PARTICIPANT MODULE

PEW-105.04

SAUDI ARAMCO INSPECTION OF PRIMER COATING

FOR

APPLICATION TO NEW STEEL

WARNING: The training materials contained in this manual are the property of the Saudi Arabian Oil Company (Saudi Aramco) and are intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco employees enrolled in advanced inspection training courses. Any material contained in this manual which is not already in the public domain, may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used, in whole or in part, for purposes other than for use in Saudi Aramcos Professional Engineering and Development Unit courses without the prior written permission of the Chief Engineer of Saudi Aramco.

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DATE 12/99 ALL

REVISION DESCRIPTION GRAMMAR ONLY

PAGE(S) AFFECTED

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MODULE COMPONENT OBJECTIVES

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INFORMATION Coating Material Components and their Functions Curing Mechanisms and Coating Types Linings Powder Coatings Pipeline Coatings Coating Systems 34 Coatings and the Inspector Inspection of Primer coat Material Calculating Wet Film Thickness Measuring Wet Film Thickness Inspecting Application Equipment Inspecting Primer Coat Application Inspecting Health and Safety Precautions Completing Quality Control Forms 12 28 30 32

37 44 47 49 55 94 105 107

EXERCISES Exercise 1. Identify the Components of Coatings: Pigments 108 Exercise 2. Identify the Components of Coatings: Vehicle 110 Exercise 3. Identify Solvents/Thinners Normally Used Coatings 111 Exercise 4. Identify Curing Mechanisms for Coatings 112 Exercise 5. Using Saudi Aramco Data Sheets to Obtain Data on Primer Coatings 113 Exercise 6. Using Manufacturers Data Sheets to Obtain Data on Primer Coatings 115 Exercise 7. Coating Types 117 Exercise 8. Viscosity of a Coating 119 Exercise 9. Identify Faulty Spray Patterns (Conventional Spray) 120 Exercise 10. Identify Faulty Spray Patterns (Airless Spray) 121 Exercise 11. Calculate Coverage of Coatings 122

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Exercise 12. Calculate Wet Film Thickness Exercise 13. Spray Applications

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WORK AID Work Aid 1. Determine Solvent/Coating Compatibility 125 Work Aid 2. Determine Curing Mechanisms for Specified Coatings 126 Work Aid 3. Locate Information in the Saudi Aramco Data Sheets 127 Work Aid 4. Locate Information in the Manufacturers Data Sheets 128 Work Aid 5. Check Viscosity with the Zahn Cup 130 Work Aid 6. Recognize and Remedy Faulty Spray Patterns (Conventional Spray) 131 Work Aid 7. Recognize and Remedy Faulty Spray Patterns (Airless Spray) 132 Work Aid 8. Calculate Coating Coverage 133 Work Aid 9. Calculate Wet Film Thickness 134 Work Aid 10. In-Process Inspection Form for Primer Coat Inspection 135 Work Aid 11. Paints/Coatings and Equipment Log for Primer Coat Inspection 136 Work Aid 12. Interchemical Wet Film Thickness Gauge 137 Work Aid 13. Notched Wet Film Thickness Gauge 138 Glossary 139

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OBJECTIVES
Terminal Objective Upon completion of this module, the participant will be able to inspect internal and external primer coat applications on new steel, using the proper tools, forms, coating material samples and Manufacturers Data Sheets, following the applicable Aramco and industry standards, procedures and instructions. Enabling Objectives In order to accomplish the Terminal Objective, the participant will be able to do the following: Explain the functions of the coating material components. Identify the characteristics, curing methods and inspection points of primer coatings. Calculate the wet film thickness. Measure the wet film thickness. Ensure the proper operation and use of the coating application equipment. Inspect the primer coat application, using the inspection checklist. Inspect health and safety precautions, using the inspection checklist.
This training material has been developed using the latest available versions of applicable Saudi Aramco and industry standards. However, these documents are regularly updated; therefore, it is the responsibility of the inspector to ensure that he is conducting his inspections according to the latest versions of these documents.

Note:

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INTRODUCTION
Purpose The purpose of this module is to prepare the Saudi Aramco Inspector to perform a primer coat inspection for coating of new steel. Scope This module is the third in a series on the inspection procedures for coating new steel. This module covers only primer coat application inspection. It does not include maintenance coatings or specialized coatings such as tape wrap or heat shrink sleeves. The ability to inspect the primer coat application is as important as surface preparation. The entire coating system depends upon the primer coat. Primer coats are the basis of corrosion resistance and control Inspection of the primer coat application is as important as inspection of the surface preparation. Application The Saudi Aramco Coating Inspector will be required to use the checklists and inspection plans explained during this course. The Inspection Section provides these checklists and plans. The inspector will be required to use the measurements and instruments taught in this module to determine viscosity, wet film thickness and coating coverage. Calculations of wet film thickness will be required. The inspector must ensure the safety of the personnel and equipment when the coating is applied. He must also ensure the quality of the coating as a finished product. This quality is achieved mainly through the rigorous application of the principles of coating inspection taught in these modules.

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COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

A coating is a clear or pigmented film-forming liquid, which protects the surface to which it is applied to from the effects of the environment. Coatings consist of two major components: Pigment Vehicle

Pigments A pigment is defined as a "discrete particulate solid" used to impart specific protective or decorative qualities to the coating. Pigments do not dissolve in a material; they remain solid, individual particles whether in the liquid coating or the solid film. Pigments must be thoroughly wet with the binder to function properly in a coating. Each particle of pigment must be surrounded by a layer of binder resin. If too much pigment is added to a particular binder, the pigment will not be covered completely by the binder. The result is a porous flat film with little strength. Each pigment varies in wetting characteristics. Hundreds of pigments are available and the properties of the different pigments vary with manufacturers, type of manufacture, etc. While some pigments are more dangerous than others, all pigments should be regarded as hazardous and proper safety precautions taken to avoid ingestion or inhalation.
Pigment Functions

Pigments are added to coating for a number of reasons, including: to provide rust inhibiting characteristics to decrease the permeability of the film to hide the color to provide color to protect the film from the effects of ultraviolet light and weather to provide mechanical reinforcement for the coating film to perform other functions including: self cleaning and controlled chalking decrease gloss and to increase the bond of subsequent coats assist in drying the coating binder to provide certain desired finishes such as metallic luster to aid in the storage properties of coatings 3

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to increase body consistency so that thicker films may be applied to provide galvanic properties and allow sacrificial protection

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COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS (CONTD)

Pigments (Contd)
Pigment Functions (Contd)

Several pigments may be used in the same coating to gain the necessary qualities. However, improper use of pigments in coatings can destroy corrosion-resistance properties.
Hiding Ability

The pigment must be thick enough to cover the substrate completely. No metal can show after the coating is applied. There must be no holes and voids in the coating. The pigment will also hide the previous coat. The second coat must always be compatible with the first coat and should be a different color.
Gloss Control

Gloss control refers to how the pigment affects the surface texture. The texture of the coating is determined by the size of the pigment particles. Smaller particles produce a smooth texture; larger particles produce a rough texture. This causes the difference in the appearance of high gloss varnish and flat finish coating.
Color

The coating will absorb or reflect light according to which pigment is selected. Light-colored coatings reflect light; dark-colored coatings absorb light. The color is chosen depending on the coatings function. Pigments are chosen with caution; many greatly reduce the basic binders resistance to corrosion. White pigments such as titanium dioxide and black pigments such as lamp black are inert and have some chemical resistance qualities; they are excellent in corrosion-resistant coatings. Inorganics such as iron oxide pigments have very good corrosion-resistant properties and are widely used when the proper colors can be found. The color may not be as clean as some organic pigments.
Protection of Resin Binders

The suns ultraviolet rays can cause resinous binders to break down. Pigments serve to protect the binder by absorbing or reflecting the ultraviolet rays.

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COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS (CONTD)

Pigments (Contd)
Pigment Functions (Contd) Corrosion Resistance and Inhibition

Pigments may be chosen for their corrosion-inhibiting characteristics. Some of these pigments directly resist the chemicals that attack the coating. Others, such as metallic zinc, resist the environmental elements by providing cathodic protection. Film Reinforcement Fine fibers and plate-like particles of pigment are used to increase hardness, toughness, and tensile strength of the coatings. Properly selected pigments will also increase cohesive strength. This means it will hold together better. Adhesion Plate-like or flake pigments can increase adhesion of the coating. Coatings containing these pigments hold to the substrate much better than the binder does alone.

Pigment Classes

Pigments can be divided into four classes: Color pigments Reinforcing pigments Inhibiting pigments Metallic pigments

Color Pigments

These pigments provide color and decoration to ordinary paints. Color pigments in corrosion-resistant coatings provides protection from environmental conditions and chemicals.
Reinforcing Pigments

These pigments are also called extender pigments because they make the coating cover a larger area. They also help reduce the cost of coatings. Inorganic pigments, a type of reinforcing pigment, are corrosion-resistant and are often used in corrosion-resistant coatings.

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Inhibiting Pigments

These pigments are the most important in primers. They are normally used in primer or first coats. These pigments react with the moisture absorbed by the coating to form ions. The ions react to the substrate to make it more corrosionresistant.

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COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS (CONTD)

Pigments (Contd)
Pigment Classes (Contd) Metallic Pigments

These pigments are listed separately because they have unique properties. They are usually metal flakes or flat platelets; zinc dust is an exception. The flake-like structure reinforces the binder. Leafing pigments are a type of metallic pigment. The particles of leafing pigments overlap like roof shingles. This shingle effect reduces the moisture-vapor transfer rate through the coating; it also prevents ultraviolet rays from penetrating into the binder. Pigme n S!"#e$ The shape of pigments is an important characteristic, which can influence the physical properties of the coating.
Nodular pigments

Nodular pigments are lump-shaped and are generally used to add color, (such as titanium dioxide) or are sacrificial (such as metallic zinc).
Acicular (needle-shaped) pigments

Acicular (needle-shaped) pigments such as zinc oxide or glass fibers are used to reinforce and strengthen the coating film, as well as provide coloring.
Lamellar or plate-like pigments

Lamellar or plate-like pigments such as aluminum flake, and micaceous iron oxide, overlap when the coating dries, increasing the degree to which the coating is impermeable to moisture. Figure 1 shows pigment shapes.

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COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS (CONTD)

Pigments (Contd)
Pigment Shapes (Contd)

Figure 1. Pigment shapes

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COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS (CONTD)

Vehicle The vehicle consists of binders (resins) with solvents and additives. It is basically the liquid portion of the coating and can be divided into two sub-groups:
Binder

Non-volatile, film forming (binder) Volatile solvents

The name given to a coating is that of its principal resin; epoxy and vinyl for examples. Just about the only time this is not the case is when primers also use the name of the pigmentation such as is the case for zinc-rich epoxy and red lead. Resins may be natural organic materials or synthetic materials. Most resins require the addition of solvent to aid application. In order to create a protective coating film on a substrate, the binder resins must convert from a pliant liquid form (which allows application), to a cohesive solid form, which adheres to and protects the surface. It is this capability to change from one form to the other that identifies the resins suitable for use as a coatings binder. To be suitable for use as a binder in corrosion resistant protective coatings, the binder should: Have good wetting and adhesion properties Resist water vapor and oxygen transmission Tolerate variation in application processes Resist chemical and physical change in their service environment Dry within an acceptable period to prevent surface contamination

In the coating selection process, the most critical decision is probably the choice of binder.

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COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS (CONTD)

Vehicle (Contd)
Solvents

Almost all coatings contain solvents. Solvents are added to coatings for a number of reasons: To make a solution of resin to allow its use as a coating vehicle. Many synthetic resins are solids. To permit easier application of the coating. When used in this manner, the solvent is usually referred to as thinner. Solvents or solvent blends are carefully balanced to promote an evenness of the applied film. There is generally a maximum amount of solvent that should be used for each particular formulation of coating, depending on the method of application and the application conditions.

The amount of solvent used in a coating will vary with the type of resin and the application procedure. The quantity of solvent may vary from perhaps several percent by weight of the vehicle, as in the case of some high solids epoxy coatings, to roughly 75% by weight of the vehicle in some vinyl coatings. The volatile content is expressed in terms of either weight or volume percent of the vehicle. When calculated on the basis of volume percent, the percent of solvent becomes very important in the coating because of its low density. It may vary from 50% to 90% by volume of the total coating for vinyl type coatings, while for some high solids epoxy coatings it may be only 5% to 10%. The addition of solvents to a coating at the application stage will decrease the viscosity and the wet film thickness, which can be obtained by ordinary application methods. This will, in turn, lead to a decrease in dry film thickness due to the thinning (lower volume solids percentage). Solvents have two major characteristics, which influence their use in coatings. These are: Solvency power - The ability to dissolve other chemical compounds such as resins Evaporation rate - The speed at which the solvent will leave the coating

Each of these factors is important in the choice of solvents (usually a blend) for a particular coating type. As the Coating Inspector, you should allow only the solvent specified in the coating specification to be used in reducing the coating for application. Work Aid 1 provides a table of the solvents and coating material groups that normally go together. However, the manufacturers determine the thinners for their particular products. The correct thinner is listed in the Saudi

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Aramco Data Sheet. Permission to use a different solvent must be authorized by CSD and in cooperation with the Coating Manufacturer.

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COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS (CONTD)

Vehicle (Contd)
Solvents (Contd)

One of the more spectacular things that may occur if the wrong type of solvent is used is "solution kickout," which is the separation of the resin from the volatile content of the coating. If this occurs, the coating should not be used.
Solvent Safety

The flash point of a solvent is the lowest temperature at which enough vapors, of the solvent will be present above the liquid to be ignited by an ignition source such as a flame. In addition to open flames, sources of ignition can include static electric sparks, sparks from nails in shoes, sparks from grinding operations, lit cigarettes, and many others. The lower the flash point, the greater the amount of vapors released from the liquid and the greater the risk of vapor ignition. It could be said that the lower the flash point of a solvent, the more highly flammable that solvent is. The Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) is the lowest percentage solvent vapor in air that can be ignited. The Upper Explosive Limit (UEL) is the highest percentage of solvent in air that can be ignited.
Solvent Health Hazards

While some solvents are more immediately and directly hazardous to your health than others, all solvents present a health hazard and should be handled accordingly. Approved breathing equipment and protective clothing should be used at all times, but particularly when handling solvents or when working in enclosed areas. Some terms you may hear when solvent safety is discussed include: Threshold Limit Value (TLV) - A concentration of airborne material allowed by the pertinent safety regulation, which can be inhaled for a period of time by workers. Threshold Limit Value/Time Weighted Average (TLV/TWA) - Time weighted average concentration for a stated working period such as an eight hour day or forty hour week. Threshold Limit Value/Short Term Exposure Limit (TLV/STEL) - Maximum concentration to which workers can be exposed to for 15 minutes.

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COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS (CONTD)

Additives (Miscellaneous Components) Additives (sometimes called modifiers) are put into the coatings to enhance the other ingredients. They provide some quality not supplied by the other ingredients or a compound not present in sufficient amount for the required use. These components are usually used in small quantities and seldom exceed 1 to 2 percent of the total coating material. The most common additives are drying agents added to oil-based paint to speed the drying time. These dryers are catalysts for oxidizing film formers. Other additives include wetting agents that help disperse the pigment during manufacturing and defoamers that help break up foam during mixing, agitation and application. Biological inhibitors, used to prevent the growth of fungi on coatings, are also common additives.

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CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES

The curing mechanism is the way a coating goes from a liquid to a solid state. It is important to the Coating Inspector since it is the inspector's job to verify that each coating applied has cured properly, prior to the application of further coatings. The coatings industry refers to two basic types of cured coatings as: Non-convertible Convertible

Non-convertible coatings cure solely by the evaporation of the solvent. The resins used in non-convertible coatings do not change chemically when the coating cures and are resoluble in the solvent originally used to dissolve the resin. Convertible coatings cure principally by one of several types of polymerization, although evaporation may also be involved. The resins used in convertible coatings undergo a chemical change when the coating cures, and are not easily resoluble in the solvents originally used in application. Thus coatings cure by one or by a combination of the following: Solvent Evaporation Coalescence/Evaporation Polymerization

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CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES (CONTD)

Non-Convertible
Solvent Evaporation Coatings

Coatings, which cure solely by solvent evaporation, are made by dissolving a resin such as chlorinated rubber in a solvent. For example, when one of these materials is applied, it cures by simple evaporation of the solvent. The resin remains unchanged and can be re-dissolved by its original hydrocarbon solvent, no matter how old the cured film is. An evaporation type coating should not be topcoated with a different type of coating containing a strong solvent. The topcoat solvent may attack the base coating causing it to re-dissolve. Evaporation type coatings may be applied over a different type of base coat such as a vinyl topcoat applied over an epoxy base coat. Since all the solvent must evaporate for the coating to be properly cured, evaporation type coatings should not be applied too thickly. If applied too thickly, the coating will have solvent trapped within the film. These trapped solvents will ultimately become voids as the solvent escapes and will be a weakness in the coating. When used in a multiple-coat system, these types of coatings fuse together, forming a single solid film, rather than layered film. The ease of maintenance coating is considered to be a major advantage of these coatings. Solvent evaporation coatings are generally considered to retain more of their initial properties unless chemical changes take place such as the effects of ultraviolet light. Coatings in Saudi Aramco which cure by solvent evaporation include: Acrylic Bitumen/Coal Tar Chlorinated Rubber

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CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES (CONTD)

Non-Convertible (Contd)
Solvent Evaporation Coatings (Contd) Chlorinated Rubber

Chlorinated rubber coatings are especially resistant to alkalis and acids and generally have good water and chemical resistance. They have good intercoat adhesion, provided the previous surface has not been contaminated. Solvents are slow to evaporate from chlorinated rubber coatings. Taking dry film thickness measurements may be a problem due to soft film. These types of coatings are used in chemical plants, water treatment plants or wherever resistance to water, acid or alkali is required. Chlorinated rubber coatings have poor resistance to animal and vegetable oils and fats. Chlorinated rubber coatings have poor resistance to aromatic solvents, esters and ketones. They have limited heat resistance and will deteriorate if exposed to temperatures in excess of 65C for prolonged periods.
Acrylic

Acrylics are of high molecular weight and maybe combined with vinyls to improve exterior weatherability and color retention. When used alone, they have excellent color, gloss and weatherability. However their chemical and water resistance is not as high as chlorinated rubber.

