Activated carbon 1

Activated carbon

Activated carbon

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Activated carbon, also called activated charcoal or activated coal, is a form of carbon that has been processed to
make it extremely porous and thus to have a very large surface area available for adsorption or chemical reactions. [1]
The word activated in the name is sometimes substituted by active. Due to its high degree of microporosity, just one
gram of activated carbon has a surface area in excess of 500 m² (or about 2 tennis courts), as determined typically by
nitrogen gas adsorption. Sufficient activation for useful applications may come solely from the high surface area,
though further chemical treatment often enhances the adsorbing properties of the material. Activated carbon is
usually derived from charcoal.

Production
Activated carbon is produced from carbonaceous source materials like nutshells, wood and coal. It can be produced
by one of the following processes:
1. Physical reactivation: The precursor is developed into activated carbons using gases. This is generally done by
using one or a combination of the following processes:
• Carbonization: Material with carbon content is pyrolyzed at temperatures in the range 600-900 °C, in absence
of air (usually in inert atmosphere with gases like argon or nitrogen)
• Activation/Oxidation: Raw material or carbonised material is exposed to oxidizing atmospheres (carbon
dioxide, oxygen, or steam) at temperatures above 250 °C, usually in the temperature range of 600-1200 °C.
2. Chemical activation: Prior to carbonization, the raw material is impregnated with certain chemicals. The
chemical is typically an acid, strong base, or a salt (phosphoric acid, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide,
zinc chloride, respectively). Then, the raw material is carbonized at lower temperatures (450-900 °C). It is
believed that the carbonization / activation step proceeds simultaneously with the chemical activation. This
technique can be problematic in some cases, because, for example, zinc trace residues may remain in the end
Activated carbon 2

product. However, chemical activation is preferred over physical activation owing to the lower temperatures and
shorter time needed for activating material.

Properties
A gram of activated carbon can have a surface area in excess of 500 m², with 1500 m² being readily achievable[2] .
Carbon aerogels, while more expensive, have even higher surface areas, and are used in special applications.
Under an electron microscope, the high surface-area structures of activated carbon are revealed. Individual particles
are intensely convoluted and display various kinds of porosity; there may be many areas where flat surfaces of
graphite-like material run parallel to each other, separated by only a few nanometers or so. These micropores provide
superb conditions for adsorption to occur, since adsorbing material can interact with many surfaces simultaneously.
Tests of adsorption behaviour are usually done with nitrogen gas at 77 K under high vacuum, but in everyday terms
activated carbon is perfectly capable of producing the equivalent, by adsorption from its environment, liquid water
from steam at 100 °C and a pressure of 1/10,000 of an atmosphere.
Physically, activated carbon binds materials by Van der Waals force or London dispersion force.
Activated carbon does not bind well to certain chemicals, including alcohols, glycols, ammonia, strong acids and
bases, metals and most inorganics, such as lithium, sodium, iron, lead, arsenic, fluorine, and boric acid. Activated
carbon does adsorb iodine very well and in fact the iodine number, mg/g, (ASTM D28 Standard Method test) is used
as an indication of total surface area.
Activated carbon can be used as a substrate for the application of various chemicals to improve the adsorptive
capacity for some inorganic (and problematic organic) compounds such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3),
formaldehyde (HCOH), radioisotopes iodine-131 (131I) and mercury (Hg). This property is known as chemisorption.

Classifications
Activated carbons are complex products which are difficult to classify on the basis of their behaviour, surface
characteristics and preparation methods. However, some broad classification is made for general purpose based on
their physical characteristics.

Powdered activated carbon (PAC)

Traditionally, active carbons are made in particular form as powders or fine granules less than 1.0 mm in size with
an average diameter between .15 and .25 mm.[3] Thus they present a large surface to volume ratio with a small
diffusion distance. PAC is made up of crushed or ground carbon particles, 95–100% of which will pass through a
designated mesh sieve or sieve. Granular activated carbon is defined as the activated carbon being retained on a
50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm) and PAC material as finer material, while ASTM classifies particle sizes corresponding
to an 80-mesh sieve (0.177 mm) and smaller as PAC. PAC is not commonly used in a dedicated vessel, owing to the
high headloss that would occur. PAC is generally added directly to other process units, such as raw water intakes,
rapid mix basins, clarifiers, and gravity filters.

