
C

=
6.700.65
6.700.022
=0.91
which corresponds to (.41)(!.3 kg) - !.!7 kg of total ferrite.
Similarly, for total cementite,

/
Fe
3
C
=
C
0
C

C
Fe
3
C
C

=
0.650.022
6.700.022
=0.09
Dr (.4)(!.3 kg) - .!$ kg of total cementite form.
(c) +ow consider the amounts of pearlite and proeutectoid ferrite. Esing ()uation 4.!

/
p
=
C
0
'
0.022
0.74
=
0.65 0.022
0.74
=0.85
This corresponds to (./3)(!.3 kg) - !.1! kg of pearlite.
2lso, from ()uation 4.!1,

/
'
=
0.760.65
0.74
=0.15
Dr, there are (.13)(!.3 kg) - .$/ kg of proeutectoid ferrite.
(d) Schematically, the microstructure would appear as7
Chapter 10
1.1* 8riefly cite the differences ,etween pearlite, ,ainite, and spheroidite relative to microstructure
and mechanical properties.
Solution
The microstructures of pearlite, bainite, and spheroidite all consist of 8ferrite and cementite
phases. For pearlite, the two phases e6ist as layers which alternate with one another. Bainite consists
of #ery fine and parallel needle8shaped particles of cementite that are surrounded an 8ferrite matri6.
For spheroidite, the matri6 is ferrite, and the cementite phase is in the shape of sphere8shaped particles.
Bainite is harder and stronger than pearlite, which, in turn, is harder and stronger than spheroidite.
1.14 Ma.e a copy of the isothermal transformation diagram for an iron?car,on alloy of eutectoid
composition %Figure 1#.22' and then s.etch and la,el time?temperature paths on this diagram to
produce the following microstructures@
%a' 1##3 fine pearlite
%,' 1##3 tempered martensite
%c' "#3 coarse pearlite, 2"3 ,ainite, and 2"3 martensite
Solution
Below is shown the isothermal transformation diagram for a eutectoid iron8carbon alloy, with
time8temperature paths that will yield (a) 1> fine pearlite" (b) 1> tempered martensite" and (c)
3> coarse pearlite, !3> bainite, and !3> martensite.
Chapter 12
1!.3 An the ,asis of ionic charge and ionic radii given in !a,le 12.3, predict crystal structures for the
following materials@
%a' CsI,
%,' BiA,
%c' CI, and
%d' Bi>.
Dustify your selections.
Solution
This problem calls for us to predict crystal structures for se#eral ceramic materials on the basis of
ionic charge and ionic radii.
(a) For Cs5, using data from Table 1!.$

r
Cs
+
r
I

=
0.170nm
0.220nm
= 0.773
+ow, from Table 1!.!, the coordination number for each cation (Cs
A
) is eight, and, using Table 1!.%,
the predicted crystal structure is cesium chloride.
(b) For +iD, using data from Table 1!.$

r
Ni
2+
r
O
2
=
0.069 nm
0.140 nm
= 0.493
The coordination number is si6 (Table 1!.!), and the predicted crystal structure is sodium chloride
(Table 1!.%).
(c) For F5, using data from Table 1!.$

r
K
+
r
I

=
0.138nm
0.220nm
= 0.627
The coordination number is si6 (Table 1!.!), and the predicted crystal structure is sodium chloride
(Table 1!.%).
(d) For +iS, using data from Table 1!.$

r
Ni
2+
r
S
2
=
0.069 nm
0.184 nm
= 0.375
The coordination number is four (Table 1!.!), and the predicted crystal structure is ;inc blende (Table
1!.%).
1!.1% Magnesium o2ide has the roc. salt crystal structure and a density of 3.") gEcm
3
.
%a' :etermine the unit cell edge length.
%,' =ow does this result compare with the edge length as determined from the radii in !a,le 12.3,
assuming that the Mg
2F
and A
2$
ions 7ust touch each other along the edges-
Solution
(a) This part of the problem calls for us to determine the unit cell edge length for &gD. The
density of &gD is $.3/ g9cm
$
and the crystal structure is rock salt. From ()uation 1!.1

n ( (
Mg
+ (
O
)
G
C
B
A


n ((
Mg
+ (
O
)
a
3
B
A
Dr, sol#ing for a

a

n ((
Mg
+ (
O
)
B
A




1
]
1
1
1/3
5nasmuch as there are % formula units per unit cell for the rock salt crystal structure, and the atomic
weights of magnesium and o6ygen are !%.$1 and 1*. g9mol, respecti#ely, when we sol#e for a from
the abo#e e)uation

a
(4formulaunits/unit cell)(24.31g/mol +16.00g/mol)
(3.58g/cm
3
)(6.022 10
23
formulaunits/mol)



