1.

Description of the ORC technology for biomass Combined Heat and Power plants inclusive further possibilities for optimisation
BIOS BIOENERGIESYSTEME GmbH, Graz The ORC technology is based on a long term development with the aim to efficiently use solar energy, geothermal energy as well as energy from biomass in decentralised units. The principle of electricity generation by means of an ORC process corresponds to the conventional Rankine process. The substantial difference is that an organic working medium (hydrocarbons such as isopentane, iso-octane, toluene or silicon oil) with favourable thermodynamic properties at lower temperatures and pressures is used instead of water - hence the name Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC). The right choice of the organic working medium used is very important for an optimised operation of the ORC process. Considering the framework conditions given for biomass Combined Heat and Power applications (CHP plants), silicon oil is the most appropriate working fluid.

Working principle and implementation in the biomass CHP plant

Figure 1 illustrates a possible implementation of the ORC process based on the already successfully realised EU demonstration project Biomass CHP plant Lienz. The energy produced by biomass combustion is transferred from a thermal oil boiler (inclusive thermal oil economiser) via a thermal oil cycle to the ORC process. Thermal oil is used as a heat transfer medium because the temperature required for operating the ORC process (thermal oil feed temperature 300C) can be achieved while operating the thermal oil boiler practically at atmospheric pressure (therefore, no constant boiler supervision is needed). The pressurised organic working fluid is vaporised and slightly superheated in the evaporator by the energy supplied from the thermal oil cycle. The steam is expanded in an axial turbine which is directly connected to an asynchronous generator (no intermediate gear box is necessary). Subsequently, the expanded silicon oil passes through a regenerator (where in-cycle heat recuperation takes place which increases the electric efficiency) before it enters the condenser. The condensation of the working medium takes place at a temperature level which allows the heat recovered to be utilised as district or process heat (hot water feed temperature about 80 to 100C). The liquid working medium then passes the feed pumps in order to regain the appropriate pressure level of the hot end of the cycle, passes the regenerator and returns to the evaporator. The flue gas from the outlet of the thermal oil boiler (respectively from the thermal oil economiser) is cooled down from about 280C to about 160C by an efficient heat recovery system (for example combustion air pre-heater and hot water economiser). Subsequently, the flue gas is cleaned in a multi-cyclone (precipitation of larger dust particles) followed by a respective flue gas cleaning unit (in many cases an electro-static precipitator or a flue gas condensation unit is installed). After the flue gas cleaning unit the flue gas enters cleaned according to the local regulations the stack.

Fig. 1 click images to zoom

The ORC process can be designed in such a way that hot water feed temperatures between 80 and 100C as well as a temperature differential between feed and return in a range of 15 to 50C are possible. Therefore, the return temperatures vary between 50 and 85C. On this basis the exact level of the hot water feed temperature required can be perfectly adjusted to the design requirements of the heat or cooling energy customers. For the hydronic implementation of the ORC

unit, the hot water economiser should be installed after the ORC process (see Figure 1), in order to keep the level of the hot water feed temperature from the ORC as low as possible. The lower the hot water feed temperature at the condenser outlet, the higher is the electric efficiency. Figure 2 shows some selected components of the ORC unit Lienz (nominal electric power 1,000 kW) completely mounted and insulated. The modular design as well as the description of the main components of the ORC unit is given in Figures 3 and 4. It is important to outline, that the scheme given in Figure 4 is suitable for a module size corresponding to a nominal electric power of 1,500 kW and that this design concept (configuration, space needed) is different to the one which is given in Figure 3. In principle the design given in Figure 3 is valid for ORC units between 400 kWel and 1,100 kWel. The size measures and draft conception drawings can be downloaded from the homepages of the relevant ORC-manufacturing companies.