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CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES (CONTD)

Non-Convertible (Contd)
Solvent Evaporation Coatings (Contd) Tar/Bitumen/Asphalt

This is a very broad range of materials ranging from solvents cut of asphalt to a rubber-modified, pigmented, highly refined, emulsified coal tar. These are traditional coating materials, which have been widely used throughout the world. The three words tar, bitumen and asphalt have become more or less interchangeable unless discussing: Blown asphalt, which is modified by blowing compressed air through the heated liquid product Coal tar, which is a byproduct of coal processing Heavy build coating Low cost Easy to use Water resistance Thermoplastic Toxic Limited adhesion

Advantages of these coatings include:

Limitations of these coatings include:

Some tar-based coatings can be very irritating to the skin. Contact with tar-based coatings should generally be avoided. These types of coatings can be used on pipelines, water tanks and buried structures.

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CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES (CONTD)

Non-Convertible (Contd)
Coalescence/Evaporation Coatings

Coalescence is a special case of evaporation. In these types of coatings tiny particles of resin are encapsulated in a soap-like material and then dispersed in water, which dilutes it, unlike a true solvent. This is known as emulsion. When the water evaporates, the resin particles fuse together (coalesce) forming a stable coating film. While these coatings, once cured, will not re-dissolve in water, they may dissolve in strong solvent. Several items of particular concern when emulsion coatings are being used include: Prevent exposure to moisture such as dew, rain or spray before the coating is fully cured. This may cause streaking, wash-off, running and inadequate protection of the substrate. Liquid components exposed to freezing temperatures during shipment, storage and/or application. Freezing can disrupt the emulsion and cause separation of the coating components. If this occurs, the coating may be impossible to mix and cannot be applied. Latex Emulsion Vinyl Acrylic Emulsion

Coatings in Saudi Aramco that cure by emulsion include:

Latex Emulsion Coating

Latex coatings are synthetic rubber-like materials which can vary in hardness, flexibility, gloss, etc. They are made of very finely divided particles of resin encapsulated in a surfactant and then suspended in water. As the water evaporates, the resin particles come into contact and coalesce to form the dried film. The advantages of latex emulsion coatings include: Ease of application Freedom from solvent odor Fast dry and re-coat times Minimal fire hazard

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Latex emulsions must be protected from freezing and applied above freezing temperatures. These coatings are typically used to decorate interior concrete and masonry.

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CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES (CONTD)

Non-Convertible (Contd)
Coalescence/Evaporation Coatings (Contd) Vinyl Acrylic Emulsion

This type of coating is usually used as a finish topcoat. It is a combination of vinyl and acrylic resin. The acrylic portion somewhat offsets the vinyl's tendency to degrade on exposure to sunlight. Convertible
Polymerization-Cured Coatings

Polymerization occurs when two or more resin molecules combine to form a single, more complex molecule. The three main types of polymerization are: Oxygen-induced Chemically-induced Heat-induced

Polymerization is a chemical reaction in which, a compound is formed from the joining of many similar chemical groups called monomers. The major characteristics of monomers are: They are inherently stable They are capable of linking together chemically

The joining together of monomers within a resin is the process called polymerization and is the most common curing method of paint coatings. When one monomer joins another, we have a di-mer; when another monomer joins, we have a tri-mer and so on. When we have a group of monomers chemically joined, the result is a polymer (poly- meaning many). Polymerization may take place to form long-chain molecules (one dimension linking) or a more complex threedimensional molecule (cross-linking). The end-result of such cross-linking is a rigid, three-dimensional molecular structure formed as a coating film on the substrate. The more effective the cross-linking polymerization process is, the stronger and the more chemical-resistant the cured resin becomes. Many resins used in coatings are partially developed polymers, which cure by completing the polymerization. Polymerization can describe the reaction, which is used to produce synthetic resins or describe the cure process of a coating after mixing and application.

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With age, some additional polymerization occurs and the coating film becomes more glass-like, harder and less resilient.

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CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES (CONTD)

Convertible (Contd)
Polymerization-Cured Coatings (Contd) Oxygen-Induced Polymerization Coatings

These types of coatings form a solid film by a polymerization process called oxidative cross-linking using the oxygen in the air. There may be some evaporation because some solvent is usually added for ease of application. Heat is sometimes applied to speed up the curing process. The main ingredients in many oxidation type coatings are vegetable oils such as linseed, tung, soya bean and dehydrated castor oil; and fish oils, such as menhaden. Film formation depends on the oil reacting with oxygen to form a cross-linked structure. Since the oxygen in the air can only enter the film at the surface, there is a limit to the wet film thickness which may be applied. This should generally not be greater than 2-3 mils (45-75 microns). If the wet film thickness is greater than this, the oxygen may not completely penetrate to the bottom of the wet film, resulting in a situation in which the film is solid at the top and liquid at the bottom. This can cause the film to pucker and wrinkle at the top and take a very long time to turn into a solid at the bottom. Because film formation depends on oxygen in the air entering the wet film and reacting with the oil, curing can take a considerable amount of time. The time taken to form a solid film can vary from two hours to several days. In order to speed up the reaction between the oil and oxygen, small amounts of metallic catalysts, called driers are added during manufacturing. The usual driers are cobalt, lead, and manganese compounds. Like all chemical reactions, the speed of the reaction is increased with an increase in temperature. Thus, the coating will dry quickly in warmer temperatures. Because the reaction depends on oxygen from the air reaching the surface, a regular change of air over the surface will speed up the reaction. Manufacturers of oxidation-type coatings usually add a small amount of a material to stop the oxygen reaction while the coating is stored in the can. This is usually effective only while the can is full and only for a stated shelf life. If some of the coating is removed and the can resealed, the coating will react with oxygen in the can to form a solid film skin on the top of the remaining coating. This must be entirely removed and the coating strained before the coating is used. The oils used in oxidation-type coatings react with alkali to form soap, a process known as saponification. Oxidation type coatings are generally not suitable for use in conditions where severe corrosion may be encountered as they may saponify the coating and cause it to become detached. Oxidation-type coatings are not suitable for application on new concrete.

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CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES (CONTD)

Convertible (Contd)
Polymerization-Cured Coatings (Contd) Oxygen-Induced Polymerization Coatings (Contd)

When oxidation-type coatings dry to form a film, they can be attacked by strong solvents such as acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, ethyl acetate, etc. These solvents will cause the film to swell and wrinkle. Therefore, it is generally not recommended to overcoat a dry film of an oxidation type coating with a coating which contains strong solvents such as the vinyls, epoxies, etc. Coatings in Saudi Aramco which cure by oxidation include: Epoxy Ester Oil Modified Phenolic Alkyds

Alkyd Coatings

Alkyd coatings are oil modified resins which dry to a tough hard film. The proportion of oil used will determine whether the alkyd is termed long-oil or short-oil. Alkyds are used for making moderately fast drying enamels for both interior and exterior industrial coatings. They may be modified with many other resin types, such as phenolic, urethane or silicone. The choice of modifying resin will affect the final physical properties of the coating. Like other coatings, which cure by oxidative polymerization, alkyds should not be used directly on concrete surfaces except over an alkali resisting primer or sealer. The advantages of alkyds are: Ease of application Easily maintained Excellent exterior durability Low cost Excellent flexibility Good appearance and gloss retention

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CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES (CONTD)

Convertible (Contd)
Polymerization-Cured Coatings (Contd) Oxygen-Induced Polymerization Coatings (Contd)

The limitations of alkyds are: Variable color retention Low film build Poor chemical and solvent resistance Fair water resistance Limited heat resistance

Epoxy Esters

Epoxy esters are epoxy resins modified with oil to produce a one package coating which will cure by oxidative polymerization. They are neither as hard nor chemically resistant as two component epoxies. They do have an intermediate degree of chemical resistance and can be used on areas subjected to occasional spillage of chemicals. They are easily applied and offer some abrasion resistance. Epoxy esters have poor gloss and color retention and are low film build. Since they do not require use of a catalyst, they are one package systems and do not have a pot life restriction like two-component epoxies. These can be furnished for wide range of application methods and are typically used for plant floors and as primers.
Oil Modified Phenolic

This type of coating is made of phenolic resins modified with oil. They should not be confused with epoxy phenolic coatings, which are used extensively in industrial applications. Phenolic coatings have good interior/exterior resistance to water and chemicals, but are softened by strong solvents. They discolor with age and the film becomes hard and brittle. Chalking, fading and yellowing are all considered limitations of these coatings. Aged phenolic coatings are difficult to re-coat because of poor adhesion but proper sanding may help this situation. Oil modified phenolic resins are used by some manufacturers to formulate what the manufacturer may call a universal primer. The

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coating inspector should be aware that these types of primers are not truly universal, that is, they cannot be used on all substrates with all types of coatings. These coatings are typically used in marine applications and as floor coatings.

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CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES (CONTD)

Convertible (Contd)
Polymerization-Cured Coatings (Contd) Chemically-Induced Polymerization Coatings

This occurs when the resin is activated by a converter or catalyst. This includes the familiar two-package coating. Coatings which cure by chemically induced polymerization include: Two Component Epoxy Coal Tar Epoxy Epoxy Modified Phenolic Polyurethane

Two-Component Epoxy

Two-component epoxies are coatings produced by adding a converter (or hardener) to an epoxy resin. Epoxy coatings generally provide good chemical, solvent and water resistance. High film build per coat, good adhesion, hardness and good exterior durability are also an advantage. Commonly used epoxy coatings are susceptible to chalking in exterior exposures and do not have a good long-term (gloss) appearance. There are three general types of curing agents which may be used. These are: Polyamine, which produces a film having good chemical and immersion resistance, but may form a blush as a result of unreacted amines rising to the surface of the coating film, when affected by moisture or high humidity. Polyamide, which produces a film having less tendency to blush than the polyamine and having generally better wetting characteristics. Isocyanate, which produces a film which will cure in adverse conditions (example: temperature below 50F), but which may have limited pot life (typically 1-2 hours).

Some two-component epoxy coatings may develop amine blush when exposed to very high relative humidity or moisture before they are completely cured. Amine blush is an oily, waxy, milky film, which blooms to the surface. It may be clear or yellow in color. It usually occurs when the film cures during cool, damp conditions. The amine part of the coating reacts with carbon dioxide in the air and surface water. When this occurs, intercoat adhesion failure may result. The 28

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amine blush remains sensitive to water and is removed by wiping, with a solvent recommended by the manufacturer, prior to overcoating.

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Convertible (Contd)
Polymerization-Cured Coatings (Contd) Chemically-Induced Polymerization Coatings (Contd) Coal Tar Epoxy

Coal tar is a resin that is a by-product of the coking industry. These selected coal tars are combined with epoxy resins and have the effect of reducing permeability of the epoxy film. Coal tar epoxy provides heavy duty structural protection and is water, chemical and solvent resistant. Coal tar has a wide variety of applications, including oil tank interiors, pipelines, river and ocean docks, ships hull coatings (at or below waterline), sewage and water plants, water pipeline linings and oil platforms. Coal tar is not generally used in a system with other types of coatings. Since coal tar epoxy gives a relatively high film build per coat, most specifications call for just one or two applications. Some of the disadvantages of coal tar epoxy include difficulty of repair and re-coating and generally short pot life.
Epoxy Modified Phenolic (Two-Component)

As the name implies, these coatings contain a significant amount of reactive phenolic resin as well as epoxy resin. The phenolic resin will contribute to improved water and solvent resistance, but takes away from sunlight resistance. On exterior exposure, the epoxy phenolics will yellow and develop chalk more rapidly than will the straight epoxy coatings. As a result of better solvent resistance, the re-coat interval must be carefully observed. Two-pack epoxyphenolic materials exhibit a very high cross-link density, which results in excellent resistance to a wide range of chemicals and solvents. It is also very hard. The major deficiency of this coating is its poor flexibility. The two-component epoxy phenolic coatings are normally used on tank interiors (thin film up to about 20 mils maximum), and pipeline interiors.

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Convertible (Contd)
Polymerization-Cured Coatings (Contd) Chemically-Induced Polymerization Coatings (Contd) Polyurethane

Two-component polyurethanes (often called urethanes) come in two varieties: Aliphatic - These catalyzed coatings have outstanding resistance, hardness, flexibility, good exterior gloss and color They have limited pot life and should not be applied once this exceeded. They may be encountered in almost all heavy applications except immersion service. abrasion retention. pot life is industrial

Aromatic - These coatings have many of the same characteristics of the aliphatic polyurethanes, with the addition of the ability to be used in some immersion service situations. They do not have the same degree of exterior gloss and color retention.

The isocyanate fumes given off by these coatings are extremely hazardous and an air supplied respirator must be worn. The liquid components of these coatings should not be opened until ready for mixing, as premature opening of the containers may lead to degradation of the coating material due to its moisture sensitivity. These coatings are typically used as tank linings, floor finishes or as a gloss over epoxy. They are sometimes used as a topcoat in a system using inorganic zinc as the primer and two-component epoxy as the intermediate coating.

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Convertible (Contd)
Polymerization-Cured Coatings (Contd) Heat-Induced Polymerization

This occurs when the coating is baked, generally at temperatures ranging from 95C to 245C (200F to 475F). Coatings in Saudi Aramco which cure by heat induced polymerization include: Epoxy Phenolic (One Component) Silicone

Epoxy Phenolic (One-Component)

This coating is very similar in composition to the two-component chemically cured type, with two exceptions: It usually contains a higher ratio of phenolic resin It requires a carefully controlled baking schedule to cure and form a protective film

The heat converting or one component epoxy phenolic coatings are very resistant to water, solvents and chemicals. Main areas of usage for this coating include: Interior coating of down-hole oil well tubing Drill pipe and process vessels Interior can, pail and drum coating

The baking schedule may range from set-up bakes (used to drive off solvents and start the cross-linking reaction) at about 95C (200F) to final bake (to complete cross-linking), ranging from about 165C (325F) to as much as about 200C (500F). Most of the coatings used for down-hole tubing require from 205 to 235C (400 to 450F) substrate temperatures for about one hour. Different formulations may require different times. High-bake phenolic coatings have poor flexibility, which limits the potential film thickness. Problems may arise on surfaces, which vibrate or even on thin substrate. Surface profile and cleanliness become very important, since it is

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important that the coating achieves maximum adhesion to counteract the possibility of failing due to expansion or contraction.

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CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES (CONTD)

Convertible (Contd)
Polymerization-Cured Coatings (Contd) %e" - In&'(e& P)*+me ,i-" i)n .C)n /&0

It is important to check the final coating for pinholes, since these coatings are typically used in critical exposures and/or immersion environments. Repair of unacceptable areas may be difficult and will always be a potential weakness in the coating. Defective pieces are often re-blasted and re-coated.
Silicone

Silicone-based coatings are frequently used in high temperature environments and are available in two types: modified and unmodified. Modified silicone coatings may be modified with other resins. The resins hold the silicone in place on the workpiece during erection or stand-by. When the workpiece is baked, the other resins burn off and the silicone portion becomes effective. This type of coating is frequently used when heat resistance in the range of 200C to 375C (400F to 700F) is required, and may be used in heat environments such as furnaces, piping, boilers, stills, etc. Unmodified silicone coatings are frequently used when heat resistance up to 535C (1000F) continuous exposure or 650C (1200F) intermittent may be encountered. Silicones should be applied directly to a cool, clean surface. Organic resin based primers should never be used as they are not formulated to withstand high temperatures. However, inorganic zinc is sometimes used as a primer in services up to 402C (750F). For successful application, it is important that a high standard of surface preparation is achieved. The coating then requires a bake schedule for successful cure. The cure temperature and the time of heating may be critical to the cure process. These coatings are very expensive, very soft and have low abrasion resistance.