Granular activated carbon (GAC)

Granular activated carbon has a relatively larger particle size compared to powdered activated carbon and
consequently, presents a smaller external surface. Diffusion of the adsorbate is thus an important factor. These
carbons are therefore preferred for all adsorption of gases and vapours as their rate of diffusion are faster. Granulated
carbons are used for water treatment, deodourisation and separation of components of flow system. GAC can be
either in the granular form or extruded. GAC is designated by sizes such as 8x20, 20x40, or 8x30 for liquid phase
applications and 4x6, 4x8 or 4x10 for vapour phase applications. A 20x40 carbon is made of particles that will pass
through a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 20 sieve (0.84 mm) (generally specified as 85% passing) but be retained on a
Activated carbon 3

U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 40 sieve (0.42 mm) (generally specified as 95% retained). AWWA (1992) B604 uses
the 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm) as the minimum GAC size. The most popular aqueous phase carbons are the 12x40
and 8x30 sizes because they have a good balance of size, surface area, and headloss characteristics.

Extruded activated carbon (EAC)

Consists of extruded and cylindrical shaped activated carbon with diameters from 0.8 to 45 mm. These are mainly
used for gas phase applications because of their low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content.

Impregnated carbon
Porous carbons containing several types of inorganic impregnant such as iodine, silver, cation such as Al, Mn, Zn,
Fe, Li, Ca have also been prepared for specific application in air pollution control especially in museums and
galleries. Due to antimicrobial/antiseptic properties, silver loaded activated carbon is used as an adsorbent for
purifications of domestic water. Drinking water can be obtained from natural water by treating the natural water with
a mixture of activated carbon and flocculating agent Al(OH)3. Impregnated carbons are also used for the adsorption
of H2S and mercaptans. Adsorption rates for H2S as high as 50% by weight have been reported.

Polymers coated carbon

This is a process by which a porous carbon can be coated with a biocompatible polymer to give a smooth and
permeable coat without blocking the pores. The resulting carbon is useful for hemoperfusion. Hemoperfusion is a
treatment technique in which large volumes of the patient's blood are passed over an adsorbent substance in order to
remove toxic substances from the blood.

Other
Activated carbon is also available in special forms such as cloths and fibres. The "Carbon cloth" for instance is used
in personnel protection for the military.

Properties of activated carbon

Iodine Number
Many carbons preferentially adsorb small molecules. Iodine number is the most fundamental parameter used to
characterize activated carbon performance. It is a measure of activity level (higher number indicates higher degree of
activation), often reported in mg/g (typical range 500-1200 mg/g). It is a measure of the micropore content of the
activated carbon (0 to 20 Å, or up to 2 nm) by adsorption of iodine from solution. It is equivalent to surface area of
carbon between 900 m²/g and 1100 m²/g. It is the standard measure for liquid phase applications.
Iodine number is defined as the milligrams of iodine adsorbed by one gram of carbon when the iodine concentration
in the residual filtrate is 0.02 normal. Basically, iodine number is a measure of the iodine adsorbed in the pores and,
as such, is an indication of the pore volume available in the activated carbon of interest. Typically, water treatment
carbons have iodine numbers ranging from 600 to 1100. Frequently, this parameter is used to determine the degree
of exhaustion of a carbon in use. However, this practice should be viewed with caution as chemical interactions with
the adsorbate may affect the iodine uptake giving false results. Thus, the use of iodine number as a measure of the
degree of exhaustion of a carbon bed can only be recommended if it has been shown to be free of chemical
interactions with adsorbates and if an experimental correlation between iodine number and the degree of exhaustion
has been determined for the particular application.
Activated carbon 4

Molasses
Some carbons are more adept at adsorbing large molecules. Molasses number or molasses efficiency is a measure of
the mesopore content of the activated carbon (greater than 20 Å, or larger than 2 nm) by adsorption of molasses from
solution. A high molasses number indicates a high adsorption of big molecules (range 95-600). Caramel dp
(decolorizing performance) is similar to molasses number. Molasses efficiency is reported as a percentage (range
40%-185%) and parallels molasses number (600 = 185%, 425 = 85%). The European molasses number (range
525-110) is inversely related to the North American molasses number.
Molasses Number is a measure of the degree of decolorization of a standard molasses solution that has been dilited
and standardized against standardized activated carbon. Due to the size of color bodies, the molasses number
represents the potential pore volume available for larger adsorbing species. As all of the pore volume may not be
available for adsorption in a particular waste water application, and as some of the adsorbate may enter smaller
pores, it is not a good measure of the worth of a particular activated carbon for a specific application. Frequently, this
parameter is useful in evaluating a series of active carbons for their rates of adsorption. Given two active carbons
with similar pore volumes for adsorption, the one having the higher molasses number will usually have larger feeder
pores resulting in more efficient transfer of adsorbate into the adsorption space.