Fig. 2

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Fig. 6

Efficiencies and relevant technical data of the ORC process

The implementation of the ORC process into the overall plant should always be carried out in consideration of a possibly high production of electric energy at a simultaneously secure supply of hot water feed temperatures required from the heat consumers. Based on the requirements from the heat consumers and the plant design chosen, the resulting hot water temperatures at the ORC condenser are determined for the nominal design point (for example: feed temperature 80C; return temperature 60C) and allow a net electric efficiency of about 15% (based on the primary energy input, Hu biomass). In Figure 5, the energy flow chart of the ORC unit of the biomass CHP plant Lienz at nominal load conditions is given. Since decentralised biomass Combined Heat and Power plants are usually operated in a heat controlled mode - for economic as well as energetic reasons the partial load behaviour and the partial load efficiency of the ORC process is very important. Due to the slowly rotating axial turbine installed and because of the thermodynamic properties of the organic working medium used the partial load behaviour of the ORC process is excellent At 40% of the net electric power of the ORC unit, the net electric efficiency still amounts to 85% of the nominal value, which was also confirmed by data evaluation, gained amongst others from the biomass CHP plant Lienz (see Figure 6). This circumstance is a substantial advantage of the ORC process in comparison to steam turbines and also steam engines, which show a stronger efficiency decrease at partial load. The axial turbine, which is installed in the ORC process (for example see Figure 7), is optimised for small-scale CHP plants and works with a low circumferential speed and rotational frequency, hence a lower mechanical stress. The turbine also allows a direct drive of the generator without an intermediate gear box, which increases the electric efficiency. Because of the smaller specific enthalpy difference within the turbine in comparison to conventional water-steam-processes, a basic and robust turbine construction is possible. The factors mentioned above lead to improved life-cycle periods of the turbine as well as a high availability of the ORC unit.

Security aspects, process control, human resources needed

Fig. 7

Particularly important are the high safety aspects of the ORC process. All welding seams of the pressure vessels of the ORC unit are 100% X-ray tested as well as tested at maximum pressure level. This way the time periods between recurring internal inspections by a notified body can be extended. In this context the engineering office of BIOS BIOENERGIESYSTEME GmbH has worked out a complete safety concept. This work was carried out for the project Biomass-CHP-Leoben together with the manufacturing companies of the thermal oil as well as the silicon oil cycle (ORC process). These documents are important and valuable, not only for the operating staff of biomass CHP plants, but also for external experts (local authorities, technical inspectors, etc.), in order to understand and efficiently implement the measures required in case of failures or damages of these complex processes.

The process control of the ORC unit is installed over a storage-programmable logic controller (PLC), which allows the fully automated start-up and shut-down as well as the synchronisation to the public electric grid of the local utility. Load alternations of the ORC unit are also controlled fully automated over the hot water feed temperature at the outlet of the ORC condenser. It is not necessary that operation staff is at the site permanently, because also a shut-down procedure is carried out of the process control system alone. The same is true for the start-up procedures. In a pre-heated or still hot condition of the ORC unit, the ORC process can be coupled to the public electric grid within 15 minutes (after processing the continuous security tests required). A continuous operation of the ORC unit is possible between 10% and 100% of the nominal load. As already mentioned the ORC process is connected with the thermal oil boiler (inclusive the thermal oil economiser) via a thermal oil cycle. The heat transfer medium (thermal oil) allows an operation of the thermal oil boiler practically at atmospheric pressure ranges despite high operation temperatures required. Therefore, no constant boiler supervision is needed, which results in lower personal costs in comparison to the conventional steam boiler operation. Furthermore, a water treatment is not necessary for an ORC unit, which would be the case for water / steam as a heat transfer medium. The operation of the ORC process (as mentioned above) is not under the regulations of the steam boiler operation law. ORC processes are characterised by a high reliability and low numbers of breakdowns, which is confirmed through the experiences gained from the applications in the area of geothermal energy production. Since the ORC process is operated as a closed cycle and therefore no losses of the working fluid occur, the operating costs are relatively low. There are only moderate costs for lubricants, maintenance and personnel. Because of the fully automated process control, a practically unmanned operation of the ORC process is possible. Regarding maintenance required, it is common practice to have an inspection once a year from the manufacturing company, which lasts 1 to 2 days. Eventually occurring alarms are easily traceable by the process visualisation system and the operation data acquisition system via the user interface of the process control system (work station with monitor and printer) and can be forwarded in time to the operating staff over a GSM system.