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Zinc-Rich Coatings: An Overview Zinc-rich coatings are distinguished by 75% to 95% weight of zinc dust in the dried film. They cure to a tough hard film, which can serve as a single protective coat. They protect steel by acting as a sacrificial anode, corroding in place of the steel. Although porous immediately after application, insoluble zinc salts may from over a period of time, acting as a barrier to moisture and reducing further corrosion. If the film is damaged, it has self healing properties. When mixing zinc-rich coatings, mechanical agitation should be used. They should not be mixed by shaking as this can cause rapid heating resulting in gel formation in the product or in extreme cases, may result in the container bursting due to the build-up of internal pressure. To ensure complete dispersion of the zinc dust, the material should be strained through a 30/60 mesh screen or vacuum paint strainer. If more than about 1/4 pound of zinc dust per mixed gallon is removed by a 30/60 mesh screen, it is an indication of old materials. Check the shelf life of the material. Zinc-rich coatings can be used alone as a true one coat system or as a primer for many other types of coatings. Zinc-rich coatings are used to protect a broad range of products including power plants, chemical processing plants, paper mills, transmission towers, offshore platforms, ships, bridges and many other large steel structures. Zinc-rich coatings, if exposed to the environment for a period of time, may form a surface layer of insoluble zinc salts such as zinc oxide or carbonate. A surface coated with a zinc-rich coating which has been left to stand for a period of time, should be carefully checked for the presence of any soluble zinc salts, which may have formed. If necessary, the surface should be washed thoroughly with sweet water to ensure removal of these salts. This is the reason why specified re-coat intervals and surface preparation procedures should be carefully followed when these coatings are being used.

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Zinc-Rich Coatings: An Overview (Contd) The four main types of zinc-rich coatings are: Inorganic Post Cure, Water-Based - These are water-soluble and require heat or application of a separate wash coat or cure solution to complete the curing process Inorganic Self-Cure, Water-Based - These may be thinned by water and cure by chemical reaction which takes place during and after evaporation of the water component of the coating Inorganic Self-Cure, Solvent-Based - These are solvent reducible and are dependent on moisture in the air to complete the curing process. Thus, a relative humidity in the range of 50% to 90% is required when this type of coating is used, otherwise, the coating must be misted with water to complete the cure. The water reacts with the organic silicate which releases an alcohol in the coating film during the evaporation phase to complete the cure. If this type of coating is topcoated before it is fully cured, some rather spectacular failures due to delamination may occur. Because of the need to maintain a high zinc ratio, the inorganic bases have low shear strength. If applied too heavily (above five mils), they tend to mudcrack and crumble. Organic - These are solvent reducible and mostly use a catalyzed epoxy resin as a vehicle. Other resins may be used, such as vinyl, but are rare.

Inorganic Zinc Silicate Coatings

Inorganic Zinc Silicate coatings generally use a silicate binder, which may be lithium, potassium, ammonium or most commonly, ethyl silicate. The binder is unusual in that it is an inorganic material, from which it derives some of its unique characteristics. Zinc silicate coatings require a high standard of surface preparation, generally to Sa 2-1/2 or better. The material is initially porous, although the porosity is reduced through a process of corrosion within the pores developing a zinc corrosion product The white powdery zinc salts that form should be removed prior to the application of further coatings. The porosity previously mentioned is responsible for many of the pinhole and blister effects, which emerge when zinc silicate is overcoated. The problem can be overcome by use of a properly designed tie coat, a low volume solids product that can penetrate and fill the porosity prior to application of further coatings.

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Zinc-Rich Coatings: An Overview (Contd)
Zinc-Rich Converted Epoxy

Zinc-rich epoxy is a two or three package, converted two-component epoxy coating containing a high weight of metallic zinc powder (75% to 95%) in the cured film. Lining$ A material applied to an interior surface subject to direct contact and immersion in liquids, chemicals or other products, is known as a lining. Linings are used to protect the: Interior of equipment from corrosion Contents of a vessel from being contaminated by the substrate Interior of equipment from abrasion and corrosion which may accompany abrasion

Because of the generally more severe service conditions, following the specification for linings becomes highly critical. Lining operations may call for the application of heat. The type, amount and technique of heating may vary depending on the curing mechanism of the specific lining. Linings, which cure by evaporation, are heated: To ensure maximum film density To increase chemical and permeation resistance To aid in removal of solvent or carrier from the vessel so that the curing process can proceed To prevent solvent wash (re-dissolving of the lining material) To decrease or eliminate residual odor To decrease time required for cure To decrease time between coats

Linings, which cure by chemically induced or heat-induced polymerization are heated: To remove volatile solvent and products of polymerization from the lining and the vessel

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Lining$ .()n 0 To accomplish polymerization or cure to obtain chemical and permeation resistance To decrease the time required for cure by the accelerating process

In each case, one reason for heating is to remove volatile solvent or water, not only from the lining, but also from the vessel. Unless removed from the vessel during the heating process, a portion of the solvent or water may be re-absorbed into the lining material and the heating process all but wasted. Therefore, proper ventilation is essential. Many types of heating units are available. The inspector should ensure that the type used is the type called for in the specification and that it is carefully used in such a way that the lining is not damaged either by contamination or excessive heat. Some cautions to observe include: Avoid hot or cold spots Avoid introduction of products of combustion or water vapor into the vessel (frequently this is done by using heat exchangers and dehumidifiers) Temperature should be brought up gradually to avoid thermal shocking the lining Avoid all combustible products and open flames

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POWDER COATINGS
Powders have been developed very successfully for heavy duty industrial applications such as pipeline coatings. Powders contain the following components: Pigment Curing agents (partially reacted solid resins) Wetting agents Flow control agents Fillers and extenders Foam breakers and other additives

All are dry particles resembling a sack of flour however, they are colored green, gray, red, yellow dependent on manufacturer and process. Powders fall into two main categories: Thermoplastic - softens when heated and returns to its original hardness when cooled Thermosetting - hardens when heated and retains its hardness when cooled

The key to the curing mechanism is the word thermo - heat. Once the powder is applied to a heated surface either in a pre-heat or post-heat situation, the powder changes its state and becomes a liquid coating. Once cooled it forms a homogenous film over the steel surface. Powders applied to a heat source pass through four distinct stages: Flow stage - the particle of powder begins to flow but is not fully liquid Wetting stage - the particle of powder absorbs more heat and fully liquefies and wets the surface Gel stage - the powder begins to gel converting into a solid Curing stage - further changes take place allowing the powder to fully cure

This whole process may only take up to three minutes, or less, which makes it an excellent production line process.

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POWDER COATINGS (CONTD)

Generic Types of Powder Thermoplastic Polypropylene Polyethylene FBE Thermosetting Epoxy Urethane Acrylic

Powders contain partially reacted curing agents and require a heat source to convert them from a powder state to a liquid state. It is important that powders are stored away from any heat source until they are ready to be applied. In hot weather, they may need to be stored in refrigerated containers. The range of temperatures at which powders are usually applied is 250 to 277C (480 to 530F). Thermoplastic powders normally require lower application temperatures and the manufacturers data should be consulted for the maximum temperature range. Powders are commonly applied by the following methods: Flock spray Electrostatic spray Fluidized bed - dip method Rotolining Flamespray Cloud chamber

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PIPELINE COATINGS
These coatings will be discussed more fully in the PEW-409.XX series (Pipeline Coatings). A general overview is as follows: The major types of pipeline coatings used for both factory or field application are: Fusion Bonded Epoxy Bitumen Enamels (Coal Tar/Asphaltic) Asphalt Mastic Extruded Polyethylene Liquid coatings include epoxies, coal tar enamels, coal tar polyurethanes and elastomeric polyurethanes

Some are thermoplastic, some thermoset and some cured by chemical reaction Coal tar enamels are thermoplastic. They are melted by the use of heat and when cooled they solidify. They can be remelted by the application of heat. Fusion bonded epoxies and phenolics are put into a liquid or semi-liquid state by heating and then cooling. They do not remelt, however. Coal tar epoxies are chemically cured coatings. Heat-shrink sleeves, hot dope and most of the coatings mentioned above can also be used in the field. Field applications are normally limited to joint treatments. Liquid coatings used for pipeline coating may be solvent based coatings or chemically cured coatings, such as coal tar cutbacks, vinyls, inorganic zinc coal tar epoxies, high solids epoxies, vinyl esters, 100% solids epoxy coal tars, coal tar polyurethanes and 100% solids elastomeric polyurethanes. Each must be applied over a properly cleaned, dry surface, according to the specifications. Application equipment can consist of a simple conventional air spray rig with coal tar cutbacks and vinyls, hi-ratio (30:1 or 45:1) airless spray units with coal tar epoxies, etc. or finally with more sophisticated plural component spray units in the case of coal tar polyurethane and 100% solids elastomeric polyurethanes.

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PIPELINE COATINGS (CONTD)

Coal Tar Enamel/Asphalt Enamel Coal tar pitch is the stable residue resulting from the destructive distillation of coal at 1093C (2000F). The coating, coal tar enamel is manufactured by cooking the coal tar pitch with selected pulverized coal and coal tar oils, then adding inert fillers, such as talc or powdered slate, which provide bulk, mechanical strength and heat resistance. These coatings have excellent resistance to moisture absorption and penetration, but they have relatively poor resistance to aromatic solvents and sunlight. Asphalt enamel coatings are derived from the residues of the fractionation of petroleum and are high in aromatic compounds. This type of coating has good weather resistance, but poor resistance to moisture penetration and absorption. Application methods are the same for both products. Coal tar enamel is melted and applied to pipe in a molten state, from 232 to 254C (450 to 490F) over a thin (20 mil) wrap of glass fiber or glass matte. Coal tar enamels are thermoplastic and are effected by the heat and by cold temperatures. At elevated temperatures, the material will soften, flow and finally melt away, while at cold temperatures, it will crack and may disbond from the pipe. Coal tar enamels at application temperatures of 232C (450F) will emit some volatile oils and white smoke, which should be drawn off through exhaust hoods. Extreme care should be used when working around the molten material. Upon further heating, the enamel will give off dense white to yellowish fumes which indicates the breakdown of sulfur compounds. Excess fuming is an indication of overheating, which may change the coal tar and render it useless. Asphalt Mastics This is a combination protective coating and weight coating, usually for offshore operations. A typical coating consists of a mixture of about 14% hot asphalt enamel, along with selected inert fillers and aggregates. The material is extruded hot over a surface primed with a solvent based asphalt primer. Minimum coating thickness is 3/8". Because of its latent heat, the coated pipe is overcoated with whitewash, then suspended on its bare ends and stored outdoors in a spider like fashion until the coating cools and sets. In nearly all cases the asphalt-mastic coated pipe is overcoated with concrete, either gunited on or extruded to the thickness necessary to provide negative buoyancy to keep the pipe from floating and causing problems.

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COATING SYSTEMS
Single-Coat Systems In a single coat system, only one application of the coating is applied. Single coat systems most commonly occur: When a short life is all that is required, such as when structural steel is coated at the mill to protect it until it can be properly blast cleaned and coated at the construction site. When it is applied for purely decorative reasons, such as in painting the interior of a house. When the coating has been specifically formulated for one-coat application, such as coal-tar epoxy or certain types of zinc-rich coatings. Solvent entrapment Difficulty in maintaining the specified coating thickness Large number of holidays

Some problems frequently encountered with one-coat systems include:

Multiple-Coat Systems Multiple coat systems may consist of: More than one coat of the same coating material, generally in contrasting colors. This type of system is frequently found when a coating can act as both the primer and as a topcoat. One or more applications of different types of coatings. An example of this type of system is a zinc-rich primer with epoxy topcoats.

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COATING SYSTEMS (CONTD)

Multiple-Coat Systems (Contd)
Primers

Primers are a particular class of coating used within a multi-coat system. They are often known by the name of their pigmentation, since the pigment plays a significant, active role in the coating. A primer is the first coating applied to the workpiece. The functions of the primer include: To adhere to the substrate To provide a base or key for subsequent applications of coatings To protect the substrate against corrosion by acting as a corrosion inhibitor, by providing a barrier coating or by being sacrificial Can contain all of the above characteristics or a combination Galvanic or sacrificial Inhibitive Barrier (non-inhibitive)

There are three types of primers:

Galvanic Primers

Galvanic primers have a high concentration of zinc dust and protect the steel substrate like galvanizing. Zinc in electrical contact with steel will protect the steel by sacrificing the zinc as an anode. Galvanic primers provide electrochemical protection to the steel even if the steel is exposed at small discontinuities such as breaks, scratches, etc. This protection will be localized and cannot extend for more than a fraction of an inch from the source of zinc in the coating.
Inhibitive Primers

In order to create a rust inhibitive primer, an inhibitive pigment must be added. Frequently used inhibitive pigments are: Red lead Zinc phosphate Barium metaborate Strontium Chromate

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Zinc Chromate

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COATING SYSTEMS (CONTD)

Multiple-Coat Systems (Contd)
Primers (Contd) Barrier (Non-Inhibitive) Primers

These primers form a protective barrier. Barrier-type primers range from highly cross-linked phenolic and/or epoxy types to lacquer types. The only difference between these primers and their topcoats, with the exception of flexibility, is the modification of the formulation to improve surface wetting characteristics and therefore, adhesion properties.
Intermediate Coats

The mid-coats in a multi-coat system are typically added to the system in order to improve the barrier characteristics of the system. All coatings are permeable to some extent, and will allow some passage of water vapor and oxygen through the cured coating film. Naturally, some resins have better properties in this respect than others. Most coating systems will become more permeable as the amount of pigmentation is increased.
Finish Coats

Finish coats are often chosen for their appearance. Good color retention, low levels of chalking and good gloss are generally desired. A smooth finish prevents the collection of surface contamination and allows deposits to be washed away. This benefits both appearance and corrosion resistance. In some exposures, increased chemical or solvent resistance may be beneficial and can be achieved by selection of the correct finish coat. Good resistance to the ultraviolet (UV) component of sunlight is important.

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COATINGS AND THE INSPECTOR

The following are the items for which the inspector must be particularly alert to during the coating operation: During the coating issue and material storage During the surface preparation During the mixing and thinning operations During the coating application

If the specified degree of surface preparation is not attained, it may result in adhesion failure at the substrate and will ultimately allow corrosion attack. Residues of oil, grease, fingerprints, chemical salts and dust which may have been deposited on the surface after surface preparation may cause defects and/or premature failure through loss of adhesion, pinholes or fisheyes. Inspectors Responsibilities During Issue and Material Storage The inspector must verify that the coating material is approved by Saudi Aramco and has been properly stored and issued. The inspector must ensure the following points are inspected: Storage conditions The proper storage of material is covered in SAES-H-101V, Saudi Aramco Data Sheets, Addendum page 38. Any opened, leaking or damaged containers must be discarded. This is particularly true of coatings that use chemical curing. The loss of the catalyst will affect the curing of the coating. Batch number and date sequence These dates and numbers must be clearly marked on each container. If not, the container must be set aside and discarded. Material must be issued in order according to these numbers. Shelf life expiration date The inspector must check the shelf life of the material in the Saudi Aramco Data Sheets, Section 1 and compare it to the date of manufacture on the container. If the shelf life has expired, the material must be disposed of properly.

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COATINGS AND THE INSPECTOR (CONTD)

Inspectors Responsibilities During Surface Preparation Surface preparation requirements are given in the Saudi Aramco Data Sheets. There are a number of surface preparation methods available to meet these standards. Adequate surface preparation for minor contamination might only require cleaning the surface with solvent or detergent. However, preparation to remove scale or corrosion might require abrasive blasting of the surface to white metal. Abrasive blasting cleans the surface and prepares the substrate to receive the coating. All defects found must be corrected and cleaned prior to surface preparation. When the inspector is concerned with critical coatings, he must ensure that surface preparation requirements are in accordance with Saudi Aramco Data Sheets Addendum page 38. Inspectors Responsibilities During Mixing and Thinning Operations The inspector must ensure that the material used in mixing is the proper component such as solvents, thinners, primers and finish coats. If the coating is multi-component, the inspector must ensure that all the components and the complete package are used. Never allow parts of a package of multi-component coatings to be mixed. Never allow the amount of one component to be changed without the manufacturers and the engineers permission. The inspector must ensure that the primer is the one specified. Component information is contained in the Saudi Aramco Data Sheet and compatibility information is found in SAESH-001, Paragraph 7.2, Overcoating Chart, Addendum page 58. The mixing ratio is found in Section 2 of the Saudi Aramco Data Sheet. The inspector must ensure that the contractor strictly adheres to the mixing ratio. Failure to comply with the standards will result in a failed coating. Example In the data sheet for the Saudi Industrial Paint Companys APCS-1A Epoxy Topcoat, Section 2.2, lists a mixing ratio of 4 to 1, base to hardener, by volume. This means that the contractor must mix 4 units of base with 1 unit of hardener. If the job requires 5 gallons of coating, 4 gallons of base material must be mixed with 1 gallon of hardener.

