REMOTE MONITORING OF SOLAR PANELS

A Graduate Project Report submitted to Manipal University in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING In Electronics and Communication Engineering

Submitted by

Revanth Gurram
090907074 Under the guidance of B.SRIKANTH Sr. R&D Engineer Servomax India Ltd Hyderabad R.Vinoth Assistant Prof - Senior Scale Manipal Institute of Technology Manipal University

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

MANIPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(A Constituent College of Manipal University) MANIPAL 576104, KARNATAKA, INDIA MAY 2013

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

MANIPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(A Constituent College of Manipal University) MANIPAL 576 104 (KARNATAKA), INDIA

Manipal 21-05-2013

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project titled REMOTE MONITORING OF SOLAR PANELS is a record of the bonafide work done by REVANTH GURRAM (Reg. No. 090907074) submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Engineering (BE) in ELECTRONICS AND

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING of Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal, Karnataka, (A Constituent College of Manipal University), during the academic year 2012-13.

R.Vinoth Project Guide

Prof. Dr. PRABHAKAR NAYAK HOD, E&C M.I.T, MANIPAL

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to take this opportunity to express a deep sense of gratitude towards Dr K Prabhakar Nayak, HOD, Dept. of E&C, Manipal Institute of Technology for his undying support throughout the course of my B.E studies. I take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude and deep regards to my guides Mr. Raghu Kumar N. and Mr B. Srikanth for their exemplary guidance, monitoring and constant encouragement throughout the course of this project. In the same vein I am obliged to thank all the staff members of Servomax India Limited, for the valuable support. I would also like to specifically thank Ms. Charchita K. and Mr. Chandrashekhar Ch. for their cooperation through the entire course of the project. I am highly indebted to Mr. R.Vinoth, Assistant Professor-Senior Scale, Dept. of E&C, Manipal Institute of Technology for his valuable support in completing this project.

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ABSTRACT
Solar energy in one or other form is the source for nearly all energy on the earth. Solar Energy is used for transportation, electricity generation and in various other applications. Photovoltaic (often abbreviated as PV) is a simple and an elegant method for harnessing sun's energy. PV devices are unique in that they convert the incident solar radiation into electricity, with no noise, pollution or moving parts thus making them robust, reliable and long lasting. Solar Power systems have become an increasingly popular way to generate electricity. The advent of any new technological model begets new challenges which are unique for its sustenance. These systems are also facing similar challenges in the form of effective monitoring technologies. Many remote monitoring systems are being developed for a varied set of solar power users. Solar Power plants are being set up at a rapid rate in India and other countries. The capacity of the power plants is generally in the range of 2MW - 10 MW. To generate such high power with the required voltage and current characteristics, solar PV panels are modelled as a set of multiple strings or arrays. In such situations, the abnormal functioning of a single panel in a string can impose adverse effects on the rest of the panels in the string thereby affecting the voltage and the current the system is designed for. This project involves developing a monitoring system that tracks the performance of the solar panels in the strings by measuring the voltage from the individual panels, current at the end of each string and thereby estimates the functioning of the panels. This allows us to detect the faulty panels thus ensuring the normal functioning of the power plant.

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LIST OF TABLES
Table No 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Table Title Values obtained from preliminary voltage sensing circuit Values obtained when dc source given as input and supply Values obtained when tested on 5 watt solar panels Values obtained with isolation Page No 31 32 33 34

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. No 1.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Figure Title Page No Block diagram of PV monitoring system 2 Solar cell operation 4 Solar panel V-I characteristics and power curve 5 Different irradiance levels on solar panels 6 Temperature effect on solar panel - power and I-V curves 8 RS-485 bus structure 10 Full duplex RS-485 communication 11 Half duplex RS-485 communication 11 RS-485 specified minimum bus levels 12 Example of RS-485 communication cable 12 Ferrite Bead 13 ACPL C87B IC's 14 Overview of solar irradiance method 16 Broad concept of isolation method 18 Experimental set-up with isolation using SPDT relays 19 Design of separate test load in isolation method 20 Block diagram representation of the non isolation method 22 Basic differential amplifier 24 Designed preliminary voltage sensing circuit 24 Experimental test set-up 24 Modified voltage sensing circuit 25 Modified voltage sensing circuit protection to microcontroller 25 Experimental set-up for the current measurement using a shunt 26 System with same supply to all the slaves 27 System measuring voltage and current with a ferrite bead for isolation 28 Internal structure of an isolation amplifier 29 Measurement system which outputs voltage/current value to the ADC 30 of the controller Illustrating the format in which the data is received in central computer 35 Segregated Excel Sheet 35 Graphs indicating power output of the panels (case 1) 36 Graphs indicating power output of the panels (case 2) 37 Graphs indicating power output of the panels (case 3) 38 Graphs indicating power output of the panels (case 4) 39 Graphs indicating power output of the panels (case 5) 40 Graphs indicating power output of the panels (case 6) 41

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Contents
Abstract Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction to the area of work 1.2 Present day scenario 1.3 Motivation 1.4 Objective BACKGROUND THEORY and/or LITERATURE REVIEW Chapter 2 2.1 Working of a solar panel 2.2 RS 485 serial communication 2.3 Ferrite bead 2.4 Isolation amplifier Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Solar irradiance method 3.2 V-I method Chapter 4 RESULT ANALYSIS 4.1 Voltage measurement using method 1 - without isolation 4.2 Voltage and current measurement using method 2 - without isolation 4.3 Voltage and current measurement with isolation 4.4 Analysis of the data acquired at central computer Chapter 5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 5.1 Review of problem statement and objective 5.2 Work conclusion 5.3 Future scope of work REFERENCES ANNEXURES PROJECT DETAILS Page No i

1 2 2 3

4 8 13 13

15 17

31 32 34 34

42 42 43 44 45 56

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction to the Area of Work

The development of renewable energy has been an increasingly critical topic in the 21st century with the growing problem of global warming and other environmental issues. With greater research, alternative renewable sources such as wind, water, geothermal and solar energy have become ever more important for electric power generation. Although photovoltaic cells are certainly nothing new, their use has become more common, practical, and useful for people worldwide. The most important aspect of a solar cell is that it generates solar energy directly to electrical energy through the solar photovoltaic module, made up of silicon cells. Although each cell outputs a relatively low voltage, if many are connected in series, a solar photovoltaic module is formed. In a typical module, there can be up to 36 solar cells, producing an open circuit voltage of about 20Volts. The performance of any given solar cell depends on several variables. At any moment the operating point of a PV module depends on varying insolation levels, sun direction, irradiance, temperature, as well as the load of the system. The amount of power that can be extracted from a PV array also depends on the operating voltage of that array. For some applications where small amounts of electricity are required, like emergency call boxes, PV systems are often cost justified even when grid electricity is not very far away. When applications require larger amounts of electricity and are located away from existing power lines, photovoltaic systems can in many cases offer the leastexpensive, most viable option. In use today on street lights, gate openers and other low power tasks, photovoltaics are gaining popularity in and around the world as their price declines and efficiency increases. With PV panels being adopted as an alternate source of power, there has been an increasing demand to know the status of the installed panels i.e., the amount of power being produced and utilized through them. It is this need to be constantly informed about the working of the panels that lead to the development of monitoring systems. These monitoring systems track the performance of the panels and give the users various details which allow them to efficiently use the solar panels. With the increase in costs for utilization of grid supplied electricity and its adverse effects on the environment, Industries are now preferring the use of solar panels to supply electricity. Industries generally require power in terms of Mega Watts, multiple arrays of PV panels are
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arranged in order to generate the required voltage and current ratings. Any fluctuations in the power production could have adverse effects in the systems using this power. Therefore the design of these monitoring systems becomes even more complicated.

1.2 Present Day Scenario

Currently monitoring systems are being developed for domestic installations. The measurement of the current and voltage is being done at the point where the load and the array of panels are connected. The figure below illustrates clearly the arrangement of the present day scenario.

Fig. 1.1Block diagram of a PV monitoring system This configuration gives us the total current and the voltage being generated. With this information the total power being generated by the system is estimated and thus monitoring is achieved. These are generally used in the maximum power point tracking applications and use Wifi or Zigbee networks for communication.

1.3 Motivation
1.3.1 Setbacks of Present Day Technology: In Industries, solar panels are placed in multiple arrays i.e., panels are first connected in series to achieve the required voltage. And this series combination is repeated to achieve the required current rating. Monitoring of solar installations is being done at the point where all the strings culminate and are given to the load. Through the present day technology, if the power output of the solar grid falls, we can only conclude that the installation is not performing as required but we cannot explicitly point out the reason for the abnormal functioning.