Tannin
Tannins are a mixture of large and medium size molecules. Carbons with a combination of macropores and
mesopores adsorb tannins. The ability of a carbon to adsorb tannins is reported in parts per million concentration
(range 200 ppm-362 ppm).

Methylene blue
Some carbons have a mesopore (20 Å to 50 Å, or 2 to 5 nm) structure which adsorbs medium size molecules, such as
the dye methylene blue. Methylene blue adsorption is reported in g/100g (range 11-28 g/100g).

Dechlorination
Some carbons are evaluated based on the dechlorination half-value length, which measures the chlorine-removal
efficiency of activated carbon. The dechlorination half-value length is the depth of carbon required to reduce the
chlorine level of a flowing stream from 5 ppm to 3.5 ppm. A lower half-value length indicates superior performance.

Apparent density
Higher density provides greater volume activity and normally indicates better quality activated carbon.

Hardness/abrasion number
It is a measure of the activated carbon’s resistance to attrition. It is important indicator of activated carbon to
maintain its physical integrity and withstand frictional forces imposed by backwashing, etc. There are large
differences in the hardness of activated carbons, depending on the raw material and activity level.

Ash content
It reduces the overall activity of activated carbon. It reduces the efficiency of reactivation. The metals (Fe2O3) can
leach out of activated carbon resulting in discoloration. Acid/water soluble ash content is more significant than total
ash content. Soluble ash content can be very important for aquarists, as ferric oxide can promote algal growths, a
carbon with a low soluble ash content should be used for marine, freshwater fish and reef tanks to avoid heavy metal
poisoning and excess plant/algal growth.
Activated carbon 5

Carbon tetrachloride activity

Measurement of the porosity of an activated carbon by the adsorption of saturated carbon tetrachloride vapour.

Particle size distribution

The finer the particle size of an activated carbon, the better the access to the surface area and the faster the rate of
adsorption kinetics. In vapour phase systems this needs to be considered against pressure drop, which will affect
energy cost. Careful consideration of particle size distribution can provide significant operating benefits.

Examples of adsorption

Heterogeneous catalysis
The most commonly encountered form of chemisorption in industry, occurs when a solid catalyst interacts with a
gaseous feedstock, the reactant/s. The adsorption of reactant/s to the catalyst surface creates a chemical bond,
altering the electron density around the reactant molecule and allowing it to undergo reactions that would not
normally be available to it.

Adsorption refrigeration
Adsorption refrigeration and heat pump cycles rely on the adsorption of a refrigerant gas into an adsorbent at low
pressure and subsequent desorption by heating. The adsorbent acts as a "chemical compressor" driven by heat and is,
from this point of view, the "pump" of the system. It consists of a solar collector, a condenser or heat-exchanger and
an evaporator that is placed in a refrigerator box. The inside of the collector is lined with an adsorption bed packed
with activated carbon adsorbed with methanol. The refrigerator box is insulated filled with water. The activated
carbon can adsorb a large amount of methanol vapours in ambient temperature and desorb it at a higher temperature
(around 100 degrees Celsius). During the daytime, the sunshine irradiates the collector, so the collector is heated up
and the methanol is desorbed from the activated carbon. In desorption, the liquid methanol adsorbed in the charcoal
heats up and vaporizes. The methanol vapour condenses and is stored in the evaporator.
At night, the collector temperature decreases to the ambient temperature, and the charcoal adsorbs the methanol from
the evaporator. The liquid methanol in the evaporator vaporizes and absorbs the heat from the water contained in the
trays. Since adsorption is a process of releasing heat, the collector must be cooled efficiently at night. As mentioned
above, the adsorption refrigeration system operates in an intermittent way to produce the refrigerating effect.
Helium gas can also be 'pumped' by thermally cycling activated carbon 'sorption pumps' between 4 kelvins and
higher temperatures. An example of this is to provide the cooling power for the Oxford Instruments AST series
dilution refrigerators. 3He vapour is pumped from the surface of the dilute phase of a mixture of liquid 4He and its
isotope 3He. The 3He is adsorbed onto the surfaces of the carbon at low temperature (typically <4K), the
regeneration of the pump between 20 and 40 K returns the 3He to the concentrated phase of the liquid mixture.
Cooling occurs at the interface between the two liquid phases as 3He 'evaporates' across the phase boundary. If more
than one pump is present in the system a continuous flow of gas and hence constant cooling power can be obtained,
by having one sorption pump regenerating while the other is pumping. Systems such as this allow temperatures as
low as 10 mK (0.01 kelvin) to be obtained with very few moving parts.
Activated carbon 6

