CHAPTER 3: RADIOACTIVITY Band of Stability Predicting type of radioactivity Kinetics of radiation Applications of radioactivity

3.1. BAND OF STABILITY 3.1.1. All nuclei with !"e th#n $3 %"!t!n& #"e un&t#'le . Elements with 83 protons or fewer may also have nstable n clei! depending on the ratio of ne trons to protons. "f n mber of ne trons is plotted against n mber of protons for stable n clei! a characteristic graph is obtained #$"%. 3.1.&.

'he plot prod ces a band of stable n clei called the '#n( !) &t#'ilit*. A section of the band is shown in more detail at element 3(! which has si) stable n clei. Elements which lie o tside the band ndergo "#(i!#cti+e (ec#*. 'his prod ces a new n cle s which may or may not be radioactive itself. 'he process contin es ntil a stable n cle s is formed. 'his can be seen more clearly by nderstanding nat re of three main types of radiation. , , AND

3.,.

RADIATION

3.*.1. N#tu"e !) "#(i#ti!n+ 'his is the loss by an nstable n cle s of two protons and two ne trons as a single ,particle. An ,particle is therefore a heli m n cle s+

-ote that the ratio of ne trons+protons changes beca se they are removed in a different ratio from that which e)ists in the parent atom. .owever! the 'halli m n cle s prod ced by the decay is still nstable and it m st ndergo the second type of radiation # & before a stable n cle s res lts. 3.*.*. N#tu"e !) "#(i#ti!n+ /hen ,radiation occ rs! the ratio of ne trons+protons is red ced beca se a ne tron changes into a proton. At the same time an electron is prod ced! and this is lost from the n cle s as a! so, called! ,particle+

3.*.3. N#tu"e !) -"#(i#ti!n+ 0 ring , and ,decay! e)cess energy may be released as high fre1 ency electromagnetic radiation 2nown as ,radiation. 3.3. PREDICTIN. THE TYPE OF RADIATION 3.3.1. /% t! ele ent $,! n clei which have too high a ratio of ne trons+protons ndergo ,radiation! b t not ,radiation. Above 8*! elements with too high a ratio can ndergo either , or ,radiation. -ote also! that elements with too low a ratio of ne trons+protons ndergo a different type of decay in which a proton is converted into a ne tron! and a %!&it"!n is released+

.owever! s ch n clei are not nat rally occ ring! b t they may be prod ced by n clear reactions.

3.0. S/11ARY OF THE PROPERTIES OF 3.(.1. P"!%e"tie& !) -"#(i#ti!n+

-,

-, #n(

-RADIATION

i2 N#tu"e+ $ast moving heli m n clei! th s positively charged. ii2 Beh#+i!u" in #n elect"ic )iel(+ 0eflected towards the negative plate. iii2 Beh#+i!u" in # r le #$"%. 3.4.&+ #3netic )iel(+ 0eflected according to $leming3s left hand

-ote that the direction of flow of the conventional c rrent.

,particles 5 the direction of flow of

i+2 I!ni&in3 %!we"+ they pass thro gh.

,particles have a powerf l ionising effect on any gases ,radiation is absorbed by 6cm of air or by a sheet of

+2 Penet"#tin3 %!we"+ paper. 3.(.*. P"!%e"tie& !)

-"#(i#ti!n+

i2 N#tu"e+ $ast moving electrons! th s negatively charged. ii2 Beh#+i!u" in #n elect"ic )iel(+ 0eflected towards the positive plate! and deflected to a greater e)tent than ,particles owing to the low mass of an electron. iii2 Beh#+i!u" in # #3netic )iel(+ 0eflected according to $leming3s left hand r le! and th s in the opposite direction to ,radiation! as well as to a greater e)tent. i+2 I!ni&in3 %!we"+ ,particles are less ionising than a,pariticles as predictable from their lower mass and lower 2inetic energy. +2 Penet"#tin3 %!we"+ ,radiation can travel a few metres thro gh air! and thro gh thin sheets of metal. 'he denser the metal! the thinner the sheet that can be penetrated. 3.(.3. P"!%e"tie& !) -"#(i#ti!n+

i2 N#tu"e+ .igh fre1 ency electromagnetic radiation. ii2 Beh#+i!u" in #n elect"ic )iel(+ 7naffected. iii2 Beh#+i!u" in # #3netic )iel(+ 7naffected.