Abnormal functioning is mainly due to the reasons that one/a few of the panels installed have malfunctioned. As the panels are generally connected in series, the malfunctioning of one panel would drastically drop the current that is flowing in that particular array thereby affecting the functioning of other panels. Therefore the dynamic information of the working of every panel in the grid is of utmost importance as it may indicate to us the exact panel which has affected the functioning of the entire system. The present day technology does not provide us with any information of this regard.

1.3.2 Uniqueness of the methodology that will be adopted The methodology that we propose can be used in solar grids which have a very high ratings (in terms of Mega Watts) Voltage measurement of Individual panels would be performed rather than the cumulative voltage as the individual measurement would allow us to track each panel performance. Contribution of each panel towards the total power output would be estimated which would allow us to replace the faulty panels to increase the efficiency of the solar installation.

1.4 Objective
The objective is to design and fabricate a remote monitoring systems that would measure the performance of each panel, in doing so, identify the faulty panel and thus aiding the increase in the efficiency of the solar grid.

CHAPTER 2 BACK GROUND THEORY

This chapter will briefly describe the basic working of the solar panel along with the effect of various parameters on its power output. This understanding is very much necessary as the behaviour of panel under stress is of importance while trying to establish the status of the panel. Also this chapter will give an over view of the RS 485 serial communication along with other components and parts that will be used in the monitoring system. 2.1 Working of a Solar Panel Solar cells perform these tasks with their semiconducting materials. The separation function is typically achieved through a p-n junction. Solar cell regions are made up of materials that have been doped with different impurities. This creates an excess of free electrons (n-type) on one side of the junction, and a lack of free electrons (p-type) on the other. This behavior creates an electrostatic field with moving electrons and a solar cell is essentially, a large-area diode[1]. Figure below describes the overall process of solar energy conversion. First, photons enter the cell throughout the surface of the array. The photon is absorbed and its energy is transferred to an electron in the semiconductor. This frees the electron from its parent atom, and leaves behind a positively charged vacancy, otherwise known as a hole. The movement of electrons and holes with the cell responds to the electric field or by diffusion to areas where electrons are less concentrated. Due to a strong electric field, electron-hole pairs generated near the junction are split apart. Minority carriers (electrons in p-type material and holes in n-type), are swept across the junction and become majority carriers. It is this crossing that occurs by the individual carriers that contributes to the cells output current. Finally, metal contacts on the cell allow connection of the generated current to a load.

Fig. 2.1 Solar cell operation

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2.1.1 Solar Cell V-I Characteristic Each solar cell has its own voltage-current (V-I) characteristic. Figure 3 shows the V-I characteristic of a typical photovoltaic cell. The problem with extracting the most possible power from a solar panel is due to nonlinearity of the characteristic curve. The characteristic shows two curves, one shows the behavior of the current with respect to increasing voltage. The other curve is the power-voltage curve and is obtained by the equation (P=I*V).

Fig. 2.2 Solar panel V-I characteristic When the P-V curve of the module is observed, one can locate a single maxima of power where the solar panel operates at its optimum. In other words, there is a peak power that corresponds to a particular voltage and current. Obtaining this peak power requires that the solar panel operate at or very near the point where the P-V curve is at the maximum. However, the point where the panel will operate will change and deviate from the maxima constantly due to changing ambient conditions such as insolation or temperature levels, which we will discuss further. The result is a need for a system to constantly track the P-V curve to keep the operating point as close to the maxima as much as possible while energy is extracted from the PV array. Short circuit current is the current through the solar cell when the voltage across the solar cell is zero. It is usually written as Isc, the short circuit current is the point on the V-I curve where the curve meets the Y-axis. Open Circuit Voltage is the maximum voltage available from the solar cell, and this occurs at zero current. The open circuit voltage corresponds to the amount of forward bias on the solar cell due to the bias of the solar cell junction with the light generated current. The open circuit voltage is the point on the V-I curve where the curve meets the X-axis.

2.1.2 Effect of Irradiance Solar panels are only as effective as the amount of energy they can produce. Because solar panels rely on conditions that are never constant, the amount of power extracted from a PV module can be very inconsistent. Irradiance is an important changing factor for a solar array performance. It is a characteristic that describes the density of radiation incident on a given surface. In terms of PV modules, irradiance describes the amount of solar energy that is absorbed by the array over its area. Irradiance is expressed typically in watts per square meter (W/m2). Given ideal conditions, a solar panel should obtain an irradiance of 100mW/cm2, or 1000W/ m2)[1]. Unfortunately, this value that is obtained from a solar panel will vary greatly depending on geographic location, angle of the sun, or the amount of sun that is blocked from the panel because of any present clouds or haze. Although artificial lighting can be used to power a solar panel, PV modules derive most of their energy solely from the energy emitted from the sun. Therefore, changes of irradiance will greatly affect a PV modules performance.

Fig. 2.3 Different irradiance levels on solar panels The above figure shows the effect of irradiance on the output of solar panels. Clearly, a smaller level of irradiance will result in a reduced output. The change in output current is due to the reduced flux of the photons that move within a cell, as we have discussed when observing the operation of a solar cell. We can see that the voltage and open circuit voltage is not substantially affected due to changing levels of irradiance. In fact, the changes made to voltage due to irradiance are often seen as trivial and independent of the changing flux of photons.

2.1.3 Effect of Insolation Insolation is closely related to irradiance and refers to the flux of radiant energy from the sun. Taken as power per unit area, whose intensity and spectral content varies at the earths surface due to time of day (position of the sun), season cloud cover, and moisture content of the air among other factors much like irradiance, insolation measures how much sunlight energy is delivered to a specific surface area over a single day[2]. Insolation is typically measured as kilowatt-hours per square meter per day (kWh/(m2*day)) or in the case of photovoltaics, as kilowatt hours per year per kilowatt peak rating (kWh/kWp*y). In order to obtain the maximum amount of energy from a PV module, it should be set up perpendicular with the sun straight overhead, with no clouds or shade.

2.1.4 Effect of Temperature A PV modules temperature has a great effect on its performance. Although the temperature is not as an important factor as the duration and intensity of sunlight it is very important to observe that at high temperatures, a PV modules power output is reduced. The temperature of a PV module also affects its efficiency. In general, a crystalline silicon PV modules efficiency will be reduced about 0.5 percent for every degree C increase in temperature. PV modules are usually rated at module temperatures of 25C (77F) and seem to run about 20C over the air temperature[3]. This means that on a hot day of 100F, the module will operate at 120F, or 50C, and so will have its power reduced by approximately 12.5%. Figure 2.4 demonstrates the effect of varying temperature on the output of a solar panel. One can easily see a voltage drop with increasing heat. The effect of varying temperature does not have a very large effect on the current developed.