Applications
Activated carbon is used in gas purification, gold purification, metal extraction, water purification, medicine, sewage
treatment, air filters in gas masks and filter masks, filters in compressed air and many other applications.
One major industrial application involves use of activated carbon in metal finishing field. It is very widely employed
for purification of electroplating solutions. For example, it is a main purification technique for removing organic
impurities from bright nickel plating solutions. A variety of organic chemicals are added to plating solutions for
improving their deposit qualities and for enhancing properties like brightness, smoothness, ductility, etc. Due to
passage of direct current and electrolytic reactions of anodic oxidation and cathodic reduction, organic additives
generate unwanted break down products in solution. Their excessive build up can adversely affect the plating quality
and physical properties of deposited metal. Activated carbon treatment removes such impurities and restores plating
performance to the desired level.

Environmental applications
Carbon adsorption has numerous applications in removing pollutants from air or water streams both in the field and
in industrial processes such as:
• Spill cleanup
• Groundwater remediation
• Drinking water filtration
• Air purification
• Volatile organic compounds capture from painting, dry cleaning, gasoline dispensing operations, and other
processes.
In 2007, West-Flanders University (in Belgium) began research in water treatment after festivals . A full scale
activated carbon installation, was built at the Dranouter music festival in 2008 , with plans to utilize the technology
to treat water at this festival for the next 20 years .
Activated charcoal is also used for the measurement of radon concentration in air.

Medical applications
Activated carbon is used to treat poisonings and overdoses following oral ingestion.
It is thought to bind to poison and prevent its absorption by the gastrointestinal tract. In cases of suspected poisoning,
medical personnel administer activated charcoal on the scene or at a hospital's emergency department. Dosing is
usually empirical at 1 gram/kg of body weight ( for adolescents or adults, give 50–100 g ), usually given only once,
but depending on the drug taken, it may be given more than once. In rare situations activated charcoal is used in
Intensive Care to filter out harmful drugs from the blood stream of poisoned patients. Activated carbon has become
the treatment of choice for many poisonings, and other decontamination methods such as ipecac-induced emesis or
stomach pumping are now used rarely.
While activated carbon is useful in an acute poisoning situation, it has been shown to not be effective in long term
accumulation of toxins, such as with the use of toxic herbicides.[4]
Mechanisms of action:
• Binding of the toxin to prevent stomach and intestinal absorption. Binding is reversible so a cathartic such as
sorbitol may be added as well.
• It interrupts the enterohepatic circulation of some drugs/toxins and their metabolites
Incorrect application (e.g. into the lungs) results in pulmonary aspiration which can sometimes be fatal if immediate
medical treatment is not initiated.[5] The use of activated charcoal is contraindicated when the ingested substance is
an acid, an alkali, or a petroleum product.
Activated carbon 7