1
]
1
1/3

=4.2110
-8
cm=0.421nm
(b) The edge length is determined from the &g
!A
and D
!8
radii for this portion of the problem.
+ow for the rock salt crystal structure

a =2r
Mg
2+
+ 2r
O
2-
From Table 1!.$

a =2(0.072 nm)+2(0.140 nm)=0.424 nm

1!.! ( hypothetical (H type of ceramic material is .nown to have a density of 2.*" gEcm
3
and a unit
cell of cu,ic symmetry with a cell edge length of #.43 nm. !he atomic weights of the ( and H elements
are )*.* and 4#.3 gEmol, respectively. An the ,asis of this information, which of the following crystal
structures is %are' possi,le for this material@ roc. salt, cesium chloride, or 0inc ,lende- Dustify your
choice%s'.
Solution
:e are asked to specify possible crystal structures for an 2G type of ceramic material gi#en its
density (!.*3 g9cm
$
), that the unit cell has cubic symmetry with edge length of .%$ nm (%.$ 1
8/

cm), and the atomic weights of the 2 and G elements (/*.* and %.$ g9mol, respecti#ely). Esing
()uation 1!.1 and sol#ing for nI yields

nI
G
C
B
2
(
C
A (
2

(2.65g/cm
3
)(4.3010
-8
cm)
3
/unit cell
[ ]
(6.02210
23
formulaunits/mol)
(86.6+40.3) g/mol
- 1. formula units9unit cell
Df the three possible crystal structures, only cesium chloride has one formula unit per unit cell, and
therefore, is the only possibility.
1!.!/ /ould you e2pect Fren.el defects for anions to e2ist in ionic ceramics in relatively large
concentrations- /hy or why not-
Solution
Frenkel defects for anions would not e6ist in appreciable concentrations because the anion is )uite
large and is highly unlikely to e6ist as an interstitial.
Chapter 12
'roblem7 1%.4
Solution
This problem first of all asks for us to calculate, using ()uation 1%.11, the a#erage total chain
length, 5, for a linear polytetrafluoroethylene polymer ha#ing a number8a#erage molecular weight of
3, g9mol. 5t is necessary to calculate the degree of polymeri;ation, :, using ()uation 1%.*.
For polytetrafluoroethylene, from Table 1%.$, each repeat unit has two carbons and four flourines.
Thus,
m - !((
C
) A %((
F
)
- (!)(1!.1 g9mol) A (%)(14. g9mol) - 1.! g9mol
and

: =
M
n
m
=
500,000g/mol
100.02g/mol
= 5000
which is the number of repeat units along an a#erage chain. Since there are two carbon atoms per
repeat unit, there are two CHC chain bonds per repeat unit, which means that the total number of chain
bonds in the molecule, B, is @ust (!)(3) - 1, bonds. Furthermore, assume that for single
carbon8carbon bonds, d - .13% nm and - 14 (Section 1%.%)" therefore, from ()uation 1%.11

5 - Bd sin

!