Fig. 2.4 Temperature effect on solar panel power and I-V curves

2.1.5 Efficiency Efficiency is most definitely one of the biggest issues when observing PV module performance. Different types of solar cells have varying efficiencies that vary depending on several factors. When we discussed the operation of a solar cell, we observed cell operation after photons have already entered into the semiconductor volume. In order to ensure efficient absorption, the reflection from the surface of a solar cell must first be reduced. A semiconductor surface that has already been polished will still reflect a significant fraction of incident photons from the sun. Silicon, for example, will reflect 30% of such photons [5]. Texturing the surface of such cells helps mitigate reflection problems, but the solar panels efficiency is defined by other factors as well. A solar panels efficiency is limited by the bandgap energy of the semiconductor from which a cell is made. Low bandgap materials will allow the threshold energy to be exceeded by a large fraction of the photons in sunlight, allowing a potentially high current. On the other hand, a solar cell will extract from each photon only an amount of energy slightly smaller
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than the bandgap energy, with the rest being lost as heat. This is because the excess energy from the photon results in the electron energy being higher than the bandgap. This leads to the electron settling in the conduction band and releasing energy as heat. Unfortunately, a semiconductor is transparent to photons with energy less than that of its bandgap and thus cannot capture their energy. In other words, the photons do not contain enough energy to create an electron-hole pair, so the photon simply passes right through the semiconductor. These two factors, thermalization, and transparency, are two of the largest loss mechanisms in conventional cells[5]. As useful as solar panels can be, it is clear that there are still many problems that affect the overall performance of such an array. This is what contributes to the practicality of the design. If there was a way to ensure the maximum power is constantly taken from a solar panel array, a solar panels efficiency would increase and the overall usefulness of solar power as a renewable energy source will be invaluable. 2.2 RS 485 Communication Protocol: In 1983, the Electronics Industries Association (EIA) approved a new balanced transmission standardcalled RS-485. Finding widespread acceptance and usage in industrial, medical, and consumerapplications, RS-485 has become the industrys interface workhorse. RS-485 enables the configuration of inexpensive local networks and multidrop communications links. It offers data transmission speeds of 35 Mbit/s up to 10 m and 100 kbit/s at 1200 m. Since it uses a differentialbalanced line over twisted pair (like RS-422), it can span relatively large distances (up to 4,000 feet (1,200 m)). A rule of thumb is that the speed in bit/s multiplied by the length in meters should not exceed 108. Thus a 50 meter cable should not signal faster than 2 Mbit/s. In contrast to RS-422, which has a single driver circuit which cannot be switched off, RS-485 drivers need to be put in transmit mode explicitly by asserting a signal to the driver. This allows RS-485 to implement linear topologies using only two wires. The equipment located along a set of RS-485 wires are interchangeably called nodes, stations and devices. The recommended arrangement of the wires is as a connected series of point-to-point (multidropped) nodes, i.e. a line or bus, not a star, ring, or multiply connected network. Ideally, the two ends of the cable will have a termination resistor connected across the two wires. Without termination resistors, reflections of fast driver edges can cause multiple data edges that can cause data corruption. Termination resistors also reduce electrical noise sensitivity due to the lower impedance, and bias resistors (see below) are required. The value of each termination resistor should be equal to the cable characteristic impedance (typically, 120 ohms for twisted pairs).

Star and ring topologies are not recommended because of signal reflections or excessively low or high termination impedance. If a star configuration is unavoidable, such as when controlling multiple pan tilt zoom cameras from a central video surveillance hub, special RS485 star/hub repeaters are available which bidirectionally listen for data on each span and then retransmit the data onto all other spans. Somewhere along the set of wires, pull up or pull down resistors are established to fail-safe bias each data wire when the lines are not being driven by any device. This way, the lines will be biased to known voltages and nodes will not interpret the noise from undriven lines as actual data; without biasing resistors, the data lines float in such a way that electrical noise sensitivity is greatest when all device stations are silent or unpowered. 2.2.1 Standard And Features RS-485 is an electrical-only standard. In contrast to complete interface standards, which define the functional, mechanical, and electrical specifications, RS-485 only defines the electrical characteristics of drivers and receivers that could be used to implement a balanced multipoint transmission line. Key features of RS-485 are: Balanced interface Multipoint operation from a single 5-V supply 7-V to +12-V bus common-mode range Up to 32 unit loads 10-Mbps maximum data rate (at 40 feet) 4000-foot maximum cable length (at 100 kbps)

2.2.2 Network Topology : The RS-485 standards suggests that its nodes be networked in a daisy-chain, also known as party line or bus topology In this topology, the participating drivers, receivers, and transceivers connect to a main cable trunk via short network stubs. The interface bus can be designed for full-duplex or half-duplex transmission.

Fig. 2.5 RS 485 bus structure

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The full-duplex implementation requires two signal pairs, (four wires), and full-duplex transceivers withseparate bus access lines for transmitter and receiver. Full-duplex allows a node to simultaneouslytransmit data on one pair while receiving data on the other pair.

Fig. 2.6 Full duplex RS 485 communication

Fig. 2.7 Half duplex RS - 485 communication In half-duplex, only one signal pair is used, requiring the driving and receiving of data to occur at different times. Both implementations necessitate the controlled operation of all nodes via direction control signals, such as Driver/Receiver Enable signals, to ensure that only one driver is active on the bus at any time. Having more than one driver accessing the bus at the same time leads to bus contention, which, at all times, must be avoided through software control.

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2.2.3 Signal Levels RS-485 standard conform drivers provide a differential output of a minimum 1.5 V across a 54- load, whereas standard conform receivers detect a differential input down to 200 mV. The two values provide sufficient margin for a reliable data transmission even under severe signal degradation across the cable and connectors. This robustness is the main reason why RS-485 is well suited for long-distance networking in noisy environment.

Fig. 2.8 RS 485 specified minimum bus levels 2.2.4 Cable Type RS-485 applications benefit from differential signaling over twisted-pair cable, because noise from external sources couple equally into both signal lines as common-mode noise, which is rejected by the differential receiver input. Industrial RS-485 cables are of the sheathed, unshielded, twisted-pair type, (UTP), with a characteristic impedance of 120 W and 2224 AWG. The following figureshows the crosssection of a four-pair, UTP cable typically used for two full-duplex networks. Similar cables, in two-pair and single-pair versions, are available to accommodate the low-cost design of half-duplex systems.

Fig. 2.9 Example of RS 485 communication cable

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2.3. Ferrite Bead

A ferrite bead is a passive electric component used to suppress high frequency noise in electronic circuits. It is a specific type of electronic choke. A ferrite bead is simply a hollow bead or cylinder made of ferrite, which is a semi-magnetic substance made from iron oxide (rust) alloyed with other metals. Ferrite beads employ the dissipation of high frequency currents in a ferrite ceramic to build high frequency noise suppression devices. Ferrite beads may also be called blocks, cores, rings, EMI filters, or chokes.

Fig. 2.10 A ferrite bead

2.4. Isolation Amplifier

Isolation amplifiers provide electrical isolation and an electrical safety barrier. They protect data acquisition components from common mode voltages, which are potential differences between instrument ground and signal ground. Instruments that are applied in the presence of a common mode voltage without an isolation barrier allow ground currents to circulate, leading in the best case to a noisy representation of the signal under investigation. In the worst case, assuming that the magnitude of common mode voltage or current is sufficient, instrument destruction is likely. Isolation amplifiers are used in medical instruments to ensure isolation of a patient from power supply leakage current. ACPL C87B The ACPL-C87B/C87A/C870 voltage sensors are optical isolation amplifiers designed specifically for voltage sensing. Its 2V input range and high 1G input impedance, makes it well suited for isolated voltage sensing requirements in electronic power converters applications including motor drives and renewable energy systems. In a typical voltage sensing implementation, a resistive voltage divider is used to scale the DC-link voltage to suit the input range of the voltage sensor. A differential output voltage that is proportional to the
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input voltage is created on the other side of the optical isolation barrier. For general applications, the ACPL-C87A (1% gain tolerance) and the ACPL-C870 (3% gain tolerance) are recommended. For high precision requirements, the ACPL-C87B (0.5% gain tolerance) can be used. The ACPL-C87B/C87A/C870 optical isolation amplifiers family operates from a single 5V supply and provides excellent linearity. An active-high shutdown pin is available which reduces the Idd1 current to only 15 uA, making them suitable for battery-powered and other power-sensitive applications. The high common-mode transient immunity (15kV/us) of the ACPL-C87B/C87A/C870 provides the precision and stability needed to accurately monitor DC-link voltage in high noise environments. Combined with superior optical coupling technology, the ACPLC87B/C87A/C870 implements sigma-delta modulation, chopper stabilized amplifiers, and differential outputs to provide unequaled isolation-mode noise rejection, low offset, high gain accuracy and stability.