For pre-hospital use, it comes in plastic tubes or bottles, commonly 12.5 or 25 grams, pre-mixed with water. The
trade names include InstaChar, SuperChar, Actidose, and Liqui-Char, but it is commonly called Activated Charcoal.
Ingestion of activated carbon prior to consumption of ethanol has been shown to reduce absorption of alcohol into
the blood. 5 to 15 milligrams of charcoal per kilogram of body weight taken at the same time as 170 ml of pure
ethanol (which equals about 10 servings of an alcoholic beverage alcohol, or 17 shots), over the course of one hour,
has very apparent effects at reducing potential blood alcohol content[6]
In the past charcoal biscuit was sold in England in the early 19th century, originally as an antidote to flatulence and
stomach trouble.[7]
Tablets of activated charcoal are still used as a folk remedy and over-the-counter drug to treat diarrhea, indigestion,
and flatulence.[8] They were also used in the past by doctors for this purpose. There is some evidence of its
effectiveness as a treatment for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS),[9] and to prevent diarrhea in cancer patients who
have received irinotecan.[10] It can interfere with the absorbency of some medications, and lead to unreliable
readings in medical tests such as the guaiac card test.[11] A type of charcoal biscuit has been marketed as a pet care
product.
Activated charcoal is also used for bowel preparation by reducing intestinal gas content before abdominal
radiography to visualize bile, pancreatic and renal stones.

Fuel Storage
Research is being done testing various activated carbons ability to store natural gas and hydrogen gas. The porous
material acts like a sponge for different types of gasses. The gas is attracted to the carbon material via Van der Waals
forces. Some carbons have been able to achieve bonding energies of 5-10 KJ per mol. The gas may then be desorbed
when subjected to higher temperatures and either combusted to do work or in the case of hydrogen gas extracted for
use in a hydrogen fuel cell. Gas storage in activated carbons is an appealing gas storage method because the gas can
be stored in a low pressure, low mass, low volume environment that could would be much more feasible than bulky
on board compression tanks in vehicles. The United States Department of Energy has specified certain goals to be
achieved in the area of research and development of nano-porous carbon materials. As of yet all of the goals are yet
to be satisfied but numerous institutions, including the ALL-CRAFT program, are continuing to conduct work in this
promising field.

Gas purification
Filters with activated carbon are usually used in compressed air and gas purification to remove oil vapours, odours,
and other hydrocarbons from the air. The most common designs use a 1 stage or 2 stage filtration principle in which
activated carbon is embedded inside the filter media. Activated charcoal is also used in spacesuit Primary Life
Support Systems. Activated charcoal filters are used to retain radioactive gases from a nuclear boiling water reactor
turbine condenser. The air vacuumed from the condenser contains traces of radioactive gases. The large charcoal
beds adsorb these gases and retains them while they rapidly decay to non-radioactive solid species. The solids are
trapped in the charcoal particles, while the filtered air passes through.
Activated carbon 8

Chemical Purification
Commonly used to purify homemade non-dangerous chemicals such as sodium acetate. It is then filtered out.

Distilled alcoholic beverage purification

Activated carbon filters can be used to filter vodka and whiskey of organic impurities which can affect color, taste,
and odor. Passing an organically impure vodka through an activated carbon filter at the proper flow rate will result in
vodka with an identical alcohol content and significantly increased organic purity, as judged by odor and taste.

Mercury scrubbing
Activated carbon, often impregnated with iodine or sulfur, is widely used to trap mercury emissions from coal fired
power stations, medical incinerators, and from natural gas at the wellhead. This carbon is a specialty product costing
more than $4.00 per kg. However, it is often not recycled.

Disposal in the USA

The mercury laden activated carbon presents a disposal dilemma. If the activated carbon contains less than 260 ppm
mercury, Federal regulations allow it to be stabilized (for example, trapped in concrete) for landfilling. However,
waste containing greater than 260 ppm is considered to be in the high mercury subcategory and is banned from
landfilling (Land-Ban Rule). It is this material which is now accumulating in warehouses and in deep abandoned
mines at an estimated rate of 1000 tons per year.
The problem of disposal of mercury laden activated carbon is not unique to the U.S. In the Netherlands this mercury
is largely recovered[12] and the activated carbon is disposed by complete burning.

See also
• Carbon black
• Carbon filtering
• Kværner-process
• Onboard refueling vapor recovery
• Sumi
• Zeocarbon

External links
• "Activated Carbon for water filtration" [13] - Treatment Systems for Household Water Supplies] AE-1029,
February 1992
• "Imaging the atomic structure of activated carbon" [14] - JOURNAL OF PHYSICS: CONDENSED MATTER
• Engber, Daniel (Nov. 28, 2005). "How Does Activated Carbon Work?" [15]. Slate.