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Inspectors Responsibilities During Mixing and Thinning Operations (Contd)
Thinning

The inspector must ensure that the thinning of the coating material is accomplished with only those thinners approved by Saudi Aramco in the Saudi Aramco Data Sheet for that particular coating. The thinners are listed by SAMS stock number in Section 2.3. of the data sheets. The inspector must ensure that the contractor uses only the allowed amount of thinner. The amount of thinner will affect the volume of solids of the mixed coating. This will affect the amount of surface the coating will coverage. The inspector must always record the amount of thinner used. Too much thinner may result in reduced dry film thickness, together with runs and sags. Too little thinner may cause dry spray, also known as cobwebbing. A non-uniform film with pinholes and/or poor appearance may result. Any thinner other than that cited in the specification or manufacturer's data sheet is the wrong thinner. Even if the coating can be successfully applied, a variety of defects, including failure to cure, may result from the use of the wrong thinner.
Mixing

The inspector must verify that all coating material is mixed according to Saudi Aramco Safety Procedures and Standards. Mixing is one of the most important steps in the inspection process. The coatings resistance to the environment will be affected by improper mixing and thinning. This is extremely important in the primer coat because it is the surface for the next coats. The effects of not mixing the material properly, may vary between different types of coatings, but will generally result in lessened protective qualities and waste of expensive pigment materials. Failure to mix components sufficiently or in the correct proportions may result in poor film forming characteristics, inadequate or non-uniform cure or partial separation of components after application.

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COATINGS AND THE INSPECTOR (CONTD)

Inspectors Responsibilities During Mixing and Thinning Operations (Contd) Mixing should be continued until all components required are completely mixed. The substance should be smooth and free of surface swirls that contain a color other than the intended color. There should be no pigment lumps. Many paints settle out, or separate, in the bottom. Heavy pigmented paints should be mixed in two different containers. The paint should be poured back and forth from container to container until fully mixed. This is called boxing. Multi-component coatings must be mixed together thoroughly in the exact amounts specified in the data sheets. The base and the curing agents are mixed just before use. The curing agent is added to the base in small amounts and constantly stirred. Power mixers may be used, but must be used on all containers greater than 5 liters. When zinc dust is added to the binders of zinc-rich primers, the inspector should ensure that the contractor sifts the zinc dust through a screen into the liquid portion while mixing it. This eliminates the lumps and ensures that the spray guns do not clog. A device called an agitator is used in the container or pot to keep the coating mixed. The inspector must ensure that the agitator is working to keep the pigment in suspension. Some general rules for all coatings are located in SAES-H-100, Paragraphs 6, 7 and 8, Addendum page 73. The inspector must ensure that the contractor adheres to these standards. Induction time, also called the ingestion time or sweat in time, is the waiting time, after mixing, before a coating can be used. The Saudi Aramco Data Sheets specify the induction time for a coating, based on the ambient temperature. The inspector must ensure that the induction time is closely monitored. Pot life is the length of time the coating remains usable. The pot life starts when the contractor completes mixing the material, or after the induction time, if required. The material must be applied immediately after mixing and induction time. The solid content of a coating material is the non-volatile part of the coating. After the volatile components evaporate, the solid content will form the coating The solid content is usually listed as the percentage of solids by volume in the Saudi Aramco Data Sheet, Section 4, Technical Properties. The inspector must know the percentage of solids in order to calculate the coverage of a given amount of coating material, and the wet film thickness.

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COATINGS AND THE INSPECTOR (CONTD)

Inspector's Responsibilities During Coating Application During the coating application, make sure that the correct coating thickness is achieved. If the coating is too thick, it may create a slow or improper cure time resulting in runs, sags, solvent entrapment, mud-cracking or other defects. If the coating is too thin, the result may be pinpoint rusting. Make sure the specified time to apply the coating after cleaning is observed. The surface may have deteriorated and begun to rust. This may cause failure of the coating to adhere properly to the substrate. Observe specified re-coat intervals. Application too soon after the previous coat may result in solvent entrapment or improper cure leading to a variety of defects including wrinkling, blistering and delamination. If too much time has passed, the surface may have become contaminated by airborne particles, resulting in intercoat adhesion failures. Make sure that the specified surface temperature is not exceeded. If the substrate is too cold, cure may be slowed resulting in poor long term protective qualities of the coating. Additionally, poor flow may result in poor adhesion and an irregular surface. If the substrate is too hot, the coating will blister and/or pop because of too rapid solvent release.
Inspection of Chemically Induced Polymerization Coatings

When a job involves the application of coatings that cure by chemically induced polymerization, the inspector should look for: Converter added to base - Failure to add the converter to the base before use, may cause the coating to appear to dry but will not cure. It may run or sag and will probably not withstand intended service. Correct proportion of converter added to base - If the incorrect proportion of the base is added to the converter, the polymer formed will not be the correct one. Pot life may be affected. In addition, the applied film may have poor chemical and corrosion resistance. The coating may set up in the spray pot or lines. Correct induction time - For many coatings of this type, the manufacturer will recommend that before application the coating be allowed to sit for a period of time after mixing the converter and the base. This allows the base and the converter to complete the polymerization reaction for an uniform consistency throughout the coating material. Incorrect sweat-in time may lead to inadequate cure or to separation of the components during the application or curing process. In extreme cases, craters or fisheyes may occur.

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Inspector's Responsibilities During Coating Application (Contd) Pot life not exceeded - Once the base and the converter are mixed, the polymerization reaction begins, immediately and continues until it is complete. There is usually a limited period of time during which the twocomponent coating must be applied. As the mixed coating ages and approaches its pot life, its viscosity increases. The coating may still be liquid, even though its pot life has expired. The coating inspector must ensure that coatings that have exceeded their pot life are not applied. Applicators may be tempted to try to apply a coating that has exceeded its pot life, sometimes using thinner to reduce viscosity for spraying. If this done, the coating will have poor spray ability, low film build, sags, and may not cure properly. The finished film may have poor integrity, air entrapment, pinholes, sags, inferior film thickness and give poor performance in-service.

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Inspector's Responsibilities During Coating Application (Contd)
Inspection of Heat Induced Polymerization Coatings

A critical inspection item unique to coatings which cure by heat induced polymerization is ensuring that the specified bake schedule is adhered to. Many coatings of this type require precise temperature and duration of baking, which if not followed, can adversely affect the cure and performance of the coating. In some cases, when more than one application is made, the workpiece is baked between each application at a temperature lower than which will affect a full cure of the coating material. The intermediate bake may be performed for a variety of reasons including: to drive off solvent to attain a partial cure

Particular attention must be paid to the intermediate bake schedule, since, if incorrect, bubbling or pinholing may occur during the final bake or subsequent intercoat lack of adhesion may occur. Final baking to a higher temperature than an intermediate bake, will complete the polymerization process and produce a homogenous coating.

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INSPECTION OF PRIMER COAT MATERIAL

Viscosity The viscosity measurement ensures that the proper amount of thinner was used and that thinning has not changed significantly from pot to pot. The inspector must obtain information about the viscosity and how to measure it from the supplier/contractor. The inspector may see a viscosity reading on the Saudi Aramco Data Sheets followed by the letters KU. This is not a field measurement and is not important to the inspector in the field. The inspector in the field will use the Zahn Cup when doing viscosity testing in the field. The Zahn cup, shown in Figure 2, is a small cup with a known volume (44 cc). The center of the rounded bottom has a hole numbered 1 to 5, orifice number is stamped on the side of each cup (Addendum page 93). Each manufacturer specifies the orifice to use with their coating and the time, in seconds, that it takes for the mixed coating to run through the orifice. If the cup drains too quickly, the coating is too thin. If the cup drains too slowly, the coating is too thick. In either case, the mixed coating must be dumped and a new batch mixed if the problem cannot be corrected by adding more of a component, such as pigment or solvent. However, adding more of a particular component is not allowed in multi-component packages. ASTM D-1200, Addendum page 99, explains viscosity measurement using the Ford cup.

Figure 2. Zahn cup

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Theoretical Coverage Coverage is the term used to describe the amount of surface that can be coated by a specified amount of coating product. The inspector must know how to calculate two types of coverage: theoretical and practical. He performs these calculations to ensure there is enough coating on hand to complete the job. Theoretical coverage is the number of square feet that can be covered by one US gallon of coating product, assuming no loss during application. This formula cannot be applied to coating material packaged by weight. Section 4 of the Saudi Aramco Data Sheet specifies coatings both as solids by volume and solids by weight. Section 3.4 specifies the theoretical coverage for a thickness of 25 micrometers. However, the required wet film thickness (WFT) and dry film thickness (DFT) are much greater than this. Therefore, the inspector must calculate the theoretical coverage in the field. This is the formula used to calculate theoretical coverage: TC = 100xDFT where: TC 1604 = = theoretical coverage of 1 gal US of specified coating material coverage of 1 US gallon, 100% solids, at 1 mil thickness actual percentage of solids by volume Dry Film Thickness
1604x% V .S .

% V.S. = DFT =

Both % V.S. and DFT are read from the data sheets. Example The data sheet specifies that a coating is to be applied at 2 mil DFT. It also specifies that the coating material is 70 percent solids by volume. Inserting these values into the equation gives this result: TC TC = =
1604x70 100x2

561 square feet per US gallon

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Practical Coverage Practical coverage takes into account losses of coating in the application process. Coating loss may be as much as 50 to 60 percent, due to wind drift, overspray or coating material remaining in the application system. The efficiency of a coating material is calculated with this simple formula: Efficiency = 100% - percentage of loss If the percentage of loss is 35 percent, then the efficiency is 65 percent: Efficiency = 100% - 35% Efficiency = 65% The formula used to calculate practical coverage is very similar to the formula for theoretical coverage: PC =

TC(E) 100

where: PC TC E = = = practical coverage theoretical coverage efficiency of the coating

The following example uses the data from the theoretical coverage example and assumes a loss of 25 percent: Example: Efficiency = 100% - 25% Efficiency = 75% PC =

561(75) 100

PC = 420.75 square feet per US gallon

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CALCULATING WET FILM THICKNESS

The dry film thickness is the thickness of record or the official acceptance thickness for all coatings. Saudi Aramco standards specify the required DFT. The inspector can estimate whether a coating will meet the specifications using the ratio between WFT and DFT, based on the percentage of solids by volume. The Saudi Aramco Data Sheets may specify WFT, DFT or both. In cases where the WFT is not specified, the inspector must calculate WFT. Unthinned Coatings This is the formula used to calculate WFT for unthinned coatings: WFT = %Solids byVolume where: WFT = Wet Film Thickness DFT = Dry Film Thickness If the required DFT is 4 mils and the coating material is 44 percent solids by volume, the formula gives this result: WFT =
Re quired DFT

4 .4 4

WFT = 9
Note: Round off the answer to the nearest mil.

For this coating, a wet film thickness of 9 mils should result in a dry film thickness of 4 mils. However, the inspector must measure the dry film thickness to ensure that the coating meets the specification.

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Thinned Coatings This formula will not work if the coating material has been thinned. Thinned coating has a lower percentage of solids by volume. Adding thinner to the coating increases the overall volume, but not the amount of solids. A heavier wet film application of thinned material must be applied to produce the same dry film thickness as obtained with unthinned material. This formula must be used to calculate WFT for thinned coatings: WFT =
Re quired DFT(1 + %thinner) %Solids by Volume

By using the coating from the previous example and adding 10 percent thinner, the formula gives this result: WFT = WFT =

4(1+ 0.1) .44

4 .4 .4 4

WFT = 10 By adding 10 percent thinner to the coating material, the wet film thickness now must be 10 mils to achieve a dry film thickness of 4 mils.

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MEASURING WET FILM THICKNESS

Whether the required WFT is specified in the data sheets or calculated, the inspector must measure the thickness to see if it meets the specification. He uses a wet film thickness gauge to take this measurement. The wet film thickness must be obtained immediately after the application of the coating. The main concern is to take enough measurements to give reliable results. The wet film thickness must meet the requirement throughout the areas checked. The inspector will inform the coating supervisor of any discrepancy. There is no accept/reject criteria for wet film thickness unless stated in the job specification. The accept/reject criteria is for dry film thickness only. Problems in Measuring Wet Film Thickness
Heavily Pigmented Coatings and Primers

The wet film thickness gauge may give a false reading in these types of coatings because the gauge does not penetrate to the substrate surface. The heavy pigment is not displaced when the gauge is inserted into or rolled across the coating. Another problem with these types of coatings is that the material is disturbed at the point the gauges are inserted or rolled. Each of these spots must be repaired, because the pigment compacts under the blade or roller of the gauge and the surrounding material does not move to fill in the depression.
Fast Solvent Evaporation

Those coatings that have fast thinners and solvents that dry quickly. This fast-dry condition is called flash off and it significantly changes the wet film/dry film ratio. The wet film measurement must be taken immediately after application or the measurement of the coatings will be low. Low measurements of the thickness can lead to the unnecessary application of additional coating. This would cause the dry thickness to exceed the specified maximum thickness. In addition, solvent could be trapped in the film, resulting in defects that can be corrected only by removing the old coating and starting the application process over.

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Wet Film Thickness Gauges
Notched Wet Film Thickness Gauge

Measurement of wet film thickness by notch gages is covered under ASTM D 4414,Addendum page 102. This practice describes the use of thin rigid metal notched gages, also called step or comb gages, in the measurement of wet film thickness of organic coatings. Notched gage measurements are neither accurate nor sensitive, but they are useful in determining approximate wet film thickness of coatings. Measurement of wet film thickness at the time of application is most appropriate as it permits correction and adjustment of the film by the applicator at the time of application. Notch gages are not as accurate as interchemical wet film gages, but tend to be more effective than interchemical wet film gages on rough surfaces. An operator experienced in the use of a notched gage can monitor the coating application well enough to ensure the minimum required film thickness will be obtained. Application losses, such as overspray, loss on transfer and coating residue in application equipment, are a significant unmeasureable part of the coating used on a job and are not accounted for by measurement of wet film thickness. The notched wet film thickness gauge used has a square metal head. Each side of the square head has a series of leaves or steps that are notched progressively deeper. Each leaf or step is marked with a number, which represents a specified distance in mils or microns. The head is attached to a handle so that it can be rotated. The inspector chooses one side of the gauge, presses the it firmly into the wet film and then withdraws it. The two ends are the lowest point of the step and will always be wet from the coating material. If none of the intermediate steps are wet, the inspector chooses a lower side of the gauge and repeats the process until some of the intermediate steps are wet. If all the intermediate steps are wet, the inspector chooses a higher side. The wet film thickness is represented as being between the last wetted step and the next adjacent step which is dry. Figure 3 shows the notched wet film thickness gauge. Figure 4 shows how to read the gauge. In this example, the third step from the end is wet and the fourth step is dry; the wet film thickness is 2.5 mils.

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Wet Film Thickness Gauges (Contd)
Notched Wet Film Thickness Gauge (Contd)

Figure 3. Notched wet film thickness gauge

Figure 4. How to read the notched wet film thickness gauge

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Wet Film Thickness Gauges (Contd)
Notched Wet Film Thickness Gauge (Contd)

Figure 5 shows an inexpensive notched gauge called a comb. It fits in the pocket and is made of stainless steel or of wood. There are also one-time use wooden stick gauges. All notched gauges work the same way. They are inserted into the coating and withdrawn. The thickness is taken from the scale. With the exception of throwaway wooden sticks, the gauges must be thoroughly cleaned after each use to prevent coating from building up on the bottom of the steps. Coating build-up can result in a false reading.
Note: Do not take a measurement at a point with surface irregularities such as welds, seams, joints and corners. Irregularities will distort the readings. When taking measurements on a curved surface, be sure to take the measurement along the length of the curve and not across the width of the curve. Measurements across the width may result in a false reading.

Note:

Figure 5. Comb gage

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Wet Film Thickness Gauges (Contd)
Interchemical Wet Film Thickness Gauge

The use of the Interchemical Wet Film Thickness Gauge is covered by ASTM D 1212 (Test Method A), Addendum page 105. This gauge is also called a wheeled gauge (as shown in Figure 6) because it uses a wheel to obtain the readings. It has a narrow wheel with two outer rings of the same size and an offset inner ring. To take a measurement, the inspector rolls the wheel across the surface and withdraws it. The wet film thickness is read from the inner ring. It is represented by the number at a point where the coating no longer wets the inner ring. For the measurement shown in Figure 6, the wet film thickness is between 3 and 4 (approximately 3.25 mils). There are other types of Interchemical wet film thickness. For example, the Elcometer Wet Film Wheel. It is held between the thumb and index finger as it is rolled across the wet surface. This gauge has separate scales and a holder for the wheel. There is a set of 8 different scales, ranging from 0 to 1500 microns.

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Wet Film Thickness Gauges (Contd)
Interchemical Wet Film Thickness Gauge (Contd)

Figure 6. Interchemical wet film thickness gauge

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INSPECTING APPLICATION EQUIPMENT

Numerous types of equipment are used to apply coatings. This module covers the equipment that delivers the coating to the surface. See Protective Coating Application, Addendum page 109, for additional information. Methods There are five methods of paint application: Brush Paint Pads Rollers Mitts Spray

The sections that follow discuss each method.