Fig. 2.11 The ACPL C87B ICs

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CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
This chapter gives a detailed view of the steps taken towards the solution of the problem and also discusses the preliminary result analysis. As a first step, there are broadly two methods to analyze the performance of a solar panel. They are : 1. Solar Irradiance Method 2. V-I Method 3.1 SOLAR IRRADIANCE METHOD 3.1.1 Solar Irradiance: The amount of solar energy that arrives at a specific area at a specific time is known as Solar Irradiance. The Earth receives a total amount of radiation determined by its cross section, but as it rotates this energy is distributed across the entire surface area . Hence the average incoming solar radiation (solar irradiance), taking into account the angle at which the rays strike and that at any one moment half the planet does not receive any solar radiation, is one-fourth the solar constant (approximately 342 W/m). At any given moment, the amount of Solar radiation received at a location on the Earth's surface depends on the state of the atmosphere and the location's latitude. This Solar Irradiance hits the surface of the earth in two forms, beam (Gb) and diffuse (Gd). The beam component comes directly as irradiance from the sun, while the diffuse component reaches the earth indirectly and is scattered or reflected from the atmosphere or cloud cover. The total irradiance on a surface is G = GB + Gd (beam and diffuse).
3.1.2 Solar Irradiance Variation

Solar variation is the change in the amount of radiation emitted by the Sun and in its spectral distribution. Variations in total solar irradiance were too small to detect with technology available before the satellite era, although the small fraction in ultra-violet light has recently been found to vary significantly more than previously thought over the course of a solar cycle. Total solar output is now measured to vary by approximately 0.1%, or about 1.3 Watts per square meter (W/m2) peak-to-trough from solar maximum to solar minimum during a

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cycle. The amount of solar radiation received at the outer surface of Earth's atmosphere averages 1366 W/m2. Solar Irradiance is a measure of how much solar power you are getting at your location. This irradiance varies throughout the year depending on the seasons. It also varies throughout the day, depending on the position of the sun in the sky, and the weather. Solar insolation is a measure of solar irradiance over of period of time - typically over the period of a single day. 3.1.3 Overview of the Proposed Method: The prediction of the PV power production is based on irradiance forecasts provided by the solar electricity. In a first step, site-specific hourly forecasts are derived from the lowresolution forecasts. In a second step, the forecast of the global horizontal irradiance has to be converted to the module plane with a tilted irradiance model. Finally, the power output forecast can be obtained respectively.

Fig. 3.1 Overview of the solar irradiance method

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3.1.4 Analysis of the Solar Irradiance Method Data regarding the solar insolation when available would make the forecasting of the PV panel power output very simple. But obtaining this data involves intricate set of approximations and also needs data from various sources to estimate the solar irradiance at a particular location. Even if we have systems that would approximate all the required data, this at the end of the day remains an approximation but not a sure method to help us in identifying the faulty panel. Since the product we are designing is used by consumers on a regular basis, Cost analysis of the solution is one of the integral factors that decides the feasibility of the product. calculating. The devices required to calculate the solar irradiance data on field are not economically feasible. Therefore this method of monitoring the performance of the panels was discarded due to economic unfeasibility. 3.2 V-I METHOD In this method, the voltage and current values of the panels are measured and then sent a central server. These values are then analysed and thus the faulty panels are tracked or even replaced. There are two ways of implementing this V-I Method. They are: 1. Measurement with isolation of panels 2. Measurement without isolation of panels 3.2.1 Measurement with Isolation of Panels In a solar power plant of high capacity, there will be several panels that are connected in series within a string to achieve the required voltage. Several such strings are connected in parallel to achieve the required voltage. Isolation of panels indicates that each of the panels connected in the string are to be removed from the string temporarily. After the panels are disconnected for a short period of time, the voltage and current from each panel has to be found out to track its performance. The following figure illustrates this method.

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PV Panel
R e l a y

PV Panel
R e l a y

PV Panel
R e l a y

To Relay of Previous Panel

R e l a y R e l a y R e l a y

0 0 L O A D
00 0

PV Panel

PV Panel

PV Panel

Fig. 3.2 Broad concept of isolation method

Isolation is achieved by communicating to the relay through a micro controller and disconnecting the required panel from the total circuit. 3.2.1.1 Concept Proving To further proceed with this idea, we performed an full scale experiment with two 5W panels. The ratings of the 5W panels are: 1. Open Circuit Voltage: 22 Volts 2. Short Circuit Current:300 mA

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The experimental Set-up is as shown in the figure below :

Fig. 3.3 Experimental set-up with isolation using SPDT relays To connect panel 1 and panel 2 in series, relays 3,4,6 are switched on through a signal from the microcontroller and relays 1,2,5,7 are switched off. To obtain the voltage and current characteristics of panel 1, relays 1,5,6 are switched on and relays 2,3,4,7 are switched off. To obtain the voltage and current characteristics of panel 2, relays 2,4,7 are switched on and relays 1,3,5,6 are switched off. Voltage of each panel was measured by connecting a voltage divider in parallel with the panel terminals. The voltage divider used resistances 1 kohms and 9.1 kohms to step down 10 times so as to avoid overloading the microcontroller. Since voltage in parallel remains the same, connecting the voltage divider at the terminals of the panel does not adversely affect the existing circuit. Voltage drop across a series shunt resistance of value 1 ohm was measured through the microcontroller pin and since we know the resistance value, the current was calculated via a code in microcontroller itself. Therefore, both voltage and current values were successfully obtained. This proved the working of the designed circuit pertaining to our application.

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3.2.1.2 Extension to Field Set-Up Separate load for testing: In the field, a large number of panels are connected and also the load is very high. As in the case of our experimental set up, the isolated panels cannot be connected to the ultimate customer load since the power delivered will be extremely low. therefore a new load needs to be used for testing. This load should be capable of testing a panel under various conditions in order to establish the precise status of the functioning of the panel. In this regard, we proposed the use of the circuit which applies a set of gradually increasing loads on the panel. In this way, we can test the panel's performance under a wide range of loads and depending on the minimum value set, we can either replace the panel or if they it is above the required level, we can let it remain. For switching between the various loads, MOSFET's with 20 amp current ratings can be used in the field as the maximum current that flows from a single panel is 8 Amps.

Fig. 3.4 Design of separate test load in isolation method

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Junction Box: With the introduction of a separate load for testing, there arise two problems : 1. This load cannot be applied at the same time the consumer load has been applied as this would reduce the power delivered to the consumer load. 2.Using a separate load for each panel would increase the cost of the solution immensely. Therefore, to avoid these problems, the testing load has to be isolated from the circuit andinstead of having separate testing loads for each panel, a single testing load can be used for multiple panels in order to reduce the cost of fabricating such a load. The solution to both those problems is the use of a junction box. In the junction box, two wires from the terminals of all the panels are extrapolated via a dual pole relay at the terminals of the panel which is naturally in the "nc" state and all such positive and negative terminals are shorted. The output of the junction box are just two wires of positive and negative terminals. When a panel is isolated via the signal from the microcontroller, the same signal is also used to connect the isolated panel to the separate test load via the dual pole relay and through the junction box. Therefore the non isolated panels remain disconnected and only the isolated panel connect with the external load.

Disadvantages of this method: 1. Since too many wires are connected to the junction box which is generally placed a few meters away from the panel grid, wire resistance would lead to improper voltage and current readings. 2. Difficulty to identify the faulty panel as there is a chance of even the wires being cut/damaged. 3. Relays have a problem of magnetic lock after a few uses. Therefore using so many relays in the circuit may pose maintenance issues. 4. Power generally delivered to the consumer is AC in nature. Therefore isolating the panels and connecting them may disturb the frequency of the delivered power.

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3.2.2 Without Isolation An alternate technique for monitoring the panel health is to measure the voltage output from the panel and the current that flows in the string without isolating the panels from a string. In order to measure this voltage, when the panels are connected in a pattern as shown below, a device which senses the voltage has to be placed on every panel. In this method, no isolation of the panel is needed, as the voltage output of a single panel is measured using an appropriate circuit and as the current flowing in a single string being constant, the current can easily be measured by placing a shunt in series with the string.

Fig. 3.5 Block diagram representation of the non- isolation method Unlike the previous technique where the panel was temporarily isolated from the whole string containing several hundreds of panels in series, measuring the drop across the load and then calculating the voltage and current values, this one involves the design of a circuit which senses the voltage of each panel directly without isolating it from the string. The technique involving isolation of solar panels from the string connection for monitoring has major setbacks which draws the need for a method that doesnt use isolation of the panels. The time required for isolation of each panel put together with the time required to communicate these values with the master controller and storing them should not disturb the cycle frequency of the ac current and voltage delivered to the loads, as the power grids need a continuous ac supply of 50 Hz cycle frequency. In a scenario where several hundreds of panels are connected in a single string, the whole process may take a few seconds, which definitely violates and hence rules out the use of the method involving isolation of the panels. Moreover, the consistency in obtaining voltage and current values may be disturbed when the switching of a panel between the final load and the test load is repeatedly performed for each panel. For these issues that are impossible to overcome, the technique that uses no isolation and switching between the loads is used.

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3.2.2.1 Panel Voltage Measurement Without Isolation The voltage is the most important parameter that determines the health of a solar panel. When the solar panels are connected in series, the voltage of each adds up. One method is to directly measure the total voltage in a string. Apparently, this method doesnt give us the individual panel voltage output which complicates the monitoring process. Hence the voltage obtained across each panel is measured using a voltage sensing device. The periodically obtained voltage readings are stored in the controller that is attached to the device. Method-1: Step-down and amplify In order to sense the voltage, a simple differential amplifier using operational amplifiers is employed. The design parameters of the differential amplifier include the amplifier IC and the resistor network used.