Further possibilities for optimisation

The following paragraphs give a short overview of selected further short- and long-term possibilities for optimising potentials of the ORC process: The focus of future developments will concentrate on improving the electric efficiency of the ORC unit. For detailed information about these improvement potentials, please see the download section at the bottom of this page. In this respect, the newly designed ORC process with a branched condensate cycle (also known as split system) is an interesting option to further optimise the system. This new technological approach enables due to an enhanced interconnection of the thermal oil circuit as well as the condensate circuit of the ORC process an additional utilisation of heat from the flue gas in a second thermal oil economiser (see Figure 8). In comparison with the conventional system a higher portion of energy of the flue gas can be transferred to the ORC process which leads to a significant higher electrical efficiency of the total installation in comparison to state-of-the-art systems. However, the additional head exchangers and hydraulic components required for the split system lead to higher investment costs. A further possibility to improve the electric plant efficiency of the ORC process is given by an increase in the thermal oil temperatures. A higher temperature difference between feed and return in the thermal oil system leads to a reduction of operating costs because of lower costs for a reduced operation of the thermal oil pumps. Possible feed and return temperatures in the thermal oil system would be e.g. 315/250 C in comparison with 300/250 C at state-of-the-art systems. As consequence of the higher operation temperatures it has to be stated, that the life-cycle period of the thermal oil used will decrease. The increase of the thermal oil temperatures in combination with the implementation of the split system mentioned above enables an improvement in the electric plant efficiency of about 10 % in comparison to state-of-the-art systems. The improvement in efficiency is depending on the real

conditions like the moisture content of the biomass fuel or the respective effort in the plant design and can be calculated. Further innovative process implementation is given by the possibility to implement the ORC process in a fluidised-bed-steam-gasification process (see Figure 9). This seems to be meaningful for CHP plants in a range of 2.5 MWel from an energetic as well as economic point of view. By coupling these different CHP technologies, an improvement of the electric plant efficiency of about 20 % can be expected.

Fig. 8

Fig. 9

Further innovative process implementation is given by the possibility to implement the ORC process in a fluidised-bed-steam-gasification process (see Figure 9). This seems to be meaningful for CHP plants in a range of 2.5 MWel from an energetic as well as economic point of view. By coupling these different CHP technologies, an improvement of the electric plant efficiency of about 20 % can be expected.

Strengths of the ORC technology:

Excellent partial load behaviour Ability for quick load alternations (in particular an advantage for heat controlled operation and achieving high annual utilisation rates) Mature and reliable technology No danger of droplet erosion on turbine blades (because of the favourable thermodynamic properties at lower of the working medium used) No constant steam boiler supervision is needed High degree of automation

Low maintenance costs The implementation of ORC units in existing biomass combustion plants is relatively easy Further interesting possibilities for optimisation are given

2. Description of the biomass CHP technology based on a steam turbine process

BIOS BIOENERGIESYSTEME GmbH, Graz The CHP technology based on a steam turbine process represents a field-tested large-scale application (>2 MWel) in the field of electricity production from solid biomass. The process of generating electricity from steam comprises following parts: a firing subsystem (biomass combustion), a steam subsystem (boiler and steam delivery system), a steam turbine with electric generator, as well as a feed water and condensate system. In terms of combustion technologies grate firing systems or over a firing thermal capacity of 20-30 MW fluidised bed combustion units are commonly implemented. In the lower power range of steam turbine technologies either still fire tube boilers or already water tube boilers are applied as steam generators. Above a power range of 5 MWel, due to the higher attainable live steam parameters, steam is produced in water tube boilers. Regarding steam turbine technology backpressure turbines and extraction condensing turbines have to be distinguished. If there is a constant heat demand in form of hot water or low pressure steam all over the year backpressure turbines are used. At projects with the need of uncoupling the electricity and heat production extraction condensing turbines are applied, using the steam which is not or only to a low part required for heat supply in the low pressure part of the turbine to increase electricity production.

Working principle and integration in a biomass CHP plant

The working principle is according to the classical Clausius-Rankine-Process. High temperature, high pressure steam is generated in the boiler and then enters the steam turbine. In the steam turbine, the thermal energy of the steam is converted to mechanical work. Low pressure steam exiting the turbine enters the condenser shell and is condensed on the condenser tubes. As the steam is cooled to condensate, the condensate is transported by the boiler feed-water system back to the boiler, where it is used again. A simplified flow sheet illustrating a typical biomass CHP plant based on an extraction condensing turbine process is shown in Figure 1.