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Methods (Contd)
Brush

The brush is a necessity in hard to reach areas and on irregular surfaces. These areas should be coated by brush before any of the main coating application starts. This is called stripe coating. Most coatings in Saudi Aramco will specify spray application with brush or roller touch-up. Brush application is used more in maintenance painting and requires less preparation before and more clean-up after. Although the brush is the least productive method of coating, some manufacturers recommend brush application for primer coats because it gives better wetting capability. The conventional wall brushes shown in Figure 7A are used on steel. Small areas require the use of sash brushes, shown in Figure 7B. The inspector should check as to how the brush is being used. The inspector must ensure that the brush is not poked or dabbed into the corners and angles. The brush should be placed upon the surface and turned or rotated to ensure paint is applied all the way into the corner.

Figure 7. Types of wall and sash brushes

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Methods (Contd)
Paint Pad

Pads are more efficient than brushes but lack versatility. They are mostly for small flat areas that cannot be covered by spray. Their application on structural steel is limited. They are used mostly on industrial interior applications, hard to reach surfaces and pipes.
Rollers

There are many types of rollers and many ways to use them. Rollers are excellent for large flat areas and do not require the skill of spray application. When used with extension handles, they can cover large hard to reach areas, such as a tank exterior. Special rollers can be used to coat round pipe in one stroke. A pipe roller is made up of 2 to 5 narrow rollers on a spring spindle. The size of the pipe determines the number of section rollers required. Figure 8 shows a pipe roller in use.

Figure 8. Pipe roller in use

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Methods (Contd)
Mitts

Paint mitts are ideal for pipe and irregular surfaces where spraying is not acceptable. The paint mitt is a lamb skin glove that is dipped into the coating. The coating is then swabbed onto the surface. Figure 10 shows some typical paint mitts.

Figure 10. Paint mitts

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Methods (Contd)
Spray

Spraying is the preferred method for most coating applications. This method is specified for most of the coatings supplied to Saudi Aramco. Figure 11 shows that the most productive types of application are the two spraying techniques. They also give better coverage. The coverage per coat of the other methods is about 1/3 to 1/2 the coverage of the spray applications. Two or three brush coats may be required to get the same thickness.

Figure 11. Table of typical average area coated per day

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Methods of Spray Application For rapid application of coatings to large areas and highly uniform application of coatings in all situations, the easiest and generally best method is spray application. There are two general types of spray equipment: Conventional or air spray - in which the spray gun uses compressed air to atomize the coatings and apply them to a surface. Both the air and the coatings enter the gun through separate channels and are mixed and ejected at the aircap in a controlled spray pattern Airless spray - in which the coating is forced at high pressure through a small precisely shaped orifice at the tip of the spray gun, and is atomized as it is applied to the surface

Air Spray

Air spray is the original method of spray application. The air to drive the coating to the spray tip is provided by an air compressor. The compressor supplies compressed air to an air tank or to the spray gun. The coating is forced through the fluid line at relatively low pressure. Compressed air is directed at the fluid stream. This air stream flows through the spray gun and the spray nozzle orifice to atomize the coating. It reduces the fluid stream to a fine mist, which is directed at the surface to be coated. Because the coating is atomized into a mist in conventional airspray, there will be much overspray. All adjacent areas must be covered. Overspray can cause a loss of 20 to 50 percent depending upon wind conditions. Because of the mist, protective equipment must be worn by personnel during the application as listed in SAES-H-102. The following pages describe the components of the air spray system.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Air Spray (Contd) Compressor for Air System

The compressor should be large enough to provide air for all the activities involved. A single compressor may be required to provide air to air dryers and/or air blowers as well as several spray guns. It should also be big enough to supply air to any personnel protective breathing apparatus such as air-fed masks for operation inside of tanks and vessels. For each spray gun, a minimum capacity of 25 cfm at 100 psi is required. When air masks are required, the compressor must have an additional 5 cfm capacity per mask. The standard rule is that 1 horsepower (hp) of compression is required for each 4.83 cfm at 100 psi. To calculate the horsepower requirements of the compressor, add all the cfm requirements and divide the sum by 4.83 cfm. This calculation is extremely important for the inspector to check because lives may depend on a good supply of air. Example: The contractor is using 3 applicators with spray guns and the job is inside a tank. 3 x 25 cfm (requirement per gun) = 3 x 5 cfm (required for air masks) 75 cfm + 15 cfm Solution: 90 / 4.83 = 18.63 horsepower
Note: Round the answer up the nearest whole number.

75 cfm 15 cfm

90 cfm total

The requirement is a 19 horsepower unit. However, to provide a margin of safety, the inspector should require the contractor to provide a unit one size larger than calculated. If a 19 hp unit is required, the next larger one should be used.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Air Spray (Contd) Paint Container (Pots)

The container that holds the paint to be fed to the gun is called a pot. Pots come in different sizes. These pots are pressurized with air to provide a constant flow of coating to the spray gun. Great care must be exercised when using pressurized equipment. The inspector must ensure that all pressure spray pots have a working safety valve, pressure gauge and pressure regulator. An additional pressure regulator must be provided to regulate pressure, at the gun, for atomization. They must have an air inlet valve to get pressure into the pot and a fluid outlet valve to get coating to the gun. The inspector must ensure that all pressurized equipment is approved by applicable industry standards and has a tag to indicate this approval. The inspector must test the safety relief valve periodically to ensure it is working. The pressure relief safety valve should always be tested each day before the coating application begins. It should be tested throughout the day to ensure it has not been plugged with dry coating material. This is extremely important when using heavy coatings. Safety shut-off valves are required on pressurized application equipment the same as on abrasive blasting equipment. These shut-off valves must be pneumatic and must use the same air line for activation as that used for the spray gun. Most pots have agitators to keep the coating pigments mixed and in suspension within the vehicle. Some coatings, such as inorganic zinc, are very heavy and cannot be drawn upward. In this case, pots must be located above the work. The material must be adequately agitated to keep the components mixed. Figure 12 shows a block diagram for a typical pressure feed pot set-up. Figure 13 shows a block diagram for pressure feed pot set-up with heavy coatings.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Air Spray (Contd) Paint Container (Pots) (Contd)

Figure 12.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Air Spray (Contd) Paint Container (Pots) (Contd)

Figure 13.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Air Spray (Contd) One-Element Spray Gun

There are several different types of spray guns. The typical one-element spray gun is shown in Figure 14. The air nozzle for atomizing the fluid is shown at A. The fluid coating is supplied through the fluid nozzle B. The amount of the fluid released is controlled by the fluid control knob E and needle C. The air nozzle releases the air provided by the compressor. When the trigger D is pulled, both air and fluid is released and the atomized coating is sprayed on the surface. The pattern control G is used to control the width and height of the pattern. It can be spread out in a wide oval or a narrow oval using this control. The gun body or handle, is shown at H. The fluid packing nut is shown at I and the air control valve at F.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Air Spray (Contd) One-Element Spray Gun (Contd)

Figure 14. One-element spray gun

Airspray Advantages

Spray pattern is easily adjusted to almost any desired fan width Produces high quality finishes

Airspray Disadvantages

High loss of coating due to overspray Billowing and air turbulence due to compressed air requirement Reduction of coatings with solvent often necessary for proper atomization, resulting in lowered DFT per application 79

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Air Spray (Contd) Air Control Valve

The air control valve is located in the gun's handle, directly behind the trigger. When the trigger is pulled, the air control valve opens, allowing air to pass through the gun. A positive return spring in the drum of the air control valve keeps the valve closed until the trigger is pulled. The air control valve provides no air pressure regulation. When the air valve is closed, no air enters the gun. When the valve is opened, the full air pressure is admitted. The air pressure is entirely controlled by a pressure regulator located between the compressor and the gun. The air pressure can be adjusted according to the viscosity of the material being sprayed and the desired density of the spray (light or heavy coverage).
Air Adjusting Valve

An air adjusting valve (or screw) is provided on some low and medium volume guns and is included as an option on high volume guns. When the valve is built into the gun, it is located adjacent to the air inlet at the base of the handle. When included as an option, the valve is placed at the air inlet connection in line with the air hose. This valve controls only the flow of air (cfm) and has no effect on air pressure (psi).
Pattern Adjusting Valve

This valve (or screw) is located at the back of the gun. It is the top knurled knob. The stem of the valve seats in the front of the gun, in either an air baffle or air port. It regulates air to the horns of the air cap. The horn air controls the shape of the spray pattern. When the valve is closed (turned completely clockwise) a round pattern results. As the valve is opened (turned counter-clockwise) an increasingly wide fan pattern develops.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Air Spray (Contd) Two-Component Spray Gun

There are guns with two fluid connections that allow two different components to sprayed at one time. The spray gun shown in Figure 15A mixes the components internally. Figure 15B shows a two-head spray gun, which mixes the coatings externally as they are applied.

Figure 15A. Two-component spray gun (internal mix)

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Air Spray (Contd) Two-Component Spray Gun (Contd)

Figure 15B. Two-head spray gun (external mix)

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Air Spray (Contd) Two-Component Spray Gun (Contd) Internal Mix

Internal mix guns must be used with a pressure supply. They are used when a fine finish is generally not required, such as ceiling texture spray and mastic roof coatings. Also known as low-pressure guns, they are generally used when only a low pressure compressor is available or when slow drying or viscous materials are used. Fast drying materials would tend to plug the gun's cap hole. The internal mix air cap mixes air and materials inside the gun cap before ejecting them through a single slot or round orifice and are used only with a pressure feed. Atomization air and material pressure must be approximately equal at the gun. The fan pattern is determined by the shape of the air cap opening.
Internal Mix Advantages

Requires less air volume and less air pressure Minimum overspray Maximum film build per pass and maximum size spray pattern

Internal Mix Limitations

Coarse atomization Fixed spray pattern size Air cap and fluid tip will wear Only pressure feed available

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Air Spray (Contd) Two-Component Spray Gun (Contd) External Mix

External mix guns combine air and material just beyond (or outside) the fluid tip. Air atomizes the material while leaving the gun. They may be supplied by either pressure feed or suction feed sources. They are used when a fine painted finish or versatility is required. They are a widely used type of gun because they provide better atomization and more control than internal mix guns.
External Mix Advantages

Fine atomization Control of spray pattern size No wear on air cap Suction and pressure feed available

External Mix Disadvantages

Requires more air volume and higher air pressure Maximum overspray Minimum film build per pass and minimum size spray pattern

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Air Spray (Contd) Multiple Spray Gun

Figure 16 shows a configuration for multiple guns. In a situation where several long fluid hoses are required, the header at A is removed from the pot and placed closer to the job. The size of the fluid hose at B is increased to provide fluid to all the guns with one long hose. Short fluid hoses at C can be provided for each gun eliminating the need for three long fluid hoses.

Figure 16.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Air Spray (Contd) Spray Nozzle/Tips

Each type of coating has different requirements for application. The air, nozzle, cap and tip requirements will be given in the Saudi Aramco Data Sheets. Different nozzles and tip sizes give different patterns and coverage.
Air Exchanger

The air exchanger is a device that: Removes oil, dirt and moisture from compressed air Regulates and indicates, by gauge, the regulated air pressure Provides multiple air outlets for spray guns and other tools

Air Regulator

On inside jobs, there must be regulators for breathing air because the pressure has to be reduced for breathing. The operators cannot breathe air at the high pressure required for spray guns. Breathing air must be supplied at 10 psi. The principal parts of a regulator are: Condenser - which is a filtering device installed between the air compressor and the point of use and is used to separate contaminants and cool the compressed air. No pressure regulation is supplied by the condenser. Air regulator - which reduces the main line air pressure as it comes from the compressor. It automatically maintains the desired air pressure with minimum fluctuations. They should be used in lines already equipped with an air condenser or other filtration device. An air pressure gauge which indicates what the pressure is. Outlet valves which provide shut-off of individual lines. A drain which is used to vent the accumulated water, oil and dirt from the condenser.

Lubricator

Some air powered tools require a very small amount of oil mixed in the air supply which power them. Lubricators are often combined with air filters and regulators 86

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in a single unit. Be sure that the air supply for airspray does not contain lubricator.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Air Spray (Contd) Air and Fluid Hoses

Air hoses used to connect the spray gun to the air exchanger should be 5/16 inch in diameter if the length is 50 feet or less. If the airhose I. D. is too small the spray gun is "starved" for air due to excessive pressure drop, which can result in a variety of spray defects. For a greater length, a larger hose must be used because of the pressure loss due to friction. This hose should be rated at 150 psi working pressure. The tables in Figure 17 shows the pressure drop for lengths and sizes of spray gun hoses. Generally, the air hose will be red, although in a small low pressure system it may be covered with a black and orange fabric. The fluid hose is usually black or brown rubber and is electrically conductive so that the system can be grounded. Since solvents in coatings would readily attack and destroy ordinary rubber compounds, the fluid hose is lined with a special solvent resistant material impervious to all common solvents. For light bodied coatings, 3/8" I. D. hose is suitable. Guns used in maintenance or for heavy bodied coatings like vinyl and neoprene rubber, may require 1/2" I. D. hose. These hoses may require a 100 psi pressure rating. High viscosity materials could require 3/4" to 1" I. D. material hose.
Note: The Coating Inspector should check to assure that the coatings or solvents are never applied through an air hose, since the air hose does not have the essential protective liner. The consequence of this practice is that the air hose may be attacked by the coating or solvent causing the hose to rupture or contaminate the spray air with particles of deteriorated hose.

Hoses should be stored by hanging in neat coils. They should never be dragged across the floor, pulled around sharp objects, kinked, run over with a vehicle, or used as a rope for lowering persons or equipment from scaffolding.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Air Spray (Contd) Air and Fluid Hoses (Contd)

Figure 17

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Air Spray (Contd) Air and Fluid Hoses (Contd)

The inspector should ensure that all hoses not in use are plugged. This prevents solvent evaporation from the pot. Plugging the hoses will also keep insects and debris out of the hose, which prevents clogging the nozzle. The fluid hose can be cleaned using the hose cleaner, a device which forces a mixture of solvent and air through the fluid hose and guns ridding them of coating residue. A valve stops the flow of solvent and allows air to dry the equipment. The outside of both the air and fluid hose should be wiped down with solvent at the end of every working day.

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Airless Spray

Airless spray differs from conventional airspray because it does not use compressed air to atomize the coating materials. Instead, paint is pumped from its container, usually the manufacturer's original cans or 55 gallon drums, through a supply line to the airless spray gun. The paint is forced through a small orifice under high pressure, atomizing the fluid as it is discharged from the gun. It may be likened to a garden hose which atomizes water merely by forcing it through the nozzle under pressure. In airless spray equipment, the material is under pressure between the pump and the gun. Unlike conventional air spray, the material is not under pressure in the material container. Thus, the material may be drawn directly from the original container by suction from the pump. The atomization achieved is so effective that liquids may be passed through a membrane, such as human skin, without breaking it. This is exactly the same principle the high pressure devices used in the military instead of hypodermic needles when giving military personnel their shots. The hazard of accidental injection of coating materials is a very real and present danger. Accidental injection can result in loss of limb, or even be fatal. When inspecting near airless equipment you would be well advised to treat it as though it were a loaded firearm. Some additional rules for airless spray safety: Never leave a pressurized unit unattended. Shut off the unit, relieve the pressure, engage the spray gun trigger safety, and shut off the power before leaving. All fluid connections should be high pressure rated airless spray fittings, tightened securely, and checked before each use. Fluid hose should be grounded to reduce the hazard of static electricity sparking. Follow the coating manufacturers' safety precautions and warnings. Report any unsafe practices or conditions to Loss Prevention immediately.

Airless spray uses very high hydraulic pressure of 1,000 to 6,000 psi. This pressure atomizes the coating through a precision-ground spray tip. Variations in the spray pattern are made by changing the tips or fluid orifices. A wide range of spray patterns can be attained by changing the tips and varying the fluid pressure. Saudi Aramco Data Sheets specify the tips and pressure for airless spray guns for a specific product. The airless spray method is particularly good

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for heavy, high-solid materials. Figure 19 shows the typical configuration for the normal airless spray unit.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Airless Spray (Contd)

The airless spray unit is more likely to clog, which will cause sputtering. Defects such as sagging, running, pinholing, solvent entrapment and inadequate cure are more likely using airless spray. These problems are due to pressure drops or high output, which can cause excessive wet film thickness.

Warning: Airless spray uses extremely high pressure. The Inspector must not allow any maintenance, connection, or disconnection to the unit while the power is on and pressure is applied.

Figure 19.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Airless Spray (Contd) Airless Spray Advantages

Reduced overspray and bounce back resulting in material savings Does not require compressed air to atomize coating Does not require a pressure pot It can also be powered by air, electricity or hydraulically

Airless Spray Disadvantages

Fan width of individual spray tip not variable Little control over the quality of coating applied except by changing tips The speed of the fluid flow creates difficulty in the application process of small intricate items

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Airless Spray (Contd) Set-up

There are numerous types of set-ups for airless spray systems. An electric motor, gasoline engine or air compressor can be used to operate a pump. The pump supplies high pressure to the spray gun. The pump pressure forces the coating through a single line to the spray gun. In the spray gun, a single stream of paint is separated into several smaller streams and forced through an orifice to form the spray pattern without the use of air. Airless spray provides better coverage because the coating is not diluted with air. Figure 20 illustrates the difference between conventional air spray and airless spray.