Design: A dual-opamp IC, LM 358 that complies with the range of panel output voltages is used for the purpose of voltage sensing. The differential amplifier gives a voltage output same or a proportionate value of the input voltage applied to it. The initial circuit that was made and tested on a 5-watt solar panel is shown below. The resistor values were chosen according to the output formula of the differential amplifier circuit given by: Vout=( )

Here, by choosing Rf=Rg and R1=R2, we intended to design an amplifier with an effective gain of . Thus, the output of the amplifier is expected to be:

Below shown is a basic differential amplifier circuit which was the integral part of the voltage sensing device.

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Fig. 3.6 Basic differential amplifier Circuit Diagram

Fig.3.7. Designed preliminary voltage sensing circuit Analysis The circuit first steps down the voltage obtained from the V- and V+ probes of the solar panel. For stepping down, the resistors available were used. Since the voltage values do not exceed 20V, a step down factor of 5 was decided so that it would get down the voltage .And in order to provide the same amount of amplification as that of the step-down, a total of 3.2 K ohms (2.2 and 1 kilo in series) were used so that the values could be read using a device like multimeter. The voltage from the output pin of the differential amplifier was measured using a multimeter. A resistor combination of 300 ohms and 5W was used as a load for the circuit. The setup is shown below. The voltage output is to be given to the controller to store the values in its memory (internal or external).

Fig. 3.8 Experimental test set up

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Method-2: Unity gain followed by a step down From the results obtained for the circuit designed previously, it was clearly understood that a common ground must be given to the inputs as well as the outputs. Additionally, the modified circuit included a unity gain amplifier, as the voltage between the positive and negative terminals alone was needed. Circuit Diagram

Fig. 3.9 Modified voltage sensing circuit Design The same circuit with a common ground and a unity gain amplifier has been designed. At the output a 3.9 K and 1.0 K resistor divider network was added to bring down the values (which may go up to 20 volts) to the ADC range, included in the controller. In order to maintain unity gain, 10 K resistors have been used throughout. For protection of the circuit when negative voltage occurs, the zener diode has been added at the output terminal of the whole circuit.

Fig. 3.10 Modified voltage sensing circuit with protection to microcontroller

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3.2.2.2 String Current Measurement Without Isolation The current measurement is the next important parameter for determining the panel health. A feasible solution for measuring the individual panel current doesnt exist. Also, since the current remains same when all panels are in series connection, the current that flows in the string is the minimum current given by all the panels. Thus the current that flows in a string is evaluated using the same differential circuit by considering the drop across a shunt resistance. The same set up with a shunt resistance of very less resistance rating in series with the panels and load is used for measuring the string current. For testing purpose, a 7 ohm resistor with 5 watt power rating was used. The testing of the circuit gave desired outputs in all conditions (with and without shadow situations). The voltage drop across this resistor is given as the input to a differential amplifier. The voltage values read from this circuit should be stored in the memory of the controller. A set of commands/ code to get back the current value from the potential drop read by the controller is to be fed to the controller.

Fig. 3.11 Experimental set up for the current measurement using a shunt resistance 3.2.2.3 Measurement of the panel parameters with the same supply to all the slaves, along with the serial communication interface with the controller Now the circuit shown in Fig.3.9 above is connected to the controller along with serialcommunication interface. The same circuit used previously, is attached with a common supply source and ground to all the slaves. (Controller and Max 485 IC of the slaves). The ground is made common between the controller and the differential amplifier circuit, as shown in the figure. In this fashion, all the panels are connected in series configuration. However, when the communication interface between the slaves to the PC via master has been set up, the values read were quite erroneous. It was found that the ground offset by a common mode voltage due to the common ground provided to all the slaves. Hence the ground which should correspond to an analog zero voltage had a non-zero value leading to the improper values read on the PC.

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Fig. 3.12 The system with same supply to all the slaves 3.2.2.4. Measurement of the panel parameters with a different supply to the slaves, along with the serial communication interface with the controller

Here, the same set up is used except that the slaves were individually powered with the panels supply voltage. The voltages read on the PC however were still found i ncorrect, due to the offset provided to the ground. This was because of the same ground between differential amplifier and the controller, where the former is an analog ground whereas the latter is a digital ground. For this, a method using isolation between these two was proposed, designed and tested. 3.2.2.5. Measurement of panel parameters with ferrite bead, along with the serial communication interface with the controller

A ferrite bead which isolates the analog and digital grounds and eliminates the EMI is placed between the differential amplifier and the microcontroller. Here, the digital ground is connected to the controller and the RS 485 module. The analog ground is common for the input and the differential amplifier. The results using this method were still found to be incorrect. A common mode voltage is found to offset the ground reference value (0 volt). Hence, a method where the grounds and supplies were totally isolated was used, as explained below.

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Fig. 3.13 The system measuring voltage and current with a ferrite bead for isolation 3.2.2.6. Measurement of the panel parameters using an Isolation amplifier The isolation amplifier provides an isolation barrier between the input and output sides, each having a differential amplifier. A separate supply and ground on bothe sides faciliates this isolation. An optocoupler is used for this isolation,which comprises of a photo diode on the input side and a photo-detector on the output side. This is given to the differential aplifier, which inturn provides a differential output with a separate Vcc and ground from that of the input differential amplifier. This way, the isolation amplifier has been made use of, to isolate the input and output sides. The ACPL C87B optical isolation amplifier from Avago, has been used in the setup, owing to the less cost involved and ready availability. When tested for individual slaves, the parameters were successfully communicated with the PC via a master controller. The voltage and current values are being successfully read from the slaves and received on the Hyperterminal window on the desktop PC. These values are then imported to the MS excel sheet and the comparitive performance among the panels has been perfromed among the individual panels and at regular intervals of time. The data from the panels are taken daily at regular intervals( every 1 minute), over a time span of roughly 89 hours. The data was then analyzed using the graphs extracted from the data and the values of the power received from the 5 watt panels are thus being analyzed successfully.

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Fig. 3.14 The internal structure of an isolation amplifier Measurement of Panel Parameters using an Isolation Amplifier- A Detailed Description The figure shows the arrangement of the solar panels and the total setup of the system. The voltage across an individual panel is taken across a voltage divider and given to an isolation amplifier. The isolation amplifier has a separate Vout+ and Vout- pins on the output side, which is given to the differential amplifier for sensing the voltage across the panel and the current in the string. The Vcc (supply) and ground to the opamp of the differential amplifier and the microcontroller is the same. The Vcc is supplied from a constant voltage source or a battery. The output of the differential amplifier is connected to the ADC pin of the microcontroller. In the setup, three panels have been placed in series, thus each representing a slave. On the printed board, there are two differential amplifiers, one for each slave (to read their respective voltages). The third differential amplifier for the voltage measurement of the third panel along with a single differential amplifier for the current measurement is placed on the second board. The high voltage across rails needs to be scaled down to fit the input range of the iso-amp by choosing R1 and R2 values according to appropriate ratio. The input measuring range of the iso-amp used is 0-2 volts. The design includes a step-down factor of 10. Thus a 9.1KOhm and a 1 KOhm resistor divider network has been used in the system. The pins 3 and 4 of the iso-amplifier have been shorted as, pin 3 is an active high- shut down pin.

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Fig. 3.15 The measurement system which outputs the voltage/current value to the ADC of the controller The ACPL-C87B senses the single-ended input signal and produces differential outputs across the galvanic isolation barrier. The differential outputs (Vout+, Vout-) can be connected to an op-amp to convert to a single-ended signal or directly to two ADCs. The op-amp used in the external post-amplifier circuit should be of sufficiently high precision so that it does not contribute a significant amount of offset or offset drift relative to the contribution from the isolation amplifier. In the similar way, the voltage across each panel is sensed and sent to the microcontroller to be saved and passed to the PC. The current of the whole string is measured across the shunt. The voltage drop across the shunt, which has a very small resistance, is then converted back to the current value, using the code burnt on the controller chip. The current readings are also thus sent to the PC. The code was developed such a way, that the data from each panel (voltage) and current is read every minute from morning to evening. The maximum power can be obtained when the irradiance or the light intensity is maximum, which occurs at around 1 pm of the day. The values from the Hyperterminal, the serial communication interface on the computer, are then exported to an MS-Excel book. These values are operated to compute the power. The graphs obtained are studied to judge the health of the panel.