Fig. 1 Click to zoom

Fig. 2 Click to zoom

The fuel is feed from the fuel storage to the combustion unit by different conveying systems which are adapted to the different kind of fuels (bark, wood chips and sawdust) and the conditions on site regarding delivery of the fuel, intermediate storage and degree of automation. In moving grate furnaces the fuel is fed onto the grate either by pushing the fuel horizontally onto the grate. Moving grates are consisting of fixed and moveable rows of grate bars. The steam boiler is a combination of the evaporator, superheater and economiser situated in a boiler of the four-pass type (see Figure 2). Some manufacturer implement additional combustion air preheater in the flue gas. Other use steam or hot water for combustion air preheating. After the water-steam circuit, feed-water is heated in the economiser to a temperature below the saturation point. The economiser is on the water side the first heat-exchanger of the boiler collecting heat from the lower temperature flue-gas at the exit of the boiler. In the combustion chamber, the chemically bounded energy of the fuel is released and transferred across the boiler and heat-exchanger walls to the water steam circuit. The heated water is then evaporated in the boiler evaporator and attains the steam drum. Usually the evaporator tubes constitute partly the combustion chamber walls and are aligned in a vertical arrangement. The steam drum is located outside the flue gas flow. From the steam drum the saturated steam comes to the superheater. The superheater uses the high temperature flue-gas area of the boiler to produce superheated steam. But it is necessary to turn one's attention to the high temperature corrosion mechanisms that may occur. Therefore the superheater have to lay in a special protected temperature zone. After the boiler multi-cyclones and electrostatic precipitators or fabric filters are commonly used to remove dust from the flue-gas. Superheated steam at high pressure and high temperature is ducted via pipes to the steam turbine where it is consumed and depressurised. At the extraction condensing turbine steam is extracted from the turbine at a pressure state which is predetermined by the heat consumers. The main part of this extracted pressure steam goes to the heating condenser and a smaller part is used to transfer heat to the feed-water. The rest of the steam expands in the low pressure part of the turbine to the condenser pressure state and is then cooled at constant pressure. Depending on the conditions on site dry air-cooled condensers or water cooled condensers are installed. In general the turbogenerator unit includes the modules:

steam turbine gearbox/generator unit lubricating oil system control oil system measuring and control system

De-ionised water is used for the water steam circuit in order to keep an undisturbed operation. In the water treatment unit solved and dissolved impurities of the natural water must be removed.

Losses in the water-steam circuit caused by blow down and sampling are replenished by de-ionised water from the feed water treatment unit.

Relevant technical data and efficiencies of the steam turbine process

If only chemically untreated wood-like biomass is used, after present state of the art, live steam temperatures to approximately 540C are achieved. Using waste wood the live steam temperatures must be lowered on approximately 450 C to avoid increased deposition -und corrosion attack. The attainable electric annual use efficiency (= annual electricity production / annual fuel input based on its net caloric value) depends on the live steam parameters (temperature, pressure) and on the other hand on the necessary temperature level for the process and/or district heat consumers. Electric annual use efficiencies are usually between 18 and 30 % for biomass CHP plants in the capacity range between 2 and 25 MWel. Steam parameters and electric capacities at steam turbine processes:

Live steam temperature: 450 540 C Live steam pressure: 20 100 bar(a) Live steam flow rate: 10 125 t/h Back pressure or extraction steam pressure: 1 10 bar Exhaust steam pressure: 0,05 0,60 bar(a) Electric capacity: 2 25 MWel Electric annual use efficiency: 18 30 %

3. Description of the screw-type steam engine cycle in biomass-fired CHP plants

BIOS BIOENERGIESYSTEME GmbH, Graz At present the only useful technologies from a technical and economic point of view for CHP generation based on biomass fuels in the power range between 200 to 1,500 kWel are the screwtype steam engine and the ORC process. The ORC process is utilised for thermal oil applications and stronger oriented to district heating whereas the screw-type engine is used for steam applications and is orientated to industry and process heat supply. The screw-type engine cycle is based on the conventional Rankine process. In opposite to the steam turbine process the steam is expanded in a screw-type engine, which is connected to a generator producing electric power. The screw-type engine is derived from the screw compressor and is consequently based on comprehensive engine know-how. Screw-type engines are suitable for biomass CHP plants in the range of 200 to 2,500 kWel, where steam parameters can vary, due to variations of the fuel water content and the kind of biomass fuel used, and where a simple and heavy duty design is needed causing low operating and maintenance costs.

Principle of the screw-type engine technology

The screw-type engine is a displacement rotary engine. Similar to piston engines, displacementtype engines are characterised by a closed working chamber. The volume of the working chamber changes cyclically, which leads to a decrease of the energy content of the fluid in the chamber. The

main parts of a screw-type engine are the male rotor, the female rotor and a casing, which together form a V-shaped working chamber whose volume depends solely on the angle of rotation. The steam enters the casing through the intake port in the passage formed between the tips of the rotor teeth. During rotation the volume of the chamber increases. Intake is finished when the rotor faces pass the guiding edges and the chamber is separated from the intake port. At this stage steam expansion starts and mechanical power is produced at the output shaft. During expansion the volume of the chamber continues to increase, whereas the energy content of the fluid decreases. This process continues until the exhaust process starts and the steam is extruded. It leaves the machine through the exhaust port. How often this process takes place during one rotation of the male rotor depends on the number of teeth on the male rotor. A detailed section drawing of the screw-type engine can be seen in Figure 1. The expansion process within a screw-type engine is shown in Figure 2. The screw-type engine is a very compact machine with a long life time and low maintenance costs. It is insensitive to steam quality fluctuations and can be operated with superheated steam, saturated steam, wet steam and pressured hot water (see Figure 3). Water droplets in steam are no problem for screw-type steam machines in contrast to steam turbines and conventional steam engines.