References
[1] "Properties of Activated Carbon", CPL Caron Link, accessed 2008-05-02 (http:/ / www. activated-carbon. com/ 1-3. html)
[2] Value Added Products from Gasification (http:/ / cgpl. iisc. ernet. in/ site/ Portals/ 0/ Publications/ Presentations/ Bio-Energy/ Value Added
Products From Gasification - Activated Carbon. pdf) - Acitivated Carbon, By Shoba jhadhav, The Combustion,Gasification and Propulsion
Laboratory (CGPL) at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc)
[3] http:/ / en. mimi. hu/ astronomy/ granule. html
[4] Eddleston M, Juszczak E, Buckley NA, et al. (2008). "Multiple-dose activated charcoal in acute self-poisoning: a randomised controlled
trial". Lancet 371 (9612): 579. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60270-6 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0140-6736(08)60270-6).
[5] Elliott C, Colby T, Kelly T, Hicks H (1989). "Charcoal lung. Bronchiolitis obliterans after aspiration of activated charcoal". Chest 96 (3):
672–4. doi: 10.1378/chest.96.3.672 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1378/ chest. 96. 3. 672). PMID 2766830.
Activated carbon 9

[6] Procter, Richard & Stanton Anondson, "Method of altering intoxicating effects of alcohol", US 4594249 (http:/ / v3. espacenet. com/
textdoc?DB=EPODOC& IDX=US4594249), issued 1986
[7] Rolland, Jacques L. (2006). The Food Encyclopedia: Over 8,000 Ingredients, Tools, Techniques and People. Robert Rose. pp. 148. ISBN
0778801500.
[8] Stearn, Margaret (2007). Warts and all: straight talking advice on life's embarrassing problems (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/
books?id=aSRmxC47VNMC& printsec=frontcover#PPA333). London: Murdoch Books. p. 333. ISBN 978-1-92125984-5. . Retrieved
2009-05-03.
[9] Hübner WD, Moser EH (2002). " Charcoal tablets in the treatment of patients with irritable bowel syndrome (https:/ / www.
advancesintherapy. com/ detail. aspx?ID=276)". Adv Ther 19 (5): 245–52. doi: 10.1007/BF02850364 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/
BF02850364). PMID 12539884. .
[10] Michael M, Brittain M, Nagai J, et al. (Nov 2004). "Phase II study of activated charcoal to prevent irinotecan-induced diarrhea". J Clin
Oncol. 22 (21): 4410–7. doi: 10.1200/JCO.2004.11.125 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1200/ JCO. 2004. 11. 125). PMID 15514383.
[11] Gogel HK, Tandberg D, Strickland RG (Sep 1989). "Substances that interfere with guaiac card tests: implications for gastric aspirate
testing". Am J Emerg Med 7 (5): 474–80. doi: 10.1016/0735-6757(89)90248-9 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0735-6757(89)90248-9). PMID
2787993.
[12] BMT-Begemann, Mercury waste treatment facilities (http:/ / www. bmt-begemann. nl/ index. html)
[13] http:/ / www. ag. ndsu. edu/ pubs/ h2oqual/ watsys/ ae1029w. htm
[14] http:/ / www. personal. rdg. ac. uk/ ~scsharip/ Activated_carbon_JPCM. pdf
[15] http:/ / www. slate. com/ id/ 2131130/
Article Sources and Contributors 10

Article Sources and Contributors

Activated carbon  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=315672151  Contributors: AlexandriNo, Ali@gwc.org.uk, Alison, Allstrak, Angela, Arcadian, Arcadie, Bigballer09,
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Habibfriend, Haoie, Heron, Hooperbloob, Hu12, Huy Q Pham, IScorpio, IceCreamAntisocial, Icek, Imnotminkus, J.delanoy, JamesChemFindIt, Jcarroll, JeffAMcGee, Jgrundli, JidGom,
Jimjamjak, Joelmills, Johnleemk, Jscb, K4carbon, KFP, Keenan Pepper, Kelisi, Kenyon, Kjkolb, Klosterdev, Layeredsurface, Leyo, LiDaobing, LilHelpa, Luis v silva, Lysdexia, Mark.murphy,
Masiano, MatthewBelleghem, Mbell, Merkurix, Metju, Mion, Miranda, MisterSheik, Mmoneypenny, Mr Bungle, Murtasa, NawlinWiki, Ncmvocalist, Neale Monks, Neffk, Neonumbers, Nergaal,
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