i+2 I!ni&in3 %!we"+ /ea2ly ionising. +2 Penet"#tin3 %!we"+ ,radiation can pass thro gh several 2ilometers of air thro gh p to 14cm of lead. 3.4. 5INETICS OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY 3.4.1. R#(i!#cti+e ele ent& (ec#* according to first order 2inetics #section 8.1.&+ the rate is proportional to the n mber of radioactive atoms present! and the half,life is constant #section 8.1.*. and table 8.1.&.

"n this conte)t! h#l)-li)e is the time ta2en for half the original n mber of radioactive atoms to disintegrate. 0 ring this period! the intensity of radiation will obvio sly fall to half its original val e. 3.4.*. An e6u#ti!n+ "f yo wish to remember an e1 ation describing the rate of radioactive decay! remember this one+

.. 9o may have the misfort ne of enco ntering s ch a mathematical manoe vre. .opef lly! yo r e)aminers will not re1 ire yo to ta2e part in one. 3.7. APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVITY 3.:.1. C#"'!n (#tin3+ 'he concentration of radioactive 1(carbon dio)ide in the atmosphere is ass med to have been constant thro gho t history #abo t 1 molec le in 1;!;;;&. 0 ring their lifetime! living organisms absorb radioactive carbon! either d ring photosynthesis #plants& or indirectly via feeding #animals& on other living organisms. "t is therefore ass med that thro gho t history the proportion of radioactive to non,radioactive carbon in living organisms has been constant.

/hen a living organism dies! it stops absorbing radioactive carbon and the radioactive carbon decays with a half,life of 446; years. By meas ring the ratio of radioactive to non,radioactive carbon in material derived from living organisms! it is therefore possible to estimate its age since death. 3.:.*. T"#ce"& #n( l#'ellin3+ 'he fate of a molec le in a living organism can be traced by labelling the molec le with a radioactive isotope. "n this method! one atom in each of the molec les to be traced is replaced with a radioactive isotope. $or e)ample! a partic lar carbon atom in each molec le of a sample of gl cose can be replaced by 1(carbon. #"n fact! replacement is not 1;;<.& "f the gl cose is fed to an organism! the fate of the gl cose 1(carbon atom can be traced by detecting and locating the ,radiation. 'his can provide information abo t the types of molec le prod ced from the gl cose! and the location of those molec les within the organism and its cells. .owever! labelling is not e)cl sive to biochemistry and medicine. $or e)ample! by replacing the o)ygen atoms in an ester with 18o)ygen! it is possible to determine which bond is bro2en d ring ester hydrolysis #section **.3.:.i.&. 3.8. 9/ESTIONS 1& Acco nt for the different behavio r of i& an electric field! ii& a magnetic field. *& =omment on the following statements+ i& "sotopes are radioactive atoms of an element. ii& .alf,life is half the time ta2en for a sample of a radioactive element to decay totally. iii& 'here is more similarity between ,radiation and light! than there is between ,radiation and ,radiation. 3& $ill in the missing data #indicated by 1 estion mar2s& in the following schemes. 9o will need a periodic table to identify the named elements. -, -, and ,radiation in

.. /ill the final n cle s at the end of each chain be stable> (& .ow valid are the ass mptions on which carbon dating is based> #'he 1( carbon isotope is prod ced in the atmosphere by the bombardment of nitrogen by cosmic rays.& 4& .ow wo ld yo hydrolysis> se 18o)ygen to determine which bond is bro2en d ring ester