_
,

= (10,000)(0.154nm) sin
109
2



_
,




1
]
1
= 1254nm
5t is now possible to calculate the a#erage chain end8to8end distance, r, using ()uation 1%.1! as

r =d B =(0.154nm)10,000=15.4nm
14.18 (n alternating copolymer is .nown to have a num,er$average molecular weight of 2"#,###
gEmol and a degree of polymeri0ation of 342#. If one of the repeat units is styrene, which of ethylene,
propylene, tetrafluoroethylene, and vinyl chloride is the other repeat unit- /hy-
Solution
For an alternating copolymer which has a number8a#erage molecular weight of !3, g9mol and
a degree of polymeri;ation of $%!, we are to determine one of the repeat unit types if the other is
styrene. 5t is first necessary to calculate

m
using ()uation 1%.* as

m =
M
n
:
=
250,000g/mol
3420
= 73.10g/mol
Since this is an alternating copolymer we know that chain fraction of each repeat unit type is .3" that
is f
s
- f
2
- .3, f
s
and f
2
being, respecti#ely, the chain fractions of the styrene and unknown repeat units.
2lso, the repeat unit molecular weight for styrene is
m
s
- /((
C
) A /((
I
)
- /(1!.1 g9mol) A /(1./ g9mol) - 1%.1% g9mol
+ow, using ()uation 1%.7, it is possible to calculate the repeat unit weight of the unknown repeat unit
type, m
2
. Thus

m
2
=
m f
s
m
s

f
2

=
73.10g/mol - (0.5)(104.14g/mol)
0.5
= 42.06g/mol
Finally, it is necessary to calculate the repeat unit molecular weights for each of the possible other
repeat unit types. These are calculated below7
m
ethylene
- !((
C
) A %((
I
) - !(1!.1 g9mol) A %(1./ g9mol) - !/.3 g9mol
m
propylene
- $((
C
) A *((
I
) - $(1!.1 g9mol) A *(1./ g9mol) - %!./ g9mol
m
TF(
- !((
C
) A %((
F
) - !(1!.1 g9mol) A %(14. g9mol) - 1.! g9mol
m
JC
- !((
C
) A $((
I
) A ((
Cl
) - !(1!.1 g9mol) A $(1./ g9mol) A $3.%3 g9mol - *!.%4 g9mol
Therefore, propylene is the other repeat unit type since its m #alue is almost the same as the calculated
m
2
.
14.25 !he density and associated percent crystallinity for two polytetrafluoroethylene materials are as
follows@
(g/cm
3
) crystallinity (%)
2.144 "1.3
2.21" +4.2
%a) Compute the densities of totally crystalline and totally amorphous polytetrafluoroethylene.
%,) :etermine the percent crystallinity of a specimen having a density of 2.2* gEcm
3
.
Solution
(a) :e are asked to compute the densities of totally crystalline and totally amorphous
polytetrafluoroethylene (
c
and
a
from ()uation 1%./). From ()uation 1%./ let

C -
> crystallinity
1
, such that

C -

c
(
s

a
)

s
(
c

a
)
?earrangement of this e6pression leads to

c
(C
s

s
) A
c

a
C
s

a
-
in which
c
and
a
are the #ariables for which solutions are to be found. Since two #alues of
s
and C
are specified in the problem statement, two e)uations may be constructed as follows7

c
(C
1

s1

s1
) A
c

a
C
1

s1

a
-

c
(C
!

s!

s!
) A
c

a
C
!

s!

a
-
5n which
s1
- !.1%% g9cm
$
,
s!
- !.!13 g9cm
$
,

C
1
- .31$, and C
!
- .7%!. Sol#ing the abo#e two
e)uations for
a
and
c
leads to

a
-

s1

s!
(C
1
C
!
)
C
1

s1
C
!

s!

=
(2.144g/cm
3
)(2.215g/cm
3
)(0.513 0.742)
(0.513)(2.144g/cm
3
) (0.742)(2.215g/cm
3
)
= 2.000g/cm
3
2nd

c
-

s1

s!
(C
!
C
1
)

s!
(C
!
1)
s1
(C
1
1)

=
(2.144g/cm
3
)(2.215g/cm
3
)(0.742 0.513)
(2.215g/cm
3
)(0.742 1) (2.144g/cm
3
)(0.513 1)
= 2.301g/cm
3
(b) +ow we are to determine the > crystallinity for
s
- !.!* g9cm
$
. 2gain, using ()uation 1%./

%crystallinity=

c
(
s

a
)

s
(
c

a
)
100

=
(2.301g/cm
3
)(2.260g/cm
3
2.000g/cm
3
)
(2.260g/cm
3
)(2.301g/cm
3
2.000g/cm
3
)
100
- /7.4>