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CHAPTER 4 RESULT ANALYSIS

This chapter deal with the detailed analysis of the results that were obtained when the above designed circuits were put to test under various conditions. 4.1 RESULT ANALYSIS OF VOLTAGE SENSING USING METHOD 1 Table 4.1 : Values obtained from preliminary voltage sensing circuit Remarks At 11:30 am, no shadow At 11:30 am, with shadow on Panel 1 At 11:30 am, with shadow on Panels 1 & 4 Panel 1 Voltage(V) 15.6 -47 Panel 2 Voltage(V) 15.5 19.5 Panel 3 Voltage(V) 16.5 19.5 Panel 4 String current Voltage(V) measured(amp) 16.5 0.251 19.5 0.054

-18.5

19.5

19.5

-53

0.033

Readings found using the circuit shown in fig. 3.7 However, the results obtained when the circuit was tested on a 5-watt panel were incorrect due to the wrong reference point considered while testing the circuit. The inputs were given directly across a 1 kilo ohm resistor, which is not grounded. As the output and input were not measured with a common ground, the results the circuit yielded were proved to be wrong. This is evident from the values because a panel can never give a negative voltage that too of such a high value. The current values on the other hand plummeted as soon as the panels had been covered or shadowed, which was as expected. The table shows the effect of shadow on the panel voltages. 4.1.1 Conclusion The Vin in the table indicates the input given from the solar panel to the circuit. V out is the output of the differential amplifier. According to the design, the values have to be equal. As the voltage measured using the circuit yielded negative values when the panel was shadowed, a few corrections were made to the circuit.

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4.2 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT MEASUREMENT USING METHOD 2 4.2.1 Values obtained when dc source given as Input and Supply The following voltage values were obtained when the modified circuit was tested on a source which generates dc voltage as shown in the above figures. This was done in order to test the circuit for its working. As the readings obtained were more or less linearly varying, the circuit was judged to be working properly. Later, the same circuit was tested on a four 5-watt panel arrangement, shown above. The values of voltage and current acquired from this test are given in the table below. Table 4.2 : Values obtained when dc source given as input and supply
INPUT 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 OUTPUT 1.152 1.332 1.572 1.709 1.915 2.115 2.334 2.555 2.739 2.965 3.139 3.335 3.518 3.745 3.92 4.115 4.347 4.515 4.745 4.962 5.151 5.36 5.566 5.765 5.965 RATIO AVERAGE 6.0763889 6.006006 5.7251908 5.8513751 5.7441253 5.6737589 5.5698372 5.4794521 5.4764513 5.3962901 5.4157375 5.3973013 5.4007959 5.3404539 5.3571429 5.346294 5.2910053 5.3156146 5.2687039 5.2398227 5.2417006 5.2238806 5.2102048 5.2038161 5.1969824 5.4579333 INPUT (CALCULATED) 6.2208 7.1928 8.4888 9.2286 10.341 11.421 12.6036 13.797 14.7906 16.011 16.9506 18.009 18.9972 20.223 21.168 22.221 23.4738 24.381 25.623 26.7948 27.8154 28.944 30.0564 31.131 32.211

5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4

4.2.2 Values obtained when tested on 5-watt solar panels A load resistance of 600 ohms and 5 watt rating has been used along with a shunt of approximately 7ohms. The values shown are measured w.r.t the common ground after stepdown.

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Remarks No shadow Shadow on Panel 1 Shadow on Panel 1 & 2 Shadow on Panel 2 Shadow on Panel 3 & 4

Table 4.3 : Values obtained when tested on 5 watt solar panels Panel 1 Panel 1 Panel 1 Panel 1 String voltage(v) voltage(v) voltage(v) voltage(v) current(amps) 3.133 3.177 3.158 3.202 0.220 3.203 3.567 3.596 3.649 0.09850 1.600 3.652 3.747 3.384 3.102 3.642 3.602 3.573 0.004 3.662 3.633 0.0001 0.08885 0.091 0.06

4.2.3 Analysis The modified circuit has two biasing resistors each of 10 K ohms for setting the input terminals with respect to the ground reference. Moreover, the step down is given at the output of the differential amplifier so that the voltage lies in the range of the ADC input, which is a part of the controller. The circuit is a unity gain amplifier that provides no gain, and gives the voltage between the input terminals at the output. A step-down of nearly 5 is provided using the 3.9 K and 1 K ohm resistors. The circuit produced desired output in both cases, when the same input is also given to the power supply pins of the opamp IC and when the supply voltage is different from the input given to it. The table shows values when both the supply and input were given the same. 4.2.4 Conclusion From the readings obtained on inspecting the panels both using a dc source and solar panels, we can conclude that the results are as expected except for a common multiplication factor and a small amount of error ( maximum of 3-4%). Accuracy on this scale is acceptable in field-scenarios as we mainly intend to focus on the health over the accuracy of the output given by it.

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4.3 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES WITH ISOLATION Table 4.4 : Values obtained with isolation Voltage Panel (V) Voltage Measured (V) Current (A) Panel 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 19.2 19.5 19.1 18.9 18.0 15.8 8.9 3.5 0.6 0.0 Panel 2 19.2 19.5 19.3 18.9 18.1 15.8 10.3 4.3 0.9 0.0 Panel 1 19.1 19.3 18.9 18.7 17.9 15.8 8.9 3.3 0.5 0.0 Panel 2 19.1 19.3 19.1 18.7 17.9 15.8 10.2 4.1 0.7 0.0 Panel 1 0.091 0.091 0.090 0.087 0.084 0.073 0.041 0.014 0.002 0.000 Panel 2 0.092 0.092 0.092 0.086 0.083 0.072 0.052 0.028 0.005 0.000 2.00 PM 2.30 PM 3.00 PM 3.30 PM 4.00 PM 4.30 PM 5.00 PM 5.30 PM 6.00 PM 6.30 PM

S.No

Time

Analysis : The Values show consistent behaviour of the panels thus proving the concept that voltage and current values can be found out with isolation.

4.4 ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ACQUIRED AT THE CENTRAL COMPUTER 4.4.1 Formatting of the data received for ease in analysis The master collects data from each of the slaves every minute. It accomplishes this by sending the ID of the particular slave that it wants the data from to all the slaves. The slaves match the ID sent by the master with its own ID. Once the ID matches, the slave sends the data to the master in the format : TIME: DEVICE ID: DATA (6 values) . The master then sends this data to hyperterminal of the central computer.

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Fig. 4.1 Illustrates the format in which the data is received at the central computer Once the data is received in this format, all this data is saved as a .txt file. An excel file is then created which segregates this data into a format which can be analyzed upon with ease.

Fig. 4.2 Segregated Excel Sheet 4.4.2 Analysis of different cases that were observed From the data that was received, we calculated the power output of each of the panels the analysis is only these values which are sampled consistently. For the purpose of this report we present different cases that were observed.

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4.2.2.1 Case 1:

Power is measured in Watts

Fig. 4.3 Graphs indicating the power output of the panels vs. time (case 1) The conclusions that can be drawn from these graphs: All the three panels, until 3 pm produce a power of in and around 3 watts. Soon after 3 pm, the values drop drastically and all the panels start behaving erratically. A panel which is rated a maximum of 5 watts is noticed to give a power output of more than 5 watts. This leads us to conclude that the measurement of the panels is faulty or that some of the IC's being used have been damaged. Also, since all the three panels are behaving the same way, it can be safely assumed that it is not the case that some panel has been damaged.

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4.4.2.2 Case 2:

Power is measured in Watts

Fig. 4.4 Graphs indicating the power output of the panels vs. time (case 2) The case here : On this particular day, the weather was cloudy until afternoon and then it was very sunny for a while and started raining soon after. The panel behaviour that was observed can be analyzed as follows: All the three panels, until 1.30 pm were giving a power output which was in between 2 and 2.5 watts. From 1.30 onwards, since the cloud cover diminished, the power output of all the three panels increased significantly to up to 3 watts This increase lasted for about two hours after which it started to rain. The values after 3.30 pm indicate the absolute no generation power after 3.30.