Figure 20.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Airless Spray (Contd) Set-up (Contd)

The pump for the airless unit may be driven by a gasoline engine as shown in Figure 21. These units are for use in the field where other power sources are not available. The inspector must check to ensure that gasoline powered units are operated only in open areas where carbon monoxide will not accumulate. All the safety rules of explosive liquids must be observed. Extra gasoline must be properly stored outside the work area in approved containers that are clearly marked flammable.

Figure 21.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Airless Spray (Contd) Set-up (Contd)

Airless spray pumps may also be powered by electric motors. These units vary considerably in size. They must be approved according to the electrical codes and industry standards. They must be spark-proof and double-grounded. Ensure that the motor is explosion-proof. The pump for the airless system may also be driven by a compressor. The same safety rules apply here as for all compressor operation. Figure 22 shows an airdriven, heated, airless spray unit. The compressor supplies low-psi air to the hydraulic unit, which boosts the psi several times higher. This boosted pressure forces the coating through the fluid hose.

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Figure 22.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Airless Spray (Contd) Spray Guns

The two basic types of airless guns are: Internally ported - in which the pressurized coating passes through the gun body before being forced through the orifice. Externally ported - in which the coating is carried to the orifice through a tube on the outside of the gun. Major spray gun components include: Inlet Material port Tip guard Orifice (tip) Gasket Diffuser Body Trigger Trigger safety

Spray Heads and Tips

Airless spray tips are available in wide variety of types and sizes. Since an airless spray gun acts as an on/off switch and does not have the air and fluid controls found on airspray guns, airless spray fan width and spray pattern are adjusted solely by the tip chosen. However, the spring tension on the trigger may be adjusted to allow more or less air. Some have two nozzles. Others will spray two materials onto the surface at once in the exact amount required. Some spray heads have hoppers that chop fiberglass to be added to the coating. Other spray heads spatter material onto the surface at a low psi and the material is then smoothed with trowel or squeegee. Some heads rotate or spin for inside pipe work. Others are at fixed or adjustable angles. The best tips are made from Tungsten Carbide.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Airless Spray (Contd) Spray Heads and Tips (Contd)

High viscosity, high particle size coatings generally require larger orifice sizes. Typical tip choices may be: Wash primers, shop primers Enamels, finish coatings Industrial primers High build coatings Glass flake coatings .007"-.011 .009"-.013 .013"-.017 .019"-.025 .040"-.080

Several tip configurations are available. The standard tip provides a single orifice size. If it plugs, the system must be shut down, depressurized, and the safety tip removed before the orifice can be taken out and cleaned. Never attempt to remove a plugged orifice when the system is under pressure. The adjustable tip can spray two different size spray patterns, a narrow fan for narrow surfaces and a wide fan for wide surfaces. The reversible ball tips can be reversed by turning a lever when they become plugged. The gun is then triggered and the obstruction blown out. If the cylinder tip plugs, the cylinder can be reversed, the gun triggered and the obstruction blown out.
Gasket and Diffuser

The gasket ensures a tight seal between the fluid tip and the diffuser thus preventing high pressure leaks. The diffuser helps the efficiency of atomization. The diffuser has an .090" orifice with a bar inside which splits the high pressure stream of materials.
Inlet

Usually 1/4" NPSM nipple to which the grounded fluid hose is attached.
Material Port

Carries pressurized coating from the inlet to the diffuser.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Airless Spray (Contd) Safety Tip

Required by OSHA, the safety tip is colored bright OSHA Safety Orange. The safety tip is designed to prevent anyone from getting part of their body close enough to the orifice to receive an injection of coating. A safety device required by OSHA. When in the "on" position the trigger safety prevents the gun from being triggered, just as the safety on a firearm can prevent accidental discharge.
Material Containers

In a airless spray system the material container is not pressurized. The coating is drawn from the container by the pump which then pressurizes the coating. Since the material is drawn by suction through the inlet hose, the hose should be armored to prevent its collapse and any subsequent restriction of paint flow.
Pump

An airless spray pump is a piece of equipment which draws the coating under pressure to the rest of the airless spray system. Delivery rate is frequently stated in gallons per minute or liters per minute. Fluid pressure can vary depending on pump design. The most commonly used airless spray pumps are powered by compressed air. Although the pumps may be driven by compressed air, the air does not come into contact with the paint, and is not used to atomize the paint. Pumps can also be powered by electricity or by hydraulics. Airless spray pumps which are driven by compressed air work on a fixed-ratio multiplication principle. This means they provide a fluid pressure which is a direct multiplication of the incoming air pressure. Typical ratios are 25:1, 32:1, 40:1, depending on the size of the pump motor.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Airless Spray (Contd) Pump (Contd)

The pump unit for the set-up has different capacities and fits many different containers from 1 gallon cans to 55 gallon drums. The principle is the same regardless of the size of the pump. Figure 27 shows a drum-mounted pump to fit a 55 gallon drum. The parts of a pump unit are illustrated at the numbers as follows: 1. Pump (must be large enough to meet the demand of all the equipment) 2. Regulator to control pump operation 3. Fluid outlet fittings for hose hook-up 4. Drum lid (or other appropriate lid) to mount to the container 5. Agitator for continuous movement of the coating material 6. Hydraulic lift to allow quick changes from one container to another (only on large pumps)

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Airless Spray (Contd) Pump (Contd)

Figure 27.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Airless Spray (Contd) Airless Spray Hose and Fittings

The fluid hose and fittings used with airless equipment are designed to safely withstand the high pressures produced by these systems, and to be resistant to the materials and solvents which pass through them. The most common materials used in airless fluid hose are nylon, teflon, and polyurethane. All airless hoses are grounded to prevent static electricity buildup. The airless unit itself should be grounded in hazardous environments, such as a live gas plant or an enclosed space. Be sure the gun is grounded through the hose connections. Improper use or handling of hose could result in hose failure and possible personal injury. Handle and route the hose carefully to avoid kinking, abrasion, cutting or exposure to temperatures above 82C (180F) or below -40C. Before each use, check the entire hose for cuts, leaks, abrasion, bulging of the cover, or damage or movement of the couplings. Tape or any other device must never be used to mend an airless spray application hose. If any of these conditions exist, they must be replaced. Do not use chemicals or agents in the hose which are not compatible with the hose material. Tighten all fluid connections securely before each use. Recoupling should never be done while the system is under pressure. The hose should never be used to pull the unit. Overall combined hose lengths exceeding 500 feet must be avoided.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Specialized Application Methods

Conventional airspray and airless spray equipment is sometimes modified for special use situations including: Hot Spray Systems Electrostatic Systems Plural Component Spray Equipment Centrifugal Spray Guniting

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Specialized Application Methods (Contd) Hot Spray Systems

Heating the coating before application has been used with both air spray and airless spray applications. This accomplished by either the use of an in-line heater or a hot box which heats the coating prior to passing through the spray gun. The coating may also pass through a stationary heater between the pump and the gun. Even with such heaters, there can be considerable heat loss using this method depending on the length of the hose. Insulated and heat traced hoses are available. There are also some hazards involved in heating coatings. Hot coating must never be applied to cold steel. A water vapor will form under the coating and prevent the coating from adhering properly to the substrate. Coatings must be heated with care. Most coatings contain flammable solvents.
Electrostatic Spray

Electrostatic spray may be used with either conventional airspray or airless spray equipment, in manual or automatic settings. In electrostatic spray operation: A rather high charge (to 75 KV for handheld guns, to 180 KV for some automated set-ups) is applied to the coating particles as they pass away from the spray gun. Generally, the coating particles are given an electrical charge, and the workpiece is grounded. When the coating passes through the spray gun and into the air, the opposite charges attract each other and the finely divided coating is attracted to all sides, edges, outside corners and some recesses of the object to be coated. The opposite side of the object may be coated providing the distance to be traveled is not too far from the spray gun.

Electrostatic spray application is useful where it is applicable. Its best application is in in-plant production finishing. It is not as applicable to maintenance coatings or high performance coatings for complex structures.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Specialized Application Methods (Contd) Electrostatic Spray (Contd)

Other advantages of electrostatic spray can include: Fairly complete coverage of odd shapes. Fairly complete use of the liquid coating. Reduced coating loss due to overspray. Very uniform film build. Better coverage at edges. The formulation of each coating is critical. It must be designed for electrostatic spray. Not all coatings can be applied by electrostatic means. It can only be used on bare metal or a suitable conductive surface. The electrostatic procedure cannot be used on a non-conductive surface. Because of the very high voltage use, there may be some hazard of electric shock during application. The equipment may be more expensive than either conventional air or airless spray set-ups.

Limitations of electrostatic spray include:

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Specialized Application Methods (Contd) Plural Component Spray Equipment

Plural component spraying is the automatic metering, mixing and application of plural component coatings such as polyesters, epoxies, and catalyzed urethanes. Two ways in which this can be accomplished are by: Using special spray guns which mix the components at the gun itself. Manifold mixing systems which draw the component coating elements from separate containers, combine the coating elements, them deliver the mixed coating to the spray gun, or guns, being used.

The principal advantage of these systems is that the coating materials are not mixed until just before the time when they will be applied. Coatings with pot lives of as little as five seconds can be applied in this manner. Plural component spray guns are available for either conventional airspray or airless spray application. These types of spray guns are sometimes used in applications where addition of chopped glass fibers to the sprayed coating materials is desired. In these situations, a chopper attachment is sometimes used. The chopper unit usually: Attaches to the top of the gun. Is air powered Chops a glass fiber rope, called "roving", into shreds of the desired length. Propels the chopped glass fibers into the coating materials spray pattern.

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Methods of Spray Application (Contd)
Specialized Application Methods (Contd) Plural Component Spray Equipment (Contd) Centrifugal Spray

Centrifugal spray equipment uses a rapidly spinning disc to atomize the coating. It may be used with or without electrostatic charge. It is typically used in lining pipe and specialized shop applications.
Guniting

Guniting is a method of propelling cementitious materials to a surface by using compressed air rather than troweling them or casting them in place. Dry cement mixtures are pre-dampened where they are first opened and put into the system at the gun. They are propelled through a hose and at the nozzle a wetting agent, normally water, is introduced into the powder. The nozzle consists of a body and ring made of brass. Adjustments are critical regarding the amount of liquid used and requires a skilled operator. Advantages of gunite over brick/mortars or cast/troweled systems are speed (5 to 10 times faster), improves protection by offering seamless application, covers complex shapes, can be applied year round, has good insulation qualities, inexpensive, and long lasting. Limitations include bulky equipment, larger work crews, and wind sensitivity.

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INSPECTING PRIMER COAT APPLICATION

Spray Technique The inspector should know the difference between good and bad spray techniques. The inspector should also recognize faulty spray patterns. It is not the inspectors job to show the contractors application personnel how to spray coatings. It is important that the inspector be able to recognize when the application technique is right or wrong. It makes his inspection easier and more effective. Addendum page 123, shows proper and improper techniques for air and airless spray applications. If the inspector observes excessive thinning of the coating, there will be runs and sags in the coating. There will also be a film thickness that is below the minimum required. This condition will give inadequate hiding and protection of the substrate. From time to time you may hear the coating applicators talk about different types of coats such as: Tack coat - which allows the application of heavier wet coats without sagging or runs. This is a light covering coat applied to the surface and then allowed to flash until it is just tacky, which usually takes only a few minutes. The finish wet coats are then sprayed over the tack coat. Full wet coat - a heavy gloss coat that is applied in a thickness almost heavy enough to run. It requires skill and practice to spray such a coat. Mist coat - an incomplete "spatter coat" applied with a fast gun motion. The idea is to partially displace the air in porous coatings like inorganic zinc primer.

The inspector must take action when he observes an operator that is performing poorly on a critical coating job. He can tell the crew supervisor to resolve the problem by advising the applicator or by replacing him. However, if poor performance is a matter of certification and reoccurs, then the inspector can require that the applicator be retested for proficiency and re-certified for the job. Always check that certification cards are current before every new project. Check that the applicator has been certified for the type of application specified for the job. Use the checklist developed for checking the qualifications of critical coating personnel. Refer to Saudi Aramco SAEP 316 for official requirements.

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Spray Technique (Contd) Excessive air pressure will cause increased overspray. The least amount of air necessary should be used. Pressure may have to be increased when the paint is thick or the hoses are longer than normal. The inspector should observe how the applicators adjust the spray pattern. On conventional spray, the applicator should turn off the atomizing valve at the gun and adjust the paint valve at the pot. The coating stream should be a solid stream of coating about 24 inches long. The air valve should then be opened to achieve the desired pattern and finish. If the applicator adjusts the gun using a different method, the inspector should watch for faulty patterns. Observe the way the applicator holds the gun. On conventional guns, the operator should hold the gun 6 to 8 inches from the surface. On airless guns, 10 to 12 inches is the correct distance. The gun and the stroke should always be perpendicular to the substrate surface. Figure 31 illustrates proper and improper technique. A shows the right way to hold the spray gun. Both B and C show the wrong way to hold the gun. At B, the gun is tilted downward. This should never be allowed. At C, the stroke is arching and uneven, which will give an uneven coating job. Holding the gun too close to the surface, as shown in Figure 32A, results in excess spray pressure. This incorrect technique may apply more coating than the surface can hold. The coating will run and sag. Holding the gun too far from the surface, as shown in Figure 32B, causes a condition called overspray. Overspray occurs when some of the solvent evaporates before the coating reaches the surface. The coating particles dry before reaching the surface, resulting in a sandy finish. It will cause pinholes in the finished coating, which will make the coating susceptible to early failure.

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Spray Technique (Contd) 114

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Figure 32.

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Spray Technique (Contd) Ensure that the operator uses a straight arm with a pivoting wrist action as shown in Figure 33A. The travel of the gun should be perpendicular to the work area shown by line ab. The trigger is engaged just after the beginning of the stroke as shown at c and released just before the end of every stroke as shown at d. Line cd shows the surface that is being coated. The edges have been coated before the flat surfaces. Be sure the movement is in a straight line parallel to the surface stopping 1 to 2 inches from any edge. Figure 33B shows an incorrect technique. Coating applied in this manner will be too heavy causing it to sag in the middle at point f and too light to provide acceptable coverage at the ends, points e and g..

Figure 33. 116

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Spray Technique (Contd) When coating a flat area, check that the operator starts at the top corner and sprays within 1 to 2 inches of the opposite end of the top area. Aim the first stroke at the top of the panel as shown at a in Figure 34. On the return stroke, shown at b, ensure that operator overlaps the first area by 50 %. Rows c and d show successive strokes. This minimizes both overspray and a condition call banding. Banding occurs when the stroke aiming point is too far below the last stroke. This gives no coverage between strokes. Point f indicates the start/stop point of each stroke.

Figure 34.

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Spray Technique (Contd) On flat surfaces, the edges should be coated first, as shown in Figure 35A. This will ensure that they are totally covered. On outside corners, the gun must be held facing directly at the corner, as shown in Figure 35B.

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Figure 35.

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Spray Technique (Contd) Ensure that applicators spray each side of an inside corner separately with a sweeping stroke downward as shown in Figure 36A at point 1. The strokes at 2, 3, 4, and 5 are successive strokes toward the outside edge of the corner. Never allow applicators to spray directly into the corner as shown in Figure 36B. The area at point 6 will be too thin to cover the surface and the area at point 7 will be too thick causing runs and sags.

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Figure 36.

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Spray Technique (Contd) On large surfaces, ensure that the applicators spray the work in sections. Each section should overlap by four inches as shown in Figure 37 at the points labeled A. Work from one side to cover the first section, B. Do the center sections next as shown at C. Then do the other outside section as shown at D. The sections should be about 18 to 36 inches wide. Be sure the applicators overlap the strokes horizontally as well as vertically.

Figure 37.

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Spray Patterns The inspector must be able to recognize faulty spray patterns and correct the situation immediately, especially on critical coating jobs. Recognizing faulty patterns may also help him in his application inspection. The inspector can identify areas in advance that may present problems and check those when the other application tests are performed. With conventional spray guns, applicators adjust the pattern by turning the air control valve. This adjustment supplies more or less air to the stream for atomizing the coating. The spray forms a round pattern when the applicator turns the air control valve clockwise (to the right). The spray forms a fan or oval pattern when the air control valve is turned counter-clockwise (to the left). The best pattern is an oval pattern. However, as the pattern gets larger, the coating gets thinner. Figure 38A shows a correct pattern. Figure 38B shows an incorrect pattern. With airless spray guns, the pattern is adjusted by changing the tip or by adjusting the tip when the applicator is using an Adjusta-Tip.

Figure 38.