Fig. 1 Click images to zoom

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Fig. 3

Implementation of the screw-type engine cycle into the biomass-fired CHP plant Hartberg

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In Figure 4 the process flow diagram of the biomass-CHP-plant Hartberg (Austria) is shown. The biomass district heating plant (start of operation: 1987) is equipped with a water tube steam boiler and supplies process and district heat consumers via a network of pipes. In 2003 a superheater and a screw-type engine were implemented into the heating plant which makes it now possible to produce approximately 3,000 MWh of electricity per year in addition to district and process heat. The main parts of the process are the biomass-fired steam boiler (steam parameters: 26 bara, 225C), the superheater (steam parameters: 25 bara, 255C), the spray cooler behind the superheater as well as the screw-type engine utilising the steam for electricity production. After passing the screw-type engine the exhaust steam (parameters: 0.5-1.5 bara, 80-110C) enters the condenser where the heat output produced from the screw-type engine CHP plant is transferred to the hot-water cycle which is used as district heat.

Fig. 5

The screw-type engine in Hartberg is designed as a two-stage unit. The steam flows first through the smaller high-pressure stage, and then through the larger low-pressure stage (see Figure 5). Each stage is equipped with separate bearings and seals. Because of the high rotational speed of the screw engines a gear unit is installed, which powers the asynchronous generator. The gross nominal capacity of the screw-type engine in Hartberg is 730 kWel.

Fig. 6

Figure 6 shows the annual heat output line of the district heat network loco heating plant, which formed the basis for a correct design of the CHP plant. Based on this curve and economic calculations, the biomass CHP plant was designed for basic and medium load operation in heat controlled mode (the aim of a high number of full-load operating hours as well as of a high overall efficiency can be achieved).

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Technical data
Below the technical data of the CHP plant Hartberg are specified.

Nominal data of the boiler unit

Nominal load of the water tube steam boiler 18 MW Boiler pressure (approved) 32 barg

Nominal data of the CHP module

Steam power input 5.640 kW Steam flow rate 8,1 t/h Steam parameters inlet 255 C / 25 bara Gross nominal electric capacity 730 kW Net nominal electric capacity 710 kW Thermal capacity of the condenser 4.800 kW Steam parameters outlet 80-110 C / 0,5-1,5 bara Electric efficiency at nominal load operation 12,6 %

Energy balance of the CHP module

Thermal input (superheated steam) 22.560 MWh/a Produced electricity 2.780 MWh/a Thermal output at the condenser 19.230 MWh/a

Control system and safety equipment

The screw-type steam engine works in grid connected operation. Plant operation and start up are controlled fully automatically by an electronic control system and do not require additional staff. To make sure that the oil in the bearings and the synchronising gear is separated from the steam in the working chamber, the labyrinth packing of the screw-type engine is designed in a way that fluids can be drained or supplied through various components (seals - connections). To separate the oil section from the water section, air is injected under slight pressure. Some parts of the seal are connected in order to make sure that no air can enter the working chamber if there is a vacuum in the condenser.

Advantages of the screw-type engine process:

Screw-type steam engines for small-scale biomass CHP applications have a number of advantages compared to conventional steam turbines and steam engines:

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Comparatively high electric efficiency for small-scale CHP units (< 1,000 kWel) The screw-type engine has a very good partial-load efficiency over a wide range of load conditions Load fluctuations between 30 and 100 % of nominal electric power production are no problem The screw-type engine is insensitive to steam quality fluctuations. Even water droplets in steam, which can occur in a simple boiler due to malfunction or changes of fuel quality, do not cause any problems in screw-type engines The steam cycle and the oil cycle are completely separated by an air-lock system The fully automatic operation and easy handling saves staff costs The screw-type engine is a very compact machine and causes low maintenance costs

staff costs

The screw-type engine is a very compact machine and causes low maintenance costs

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