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4.4.2.3 Case 3:

Power is measured Watts

Fig. 4.5 Graphs indicating the power output vs. time (case 3) The case here : On this particular day, the weather was not too sunny. But yet there was consistent sun light through the cloud cover. We wanted to force another condition along with the cloud cover. Therefore we covered all the three panels at a particular time during the day and observed the behaviour of the panels. The analysis is as follows: Consistent behaviour of all the three panels giving an output of 2-2.5 watts can be observed during the morning hours. Forced shadow on the panels 2.15 pm to 2.40 pm clearly shows the drop is the power output of the panels. Soon after the forced shadow is removed the panels start behaving normally again. After 4.20 pm, the effect of the cloud cover was evident. Because of this, the panel that was connected to the high side (panel 1) was effected adversely as compared to the other two panels.
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4.4.2.4 Case 4:

Power is measured Watts

Fig. 4.6 Graphs indicating the power output vs. time (case 4) The case here: On this day, the weather was normal and not cloudy. At about 3.50 pm, one of the isolation amplifiers was disconnected in the circuit. The behaviour of the panel can be analyzed as follows: The power output of each of the three panels was identical. The range was 2-2.5 Watts The power output from all the panels was fairly consistent till the evening. At about 3.50 pm, one of the isolation amplifiers was disconnect and its effect on the panel performance can be clearly seen in all the three graphs, From these graphs, it can be safely assumed that spikes and valleys in the graphs are indications of the abnormal functioning of the system.

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4.4.2.5 Case 5:

Power is measured Watts

Fig. 4.7 Graphs indicating the power output vs. time of the panels (case 5) The case here : On this day, the weather was normal as it would be on a typical summer day. But one of the batteries, which is the supply for the input side of the isolation amplifier for panel 2, got discharged the previous night and we had not noticed it. The analysis is as follows : The panels 1 and 3 perform identically by giving almost the same power output. Panel 2 on the other hand, initially behaves the same way but it suddenly falls down to a lower value and is consistent at that value. If the panel was behaving like this consistently for the four or five days, then we could have safely assumed that the panel was faulty. But since we checked the system once again, we found that the battery was discharged. Therefore this sort of comparison would allow us to service the faulty panels well.

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4.4.2.6 Case 6:

Power is measured Watts

Fig. 4.8 Graphs indicating the power output vs. time of the panels (case 6) The case here: On this day, the weather was normal. The analysis is as follows: The panels perform identically by giving almost constant output. This is a perfect working condition With this result, we analyzed that it is enough to have data from 10 am - 3 pm as this is the time when the sun rays are direct on to the panels. If during this time, the panels are performing identically then we can assume that there is no fault in the system. If there is difference in the performance of the panels, then the panel which is performing badly can be noted and then be kept under constant scrutiny for the next 4-5 days.

If it exhibits the same diminished performance then that panel can be deemed faulty.

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CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK

5.1 REVIEW OF PROBLEM STATEMENT & OBJECTIVE The problem statement is to monitor the performance of the PV panels that have been placed in multiple arrays which produce power for Industries with high power requirement. The objective is to measure the voltage and current values of all the individual panels, estimate the power output of the panels and the whole system and thus identify the panel that has been degraded. 5.2 WORK CONCLUSION After the analysis of the results obtained, we can conclude that the Isolation method of voltage and current measurement fails practically as it is not feasible economically and also poses complexity in its circuitry. As for the performance, the second method i.e., the non-Isolation method is the most practical as it would not disturb the power being generated and would perform its tasks with minimal intrusion into the circuitry if the power generation system. For the measurement of the voltage, the modified differential amplifier with the ground problem addressed is the perfect solution. For the current measurement, a shunt resistance in series with the load is gives us the string currents and allows us to identify the faulty panels by measuring their instantaneous power. Comparison of the Power vs. Time graphs of individual panels with each other allows us to identify the pattern for the day. If the pattern of the graphs of all the panels is consistent over a particular day then it can be assumed that the panels are in proper working condition. Any consistent deviation from the general pattern over a period of time can be noted as an anomaly and diagnosis of that particular panel "on site" must be carried out. The unforeseen complications in this project caused us to limit our work till proving the algorithm on 5watt panels that was proposed to be used. Extension of this algorithm to 240 watt panels could not be carried out.

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5.3 FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK We have designed, fabricated and tested data acquisition systems and thus have finalized the methods that have to be implemented. But the work we have done needs to be extended to the field scenario where 240 watt panels will be used. The isolation amplifier needs separate power supply and ground to the input and the output. In our current system, a dc source is connected to a power supply board which gives constant dc supply to output side of all the isolation amplifiers. This supply is common. To the input side of the isolation amplifier, we have placed a SMPS which gives dc supply . But on field, generation of such different supply is not practically possible. Power supply to the microcontroller is also a very essential issue that has to be addressed. Therefore what we suggest is: 1. The power supply to the input side of the isolation amplifier from each slave needs to be taken from the solar panel itself. But, if the panel is faulty or the conditions are not appropriate, the panel might produce varying voltages. To avoid this problem, use of buck boost converters between the panel and the input side of the isolation amplifiers is advised. 2. A switch mode power supply can be used to give the power supply to the output side of the isolation amplifiers. 3. Supply to the microcontroller can be given from the panel itself. But to provide isolation to the input side of the isolation amplifier and the microcontroller, isolation transformers can be used after buck boost converters to give supply to the microcontroller. 4. A front end software needs to developed using Microsoft .Net. which has the capability to create a different hyperterminal at the central computer. This separate hyperterminal can be programmed in .Net itself to automatically segregate the data and compare them in order to have a fully automated system.

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REFERENCES
Journal / Conference Papers [1] Elke Lorenz, Irradiance Forecasting for the power prediction of grid connected photovoltaic systems, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing, volume 2, March 2009, 2-10 Reference / Hand Books [1] Richard Corkish, Solar Cells, "Encyclopedia of Energy", 2004
[2] Aldous, Scott. How Silicon in Solar Cells Works. How Stuff Works. 02 Oct 2005 [3] PV Technology Photovoltaic: Sustainable Power for the World. 08 Oct 2005 [4] LGBG Technology Towards 20% Efficient Silicon Solar Cells. 02 Oct 2005 [5] Nation Center for Photovoltaics.Turning Sunlight into Electricity. 20 Oct. 2002. Web

[1] PIC Microcontroller Compiler, Custom Computer Services, www.ccsinfo.com [2] Syntax of functions for PIC Microcontroller, Custom Computer Services.

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ANNEXURES
SERIAL COMMUNICATION CODE: Code burnt in the master: #include <16F876a.h> #device adc=10 #fuses HS,WDT,NOPROTECT,BROWNOUT,NOLVP,PUT,NOWRT #use delay(clock=20000000,RESTART_WDT) #USE RS232(BAUD=9600,XMIT=PIN_B7,RCV=PIN_B6,STREAM=RS485,BITS=8,STOP=1,PA RITY=N,ENABLE=PIN_B5,ERRORS,RESTART_WDT) // Initializing RS232 to transmit and receive data between the master controller and the slaves #USE RS232(BAUD=9600,XMIT=PIN_C6,RCV=PIN_C7,STREAM=PC,BITS=8,STOP=1,PARI TY=N,ERRORS,RESTART_WDT) // Initializing RS232 to transmit and receive data between the Hyperterminal and the master controller #byte #byte #byte PORTA = 0x05 // Initializing the input and the output pins in PORT A PORTB = 0x06 // Initializing the input and the output pins in PORT B PORTC = 0x07 // Initializing the input and the output pins in PORT C