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Spray Patterns (Contd) There are four causes of faulty spray patterns: Improper air/fluid mix (conventional spray) Low pressure (airless spray) Dirty fluid tips or filters Wrong/worn tips and nozzles

Always ensure that equipment is operated at the lowest possible air and fluid pressure when the applicators use conventional spray. Ensure operators avoid pressure leaks on airless spray systems. Ensure that the equipment is clean and in good working order before the work starts. Ensure that the correct tip is selected for the job, and that the tips and nozzles are not worn. The table in Work Aid 7 identifies faulty spray patterns, along with their causes and their remedies in conventional spray systems. The table in Work Aid 8 provides similar information for airless spray systems.

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INSPECTING HEALTH AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Regardless of what specific types of spray equipment are used, the inspector must familiarize himself with the safety hazards found in all spray operations. Specific cautions for each piece of spray equipment have been covered in this module at the time a particular piece of equipment was discussed. The danger from toxic or fire hazards should always be in the minds of the Coating Inspector as well as supervisors and workmen. Adequate ventilation is essential to keep the solvent content of the air below the lower explosive limit and to facilitate curing. Spray finishing creates a certain amount of overspray, hazardous vapors, and toxic fumes. This is true even under ideal conditions and there is no way to avoid it entirely. Anyone who is around a spray finishing operation should consider and may be required to wear some type of respirator or breathing apparatus. Even if they were not required, common sense would tell you that inhaling overspray is not healthy. Even though the concentration of flammable gas or vapor may be below the lower explosive limit for breathing. The maximum allowable concentration is the amount that must not be exceeded when a worker is exposed to the hazard for an eight-hour workday. This concentration pertains to vapors, gases, mists, and solids. Safety and health considerations for primer coating are much the same as they are for the previous module on surface preparation. Solvents, thinners and curing agents are used in primer coats. These materials are volatile, and are toxic if inhaled. Toxic Materials All solvents and most material used in coatings are toxic to the skin or to the internal organs of humans. All solvents cause dermatitis if they contact the skin because they dissolve the fats and oils that lubricate the skin. Protective equipment including rubber gloves is required. Some solvents and thinners are so toxic that even exposure to the skin can cause death. The Inspector must know the materials being used and ensure that proper safety and health precautions are taken. Explosion There is a real danger of explosion from the products used in coatings. The prime concern of the Inspector must be the proper storage, temperature and ventilation requirements. This is especially true on internal coating jobs. SAES-H-102 specifies safety and ventilation requirements. There are two things the Inspector must be concerned about that causes explosions of solvents and thinners. These two things are temperature and 125

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air/vapor mixture. The solvents will not support combustion until a critical temperature (flash point) is reached.

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INSPECTING HEALTH AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS (CONTD)

Ventilation Ventilation of dust and toxic fumes is one of the most important safety requirements for lastin!" sol#ent cleanin! and coatin! operations $hen applied to the interior of #essels and tan%s& 'echanical (forced) #entilation shall e used in confined spaces $hen these operations are in pro!ress" natural #entilation (throu!h open man$ays" etc&) shall not e su stituted for forced #entilation in confined spaces& *he fresh air inlet shall e located near the top of the confined space $hene#er practical $ith the dischar!e openin! near the ottom& 'ost sol#ents are hea#ier than air and the #apors tend to settle to the floor or in dead air poc%ets& +upplementary fans shall e used to ensure adequate air circulation in these areas& ,l$ays ensure that suctiontype fans are used $hen $or%in! inside tan%s and #essels& Never allow anyone to enter a vessel or tank before the internal environment has been certified as safe for entry. Never go into a vessel alone or without a safety device attached. Never allow work to be performed inside a vessel or tank that does not have gas and toxic fume detectors. Never use oil fired heaters to dry toxic substances inside a confined space. Always enforce the no smoking rule on internal jobs. Always be sure that all electrical equipment is double grounded and that all electric bulbs are explosion-proof. Ensure that all personnel who enter the tank wear rubber sole shoes to prevent sparks and that all ladders used inside have rubber feet.

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COMPLETING QUALITY CONTROL FORMS

Both the Paints/Coatings and Equipment Log and the In-Process Inspection Form must be completed during the primer coat inspection. Take an inventory of all materials to ensure proper labeling and storage. Log all materials in Paints/Coatings and Equipment Log. The Quality Control Checklist must be filled out for the compressors and spray equipment used during the primer coat application. Remember to enter information in the daily work log as required. Sign the log after the Crew Supervisor has signed it.

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EXERCISE 1.

IDENTIFY THE COMPONENTS OF COATINGS: PIGMENTS

Refer to the Information Sheet, any appropriate Addendum and your peers to complete this Exercise. 1. Lamellar pigments are: a) b) c) d) 2. round acicular nodular plate shaped

Pigments are added to coatings to: a) b) c) d) provide rust inhibition provide mechanical reinforcement decrease the permeability of the film all of the above

3.

Pigments are used in coatings to add: a) b) c) d) corrosion resistance hiding ability color all of the above

4&

,n extender pi!ment is classified as a. a) c) leafin! pi!ment reinforcin! pi!ment ) metallic pi!ment d) color pi!ment

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EXERCISE 1.

IDENTIFY (CONTD)

THE

COMPONENTS

OF

COATINGS: PIGMENTS

5. a) b) c) d) 6.

refers to how the pigment affects the surface texture. Hiding ability Gloss control Corrosion resistance Adhesion

Pigments are solid grains of material: a) b) c) d) that do not dissolve in the binder that will be left in the film along with other solids when the coating dries that must be thoroughly wetted with the binder to function properly in a coating all of the above

7.

What will happen if too much pigment is added to a particular binder?

8.

Give an example of a particular pigment that provides corrosion resistance.

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EXERCISE 2.
1.

IDENTIFY THE COMPONENTS OF COATINGS: VEHICLE

What does the vehicle consist of?

2.

What types of materials do resins come from?

3.

What properties must the binder have in order to be suitable for protective coatings?

4.

What are the reasons for adding solvents to coatings?

5.

What happens to coating viscosity when solvents are added?

6.

Explain the term solution kickout.

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EXERCISE 3.

IDENTIFY SOLVENTS/THINNERS NORMALLY USED SPECIFIED COATINGS

WITH

Refer to Work Aid 1, the Information Sheet and your peers to complete this Exercise. Write True or False in the blank spaces provided. 1. Mineral spirits are normally used with all types of coatings. Water is used with some inorganic coatings. Alcohols are normally used coatings. for thinning coal tar

2. 3.

4.

Epoxy coatings are normally thinned with ketones or esters depending on the coating system. Vinyls coatings can only be thinned with ketones. Aromatics are normally used for thinning urethane coatings. Alcohols are normally used for thinning coatings containing oils. Water is specified for thinning all emulsion type coatings. Aromatics are normally chlorinated rubber coatings. used for thinning

5. 6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Phenolic coatings must be thinned with ketones.

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EXERCISE 4.

IDENTIFY CURING MECHANISMS FOR COATINGS

Refer to Work Aid 2, the Information Sheet and your peers to complete this Exercise. Write True or False in the blank spaces provided. 1. The oxygen induced method is the specified curing method for alkyd coatings. Catalyst induced (thermoset) is the specified curing method for urethane coatings. Heat curing is the specified curing method for oils. Silicone coatings cure by the solvent evaporation method. Coal tar epoxy uses the solvent evaporation curing method. Coal tar uses the oxygen induced curing method. A limitation of a Bitumen type coating is that it is thermoplastic, toxic and has limited adhesion .

2.

3. 4.

5.

6. 7.

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EXERCISE 5.

USING SAUDI ARAMCO DATA SHEETS ON PRIMER COATINGS

TO

OBTAIN DATA

Refer to Work Aid 3, the Information Sheet and your peers to complete this exercise. Match the type of information to its location in the Saudi Aramco Data Sheets. Use the blanks provided. An answer may be used once, more than once or not all. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. General vendor information Drying times Technical Properties Application of product Mixing instructions Equipment to use A. B. C. D. E. F. Section 3.6 Section 2 Top of Page Section 3.7 Section 3 Section 4

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EXERCISE 5.

USING SAUDI ARAMCO DATA SHEETS ON PRIMER COATINGS (CONTD)

TO

OBTAIN DATA

Use APCS-10 Data Sheet for bituminous coating supplied by Arabian Danish Paints Co. Ltd. 7. What is the percent Volume Solids?

8.

What type of thinner can be used?

9.

What is the required sweat-in time?

10.

What is the mixing ratio?

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EXERCISE 6.

USING MANUFACTURERS DATA SHEETS DATA ON PRIMER COATINGS

TO

OBTAIN

Refer to Work Aid 4, the Information Sheet and your peers to complete this Exercise. Match the type of information to its location in the Hempel Manufacturers Data Sheets. Use the blanks provided. An answer may be used once, more than once or not at all. 1. Issue date of data sheet A. Bottom of back page First Page System of

2.

Flash Point

B.

3. 4. 5. 6.

Film thickness Thinning Solid Content Safety

C. D. E. F.

Front of Page (top) Physical Data Application Data Surface Preparation Paint system Further Information

7. 8. 9. 10.

Ambient Conditions Shelf life Drying and re-coating time Type of coating

G. H.

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EXERCISE 6.

USING MANUFACTURERS DATA SHEETS DATA ON PRIMER COATINGS (CONTD)

TO

OBTAIN

Solve the following problems. Write the answer in the blank space provided. The remainder of the questions concern 11. What is the recommended DFT of the product?

12.

What is the solids content of the product?

13.

What is the mixing ratio of the product by volume?

14.

Would this product be good to use on submersed surfaces?

15.

What would be the re-coating time for this product?

16.

What is the shelf life of the product?

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EXERCISE 7. COATING TYPES

1. What are the advantages of alkyd coatings?

2.

What are the limitations of alkyd coatings?

3.

What are the advantages of coal tar epoxy?

4.

What are the limitations of coal tar epoxy?

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EXERCISE 7. COATING TYPES (CONTD)

5. What are the four types of zinc-rich coatings?

6.

What are the three reasons for using linings?

7.

What are the two main categories of powder coatings?

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EXERCISE 8. VISCOSITY OF A COATING

Use the Addendum in order to answer the following questions. 1. What is the suggested use for Cup size #1?

2.

What is the effective orifice size opening for Cup #5?

3.

When performing the Zahn cup test, what can cause reading errors?

4.

How does the Ford Viscosity Cup differ from the Zahn Cup?

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EXERCISE 9. IDENTIFY FAULTY SPRAY PATTERNS (CONVENTIONAL SPRAY)

Refer to Work Aid 6, the Information Sheet and your peers to complete this Exercise. In the table of faulty spray patterns below, either the cause or the remedy has been omitted. Write the correct answer in the blank space in the table.

FAULTY S P RAY P ATTE RNS ( CO NV E NTI O NAL S P RAY ) ) SPRAY EXITS FROM WITH THINNER P ATTE RN / CLEAN TY P ESIDE ONLYNOZZLE CAUS E RE ME DY TO DISSOLVE DRIED
MATERIALONE SIDE OF AIR NOZZLE, LOOSE AIR NOZZLE, BENT FLUID NOZZLE OR NEEDLENEEDLE AND CLEAN OR REPLACE. FLUID PRESSURE TOO LOWFLUID PRESSURE TO HIGHPACKING DRY, FLUD TIP, PACKING NUT, OR FLUID NOSE DIRTYMACHINE OIL OR REPLACE, CLEAN FLUID TIP AREA WITH THINNER, TIGHTEN CONNECTIONS AND FITTING

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EXERCISE 10. IDENTIFY FAULTY SPRAY PATTERNS (AIRLESS SPRAY)

Refer to Work Aid 7, the Information Sheet and your peers to complete this Exercise. In the table of faulty spray patterns below, either the cause or the remedy has been omitted. Write the correct answer in the blank space in the table.

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EXERCISE 11. CALCULATE COVERAGE OF COATINGS

Refer to Work Aid 8, the Information Sheet and your peers to complete the Exercise. Calculate theoretical coverage for questions 1-2. 1. One US gallon is used 67% V. S. DFT = 2 mils

TC = 2. Five US gallons 30% V. S. DFT = 4 mils

TC =

Calculate practical coverage for questions 3-4. 3. Determine practical coverage for problem #1 if loss is 55%.

4.

Determine practical coverage for problem #2 if loss is 30%.

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EXERCISE 12. CALCULATE WET FILM THICKNESS

Refer to Work Aid 9, the Information Sheet and your peers to complete the Exercise. 1. Find the wet film thickness given the following information. DFT = 2 mils V. S. = 55% No thinner is added

2.

Find the wet film thickness given the following information. DFT = 4 mils V. S. = 30% No thinner is added

3.

Find the wet film thickness in problem 1 if 5% thinner was added.

4.

Find the wet film thickness in problem 2 if 10% thinner was added.

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EXERCISE 13. SPRAY APPLICATIONS

Use the Information Sheets and the Addendum to answer the following questions. 1. What are the advantages of conventional airspray?

2.

What are the limitations of airless spray?

3.

What are the advantages of external mix guns?

4.

What are the limitations of internal mix guns?

5.

Generally speaking, what is the color and composition of airspray fluid hoses?

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WOR2 AID

WORK AID 1.

HOW TO DETERMINE SOLVENT/COATING COMPATIBILITY

Use the table on this page. Follow these steps for a known solvent: 1. Look down Column 1 of the table to find the type of thinner/solvent specified for the job. 2. Look across the row to Column 2 to find the name of the coating products that are normally used with the specified solvent . 3. Normally, those coatings listed should be used with the solvent specified. Follow these steps for a known coating: 1. Look down Column 2 of the table to find the type of primer/coating specified for the job. 2. Look across the row to Column 1 find the name of the solvent/thinner that is normally used with the specified coating. 3. Normally, those solvent/thinners listed should be used with the coating specified.
Note: Always check the data sheets as the final authority for thinning of coatings.

Table of Compatible Solvents and Primer Materials SOLVENTS Aliphatic hydrocarbons (mineral spirits, VM & P naptha) Aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluline, zylene) Ketones (acetone) Esters (banana oil) Alcohols (methanol, ethyl alcohol, Ether( ethyl ether, glycol ether) Vinyls, epoxies Epoxies, urethanes Phenolics, some inorganic silicates Oils, gums, alkyds, butyl, phenolic Coal tar, alkyds, chlorinated rubber PRIMER MATERIALS Oils, alkyds, asphalts

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Water

Latex, emulsions and some inorganic silicates

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WORK AID 2.

HOW TO DETERMINE SPECIFIED COATINGS

CURING

MECHANISMS

FOR

Follow these steps using the table on this page. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5& Look down the first column until you find the Curing Method specified to be used. Look across the row until you find the name of the type of coating products that cure by this method. Reread all the particulars about this type of drying method. Ensure that ambient conditions are proper for each drying method. Ensure all drying times are followed for this coating.

Table of Curing Mechanisms CURING METHODS Solvent Evaporation Coalescence Evaporation Induced Heat Induced Oxygen Induced Catalyst Induced Water Induced TYPES OF COATING MATERIAL Vinyl, chlorinated rubber. coal tar, and asphalt. Acrylic emulsion, latex emulsion, and vinyl emulsion. Water-based inorganic zinc Phenolics, rubber, powders, metallics, and silicone. Oils, alkyds, epoxy esters, and uralkyds. Epoxy, urethanes, and coal tar epoxies. Solvent-based inorganic zincs, alkali silicates, and moisture cured urethane.

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WORK AID 3.

LOCATING INFORMATION SHEETS

IN THE

SAUDI ARAMCO DATA

This Work Aid will assist the Participant in locating information in the Saudi Aramco Data Sheets. Follow these steps: 1. Determine Coating System Number (APCS #) of the product. 2 Determine the type of information required. 3 Match the information desired to the major topics below. 4. Look up the paragraph number in the right hand column of the table. 5. Find the information desired in the Data Sheet. 6& Inspect coating to ensure compliance with Data Sheet specifications. Coating Data Look-up Table INFORMATION NEEDED General information about vendor Storage of product Mixing the product How to apply the product Drying time Recommended equipment for product WHERE LOCATED Top of Page Section 1 Section 2 Section 3. Section 3.6 Section 3.7

Technical properties contained in the Section 4 product

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WORK AID 4.

HOW TO LOCATE INFORMATION MANUFACTURERS DATA SHEETS

IN

THE

Follow these steps using the table on this and the following page: 1. 2. 3 4. 5. 6. Determine Coating System Number of the product . Determine what type of information required. Match the required information to the major topics in the left-hand column. Look in the right-hand column of the table for the location of the required information. Find the information desired in the Data Sheet. Inspect coating to ensure compliance with Data Sheet specifications.
Note: The manufacturers data will be used if Saudi Aramco has not set a standard.

Coating Data Look-up Table INFORMATION DESIRED Vendors coatings available Type of product How product is used Technical properties of product Finish Color Solids content Theoretical coverage Film thickness per coat Practical coverage Density WHERE LOCATED First Page of System Front of Page(Top) Front of Page(Top) PHYSICAL DATA PHYSICAL DATA PHYSICAL DATA PHYSICAL DATA PHYSICAL DATA PHYSICAL DATA PHYSICAL DATA PHYSICAL DATA

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Drying and recoating time Heat resistance

PHYSICAL DATA PHYSICAL DATA

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WORK AID 4.

HOW TO LOCATE INFORMATION THE MANUFACTURER S DATA SHEETS (CONTD)

IN

Coating Data Look-up Table Flash Point PHYSICAL DATA

Instructions on Thinning APPLICATION DATA Ambient conditions for application Directions for applying coating Methods and details of application How to clean up How to prepare the surface Primers and overcoating Shelf Life Safety APPLICATION DATA APPLICATION DATA (Back of Page) APPLICATION DATA (Back of Page) APPLICATION DATA (Back of Page) SURFACE PREPARATION PAINT SYSTEM FURTHER INFORMATION FURTHER INFORMATION

Issue date of data sheet Bottom of second page

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WORK AID 5.
1. 2. 3. 4 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

HOW TO CHECK VISCOSITY WITH THE ZAHN CUP

Follow these steps to measure viscosity: Obtain the data on viscosity testing from the vendor. Obtain the Zahn cup and the correct orifice as indicated in the vendor data. Obtain the correct timekeeping stopwatch. Ensure the coating is at manufacturers recommended temperature before testing. Attach the correct orifice to the hole in the bottom of the cup. Immerse the clean Zahn cup completely into the liquid coating. Withdraw the cup filled with the coating. Hold the cup straight up over the liquid container. Start the stopwatch as soon as the liquid starts to drain from the orifice. Stop the stopwatch when you see the first break in the liquid. Compare the time on the stopwatch with the time recommended by the coating manufacturer. If the times are the same, no action is required. If the times are not the same, and the discrepancy is significant, action must be taken by the Inspector to increase or decrease the thinning of the material. If the time is greater than that recommended by the manufacturer, the coating is too thick and must be thinned, if possible. If the time is less than that recommended by the manufacturer, the coating is too thin and must be thickened, if possible. If the mix cannot be adjusted to the proper viscosity, it must be discarded. .

12. 13. 14.

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WORK AID 6. FAULTY SPRAY PATTERNS (CONVENTIONAL / AIR SPRAY)

FAULTY SPRAY PATTERNS ( CONVENTIONAL SPRAY ) PATTERN / TYPE CAUSE
CLOGGED SIDE PORT. SPRAY EXITS FROM CLEAN SIDE ONLY BOOMERANG

REMEDY
CLEAN OUTSIDE OF NOZZLE WITH THINNER TO DISSOLVE DRIED MATERIAL

LARGER AT ONE END

DRIED COATING AROUND ONE SIDE OF AIR NOZZLE, LOOSE AIR NOZZLE, BENT FLUID NOZZLE OR NEEDLE

REMOVE NOZZLE AND NEEDLE AND CLEAN OR REPLACE.

AIR PRESSURE TOO HIGH FLUID PRESSURE TOO LOW

ADJUST PRESSURES

HOUR GLASS AIR PRESSURE TO LOW FLUID PRESSURE TO HIGH HEAVY MIDDLE ADJUST PRESSURES

NEEDLE VALVE PACKING DRY, FLUD TIP, PACKING NUT, OR FLUID NOSE DIRTY FLUID SPITTING

CLEAN PACKING WITH LIGHT MACHINE OIL OR REPLACE, CLEAN FLUID TIP AREA WITH THINNER, TIGHTEN CONNECTIONS AND FITTING

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WORK AID 7.

HOW TO RECOGNIZE SPRAY PATTERNS

AND

REMEDY FAULTY AIRLESS

FAULTY SPRAY PATTERNS ( AIRLESS SPRAY ) PATTERN / TYPE CAUSE

PULSATING DELIVERY ( FLUID ), SUCTION LEAK RIPPLING PATTERN CLOGGED OR WORN FLUID TIP

REMEDY
INCREASE AIR PRESSURE REDUCE # OF GUNS, USE SMALLER TIP, CLEAN TIP FILTER, LOOK FOR HOSE LEAK. CLEAN OR REPLACE TIP

HEAVY AT ONE END, COMMA, DISTORTED INADEQUATE FLUID DELIVERY, IMPROPER FLUID ATOMIZATION INCREASE FLUID PRESSURE, DECREASE FLUID VISCOSIT, CHOOSE LARGER TIP, CLEAN SPRAYGUN AND FILTER, REDUCE # OF GUNS ON SAME PUMP REPLACE WORM NOZZLE, DECREASE FLUID VISCOSITY, INCREASE FLUID PRESSURE, CHOOSE CORRECT NOZZLE SIZE.

HOUR GLASS OR TAILS WORN FLUID NOZZLE, FLUID TOO HEAVY FOR NOZZLE SIZE

ROUND AIR ENTERING SYSTEM FROM OUTSIDE

LOOK FOR SIPHON HOSE LEAK.

FLUID SPITTING

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WORK AID 8.
TC = Where: TC = material 1604 = thickness % V.S. = DFT =

HOW TO CALCULATE COATING COVERAGE

Calculate theoretical coverage using this formula:

theoretical coverage of 1 gal US of specified coating coverage of 1 US gallon, 100% solids, at 1 mil actual percentage of solids by volume Dry Film Thickness

Both % V.S. and DFT are read from the data sheets. Practical (Actual) coverage. First determine the percentage of loss for the particular coating. Then determine the coatings efficiency: Efficiency = 100% - percentage of loss. Calculate practical coverage using this formula: PC = where PC TC E= = = practical coverage theoretical coverage

efficiency of the coating

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WORK AID 9.
1. 2. 3.

HOW TO CALCULATE WET FILM THICKNESS

Thinner Not Added Determine the required dry film thickness. Determine the coatings percentage of solids by volume. Use the following formula to determine wet film thickness in coatings where no thinner is added. WFT = Where: DFT = dry film thickness WFT = wet film thickness % V.S. = percentage of solids by volume Thinner Added Adjusted WFT = .

DFT (1 + %thinner added ) %V.S.

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WORK AID 10. HOW TO COMPLETE AN IN-PROCESS INSPECTION FORM FOR PRIMER COAT INSPECTION
Follow the steps below: 1. 2. Fill out the Date/time block with the current date and time. In the to block put the hour the work will continue to. Fill out Prime Coat portion of Paragraph 2, PAINTING, Items 1. through 8. Notice in item 4.1, if thinning is required you must enter the ratio of thinning. In item 5 you must enter the dew point at the start of work and at midpoint, which is usually 4 hours. You may take readings more often and record them if you feel it is necessary. In item 6, enter the surface temperature of the substrate at start and midpoint. Caution: If the ambient conditions do not meet those specified, work must be put on hold.

3. 4.

Item 9 requires that you accept or reject the prime coat by circling yes or no. Make any remarks required concerning the prime coat such as areas that require re-accomplishment and reasons why improper equipment should also be noted here. Comments should be made about anything that might affect the protective quality of the coating. Even if the job is accepted, remarks should be made if there are discrepancies that need correcting, such as runs and sags in a specific area of the coating.

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WORK AID

11. HOW TO COMPLETE PAINTS/COATINGS LOG FOR PRIMER COAT INSPECTION

AND

EQUIPMENT

This Work Aid will assist the Participant in making/verifying entries in the Paints/Coatings and Equipment Log once a Pre-Preparation Inspection has been performed. Follow the steps below: 1. 2. 3& Inspect all the materials and equipment as outlined in the Inspection Plan and as instructed in the Information Sheet. Verify that the information in the log identifies the plant number and name. This information is found in a number of documents such as the coating history. In the next two lines, verify that the equipment and pertinent information required about the equipment has been logged by the crew supervisor. Ensure that the type of fluid service required, working pressure and temperature have been properly entered. These are critical. Under the Heading COATING SPECIFICATION, ensure that all the manufacturers data has been logged. Ensure that the shelf life has not been exceeded and that the product is used in batch number sequence. Ensure proper method of application has been logged. Write in the remarks any item of discrepancy such as excessive shelf life, equipment discrepancies, or error in amount or color of paint. Fill in any coating discrepancies. After all discrepancies have been noted, the inspector must print and sign the log. By so doing, the Inspector is verifying that the information is correct.

4. 5. 5. 6.

9.

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WORK AID 12. HOW TO USE GAUGE

THE INTERCHEMICAL

WET FILM THICKNESS

This Work Aid will assist the Participant in obtaining wet film thickness using the Interchemical wet film thickness gauge. Follow the steps below: 1. 2. 3. Procure the Interchemical wet film thickness gauge prior to the start of work. Determine the points at which the thickness measurements are to be taken. Roll the wheel of the gauge across the surface. Caution: Take reading immediately after coating has been applied or false readings will occur.

4. 5.

6.

Look at the inner wheel. The wet film thickness is recorded at the point where there is no coating on the inner wheel. Log this reading. Where measurement is taken, ensure that each spot is recoated before the coating dries. The wet film thickness must be between the minimum and maximum specified wet film thickness. Continue to take wet film thicknesses until the coating is completely applied. If wet film is too thin or too thick, inform crew supervisor so adjustments can be made.
Note: There is no accept/reject criteria for wet film thickness. It is a guide to go by. However, discontinuities such as runs and sags in the coating must be corrected prior to the next coat.

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WORK AID 13. HOW TO USE GAUGE

THE

NOTCHED WET FILM THICKNESS

This Work Aid will assist the Participant in obtaining wet film thickness using the notched wet film thickness gauge. Follow the steps below: 1. 2. 3. Procure the notch wet film thickness gauge prior to the start of work. Determine the points at which the thickness measurements are to be taken. Place one side of the gauge into the wet coating in a perpendicular position. Do not allow the gauge to lean to one side. Caution: Take reading immediately after coating has been applied or false readings will occur.

4.

5.

6. 7.

Look at the gauge The wet film thickness is recorded at the point where there is no coating on the inner steps of the gauge. Log this reading. If there is no coating on any of the steps or all the steps have coating on them, choose another side of the gauge. Continue selecting sides of the gauges until the proper side is found. The thickness is the point at which both ends of the gauge are wet and some but not all the steps are wet. The coating wet thickness is the last step that is wet. Log this thickness. Ensure that each spot where a measurements is taken is repaired before the coating dries. If the wet film thickness is too thin or too thick, notify the crew supervisor so the next coat can be adjusted to attain the proper dry film thickness.
Note: There is no accept/reject criteria for wet film thickness. It is a guide to go by. However, discontinuities such as runs and sags in the coating must be re-accomplished prior to the next coat.

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3LOSSAR4

additive

Any substance of small quantity placed in another substance, usually to improve the properties (sometimes called modifiers). The trade name of an adjustable spray tip for airless spray. A mechanical device used for mixing or stirring coating to keep the components in suspension. The point at which the spray pattern is placed. Spray coating technique using compressed air to atomize the coating and distribute it to the surface. Spray coating technique that uses high pressure to atomize the coating and distribute it to the surface. Synthetic resins. Person who coats surfaces. A class of organic compounds which contain an unsaturated ring of carbon atoms such as benzene and naphthalene. A condition in which the coating is not properly overlapped, leaving strips where the coating is too thin. The portion of the liquid vehicle of a coating that does not dissolve. It binds the pigment particles together. An asphalt or coal tar coating. A substance that increases the rate of chemical reaction. cubic feet per minute A measurement of the flow of air provided by exhaust blowers and fans. 163

Adjusta-Tip agitator aiming point air spray

airless spray

alkyds applicator aromatics

banding

binder

bituminous coating catalyst cfm

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PARTICIPANT

3LOSSAR4

chlorinated rubber

Resin formed from the reaction of rubber with chlorine to form a soluble highly chemicalresistant coating. A dark sticky substance used in various coatings. It is made by destructive distillation of bituminous coal. A film remaining after application of a coating. The ability to mix two coatings with each other to form a stable product that will provide a quality coating. To change the coating from an unstable liquid to a stable solid coat. Materials added to help cure a film. The period of time that a coating is exposed to specific conditions in order to reach specified property levels. A skin condition sometimes caused by contact of skin with solvents and coating products. A measurement of the film after the required drying period. A condition in spray coating caused by holding the gun too far from the receiving surface. A portion of the coating dries before reaching the surface, making the coated surface appear dusty or sandy. Small droplets of one liquid dispersed uniformly throughout a second liquid Cross-linking resins based on the reactivity of the epoxide group. An epoxy resin partially esterfied with fatty acids and rosin.

coal tar

coat compatible

cure cure agent cure time

dermatitis dry film thickness dusting

emulsion epoxy resins epoxy esters

164

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3LOSSAR4

ester esterfication

Organic salt formed from an alcohol (base) and an organic acid by eliminating water. Process involving the interaction of a compound of the hydroxyl group with a acid, eliminating the water. A measure of the length of time required for a substance to evaporate, compared to an equal amount of ethyl ether. Pigments used in coatings to reduce cost, achieve durability and alter appearance. A pigment used to fill cracks and reduce the cost of coatings (see extender). One or more coats of a coating material that cover a surface. A material capable of forming a quality film. Condition in which the greater part of the more volatile solvents in a coating of lacquer or enamel evaporate before the application of another coat. Use of pigments to determine how much shine a coating has. A coating allowed to form film through the use of heat (either physical or chemical). The time a coating is allowed to set prior to the dry-to-touch stage. To prevent. The time required for the coatings to set after they are mixed before they may be applied. The name of compounds that contain no animal or vegetable matter.

evaporation rate

extender filler film film former flash off

gloss control heat-cured induction time (to) inhibit ingestion time inorganic

165

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PARTICIPANT

3LOSSAR4

inorganic coatings intermediate coat ketone KU lacquer

Coatings based on silicates or phosphates and usually used pigmented with zinc. A second coat or a coat between the primer and the top coat. An inorganic compound such as acetone. Krebbs Unit. This is an arbitrary measurement of viscosity. Coating composition based on synthetic thermoplastic film formers dissolved in organic solvent which dries primarily by solvent evaporation. Fine dispersion of rubber or resin in water. Coating applied over existing coatings. Measure of thickness which is use to measure coating thicknesses Measurement of thickness. 1 mil = .001 inch =25.4 microns. A refined petroleum distillate that is suitable for solvent and thinner. The amount of each component added together for a coatings as described in the data sheets. See additives. Does not evaporate. Primers that have some type of oil as the base Any number of mineral, vegetable or synthetic oil used in coatings. The ability of a coating to hide the substrate.

latex maintenance coating micron mil mineral spirits mixing ratio

modifier non-volatile oil-based primers oils opacity

166

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3LOSSAR4

overcoat oxidation perpendicular phenolics pigment

A coating that is applied over another coating. The curing of a film by the introduction of oxygen into the molecule. At right angles to the surface such as holding the spray gun perpendicular to the surface. Thermosetting plastic or resin used in coating. Finely ground substance that is used in coatings to add color, texture, durability, and other special properties. The container that coatings are placed in to distribute to the coating operation The time allowed for the coating to sit in the pot. The length of time in which the coating must be applied before it must be disposed of. The area of coverage of a specified amount of coating taking into consideration losses due to wind conditions and overspray. The first or initial coat. This coat usually contains the basic corrosion inhibiting portion of the coating system. (See prime coat.) A coating compound designed for a prime coat. Polymers used in coatings. The drying of a coating to a tacky state. A high temperature, water repellant, chemical resistant resin used in coatings. The amount of solid material in a coating usually stated as the percentage of solids by volume (% V.S.).

pot pot life

practical coverage

prime coat

primer resins (to) set-up silicone resin solid content

167

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PARTICIPANT

3LOSSAR4

solid thermoplastic solids by volume solids by weight solvent solvent evaporation theoretical coverage tooth top coat vehicle

A substance that can be heated and when cooled, returns to its original shape. See solid content. Solids of a coating according to the weight of the total contents. A liquid, usually volatile, used in the manufacture and thinning of coatings. Curing of a coating through the evaporation of the solvents in the coating. The area a coating would cover if there were no losses. The rough surface left by the prime coat where the second coat attaches. The last coat or sometimes called the finish coat. The liquid portion of a coating in which the pigment is suspended. It consists of binders, thinners and additives. A group of tough, flexible plastics used in coating. The fluidity of coatings. It may be thought of as thickness. The thickness of a film immediately after application. The ability of the coating, particularly primer, to completely cover the substrate uniformly and rapidly. A cup-shaped device that measures viscosity.

vinyls viscosity wet film thickness wetting ability

Zahn cup

168

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PARTICIPANT

EVALUATION S%EET

APCS-10, distributed by Arabian Danish Paint Co. Ltd., is a bituminous coating. Answer the following questions about this coating. 11. What is the shelf life of this coating?

12.

What is the minimum number of coats?

13.

What is the maximum substrate temperature that can be applied?

14.

At 30C, how long will it take the coating to dry "to handle"?

15.

What is the volume solids of this coating?

16.

SIPCO's APCS-1A system lists products called Catha-Coat 304, Catha-Coat 305, and Devran 224. What type of coating is each of these?

169

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EVALUATION S%EET

Give the following information on SIPCO's Devran 224 coating. 17. What is the theoretical coverage of this coating?

18.

What is the product weight of this coating?

19.

Can you thin this product by 20%?

20.

What is the pot life of this coating?

21&

What is the induction time of this coating?

170