#include<stdio.h> #include<math.h> #include<stddef.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<DEFINE.c> #include<LcdLeds.c> #include<RTC.C> int16 count=0; int8 onflag=0; int8 sc=0,time=0;T int8 sm=0,pflag=0,pflag1=0; int32 a=0; int8 rmin,onmin,pollflag;
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#separate void write_default_eeprom() // This function is written to erase the data that is initially stored in the eeprom of the microcontroller. //This enables us to make a note of the initial time in order to sample the incoming panel values every minute. { If(-1==read_eeprom(0x10)||255==read_eeprom(0x10)) { write_eeprom(0X10,2); ds1307_get_time(hr,min,sec); time=min; write_eeprom(0x05,time); } } #separate char timed_getc() // This is the receiving function written to receive data from the RS485 stream and save it in a data array. { UNSIGNED CHAR C; int32 timeout=0; int timeout_error=0; timeout_error=FALSE; while(!kbhit(RS485)&&(++timeout<50000)) // 1/2 second delay_us(10); if(kbhit(RS485)) { DO { C=FGETC(RS485); if(C=='#') INSD=0; DATA_ARR[insd++]=C; } WHILE('@'!=C&&timeout<50000); delay_ms(1000);
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RETURN(1); } ELSE RETURN(0); } #SEPARATE VOID init_io() // Function written to initialize the TRIS register { Set_Tris_a(0XFF); set_tris_b(0X40); set_tris_c(0x80); } void main() { init_io(); delay_ms(10); ds1307_init(); delay_ms(50); lcd_init(); delay_ms(200); enable_interrupts(GLOBAL); output_low(pin_b5); SETUP_WDT(WDT_2304MS); write_default_eeprom(); pflag=1; pflag1=1; while(TRUE) { RESTART_WDT(); readtime(day,mth,year,dow,hr,min,sec ); lcd_gotoxy(1,1); printf(lcd_putc,"%ld:%d:%d",hr,min,sec); rmin=min; time=read_eeprom(0x05); lcd_gotoxy(1,2); printf(lcd_putc,"t:%d",time);
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a=a+1; lcd_gotoxy(5,2); printf(lcd_putc,"a:%ld",a); if(a==1) { onmin=time+1; } lcd_gotoxy(9,2); printf(lcd_putc,"o:%d",onmin); if(rmin>=time && pflag==1) { readtime(day,mth,year,dow,hr,min,sec ); onmin=min+1; pflag=2; } if(rmin<=time && pflag1==1) { readtime(day,mth,year,dow,hr,min,sec ); onmin=min+1; pflag1=2; } if(onmin>=60 && onmin<=69) { onmin=(onmin%10); lcd_gotoxy(10,4); printf(lcd_putc,"o2:%d",onmin); } if(onmin>=70 && onmin<=79) { onmin=(onmin%10); onmin=(Onmin+10); } if(onmin>=80 && onmin<=89) { onmin=(onmin%10); onmin=(onmin+20); } if(onmin==rmin) { pollflag=1;
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lcd_gotoxy(12,2); printf(lcd_putc,"p:%d",pollflag); } if(pollflag==1) { pollflag=2; onmin=onmin+1; fprintf(RS485,"#15d@"); onflag=1; lcd_gotoxy(10,1); printf(lcd_putc,"1"); } if(onflag==1) { sc=sc+1; } if(sc>=10) { sc=0; onflag=2; fprintf(RS485,"#25d@"); lcd_gotoxy(10,1); printf(lcd_putc,"2"); } if(onflag==2) { sm=sm+1; } if(sm>=8) { sm=0; onflag=3; fprintf(RS485,"#35d@"); lcd_gotoxy(10,1); printf(lcd_putc,"3"); } IF(1==timed_getc()) { fprintf(PC,"\n%ld:%d:D:%s",hr,min,DATA_ARR);
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} ELSE { } } } Code burnt in the Slaves: #include<16f876a.h> #device adc=10 #fuses HS,WDT,BROWNOUT #use delay(clock=20M,RESTART_WDT) #USE RS232(BAUD=9600,XMIT=PIN_C6,RCV=PIN_C7,STREAM=RS485,BITS=8,STOP=1,PA RITY=N,ENABLE=PIN_B5,ERRORS,RESTART_WDT)

#byte PORTA=0X05 #byte PORTB=0X06 #byte PORTC=0X07

#include<stdio.h> #include<math.h> #include<stddef.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<define.c> #include<LCDLEDOP.c> #include<eeprom.c>

int8 s2id=2; int8 s3id=3; int8 mid=5; int8 s1id=1;

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float volt1; float current; float svolt1,svolt2,svolt3,svolt4,current1,svolt5,svolt6,svolt7=0,svolt8,current2;

int8 sc=0,sm=0,sk=0,onflag=0; int8 a=1; int16 count=0; int8 cflag=0; int8 loc1,loc2,loc3,loc4,loc5;

#separate void defaulteeprom() { if(1==read_eeprom(0x02)||255==read_eeprom(0x02)||1==read_eeprom(0x02)||0==read_eeprom (0x02)) { write_eeprom(0x03,1); write_eeprom(0x05,0x25); write_eeprom(0x02,4); } } void readeeprom() { svolt1=read_float_eeprom(0x25); svolt2=read_float_eeprom(0x29); svolt3=read_float_eeprom(0x33); svolt4=read_float_eeprom(0x37); svolt5=read_float_eeprom(0x41); onflag=2; } #separate void adcreading() { set_adc_channel(0);
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delay_us(20); ad = read_adc(); volt1 = (float)ad *(5.0/1023); delay_ms(50); lcd_gotoxy(10,2); printf (lcd_putc, "v:%f",volt1); volt1=(volt1*10.2); lcd_gotoxy(8,1); printf (lcd_putc, "v1:%f",volt1); cflag=2; } #separate char timed_getc() { UNSIGNED CHAR C; int32 timeout=0; int timeout_error=0; timeout_error=FALSE; while(!kbhit(RS485)) delay_us(10); if(kbhit(RS485)) { DO { C=FGETC(RS485); if(C=='#') INSD=0; DATA_ARR[insd++]=C; } WHILE('@'!=C&&timeout<50000); RETURN(1); } ELSE RETURN(0); } void init_io() {
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set_tris_a(0Xff); //1111 1010 set_tris_b(0x00); //0100 0000 set_tris_c(0x80); //1000 0000 } VOID MAIN() { init_io(); delay_ms(10); lcd_init(); delay_ms(50); setup_adc_ports (ALL_ANALOG) ; setup_adc (ADC_CLOCK_INTERNAL); setup_wdt(WDT_2304MS); enable_interrupts(GLOBAL); defaulteeprom(); WHILE(TRUE) { restart_wdt(); count=count+1; lcd_gotoxy(1,1); printf(lcd_putc,"c:%ld",count); if(count>=8) { count=0; cflag=1; } if(cflag==1) { adcreading(); } IF(1==timed_getc()) { lcd_gotoxy(1,2); printf(lcd_putc,"D:%c%c%c%c%c",DATA_ARR[0],DATA_ARR[1],DATA_ARR[2 ],DATA_ARR[3],DATA_ARR[4]); if('2'==data_arr[1]&&'5'==data_arr[2] &&'d'==data_arr[3]) {
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data_arr[1]=0; onflag=6; svolt1=read_float_eeprom(0x25); svolt2=read_float_eeprom(0x29); svolt3=read_float_eeprom(0x2d); svolt4=read_float_eeprom(0x31); svolt5=read_float_eeprom(0x35); svolt6=read_float_eeprom(0x39); fprintf(RS485,"#%d:%f:%f:%f:%f:%f:%f@",s2id,svolt1,svolt2,svolt3,svolt4,svolt5,s volt6); } } ELSE { } if(cflag==2) { a=read_eeprom(0x03); loc1=read_eeprom(0x05);//25 lcd_gotoxy(1,2); printf(lcd_putc,"l1:%x",loc1); write_float_eeprom(loc1,volt1); write_eeprom(0x05,loc1+4); cflag=3; a=a+1; write_eeprom(0x03,a); } lcd_gotoxy(1,4); printf(lcd_putc,"a:%d",a); a=read_eeprom(0x03); if(a==7) { svolt1=read_float_eeprom(0x25); svolt2=read_float_eeprom(0x29); svolt3=read_float_eeprom(0x2d); svolt4=read_float_eeprom(0x31); svolt5=read_float_eeprom(0x35);
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svolt6=read_float_eeprom(0x39); write_eeprom(0x03,1); write_eeprom(0x05,0x25); } } }

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PROJECT DETAILS
Student Details Student Name Register Number Email Address Project Details Project Title Project Duration Organization Details Organization Name Full postal address with pin code Website address Supervisor Details Supervisor Name Designation Full contact address with pin code Email address Internal Guide Details Faculty Name Full contact address with pin code Email address

Revanth Gurram 090907074 Section / Roll No revanthgurram@gmail.com Phone No (M) Remote Monitoring of Solar Panels 4 months Date of reporting Servomax India Pvt. Ltd.

C-126 +91-9966476255

January 21, 2013

Plot No.16,17, & 18, Phase-II,(Adj.CIPET),Cheralapally, Hyderabad-500051. A.P. INDIA.

http://www.servomax.net/ Srikanth B Sr. Engineer, Research and Development

Plot No.16,17, & 18, Phase-II,(Adj.CIPET),Cheralapally, Hyderabad-500051. A.P. INDIA.

b.srikanth@servomax.net

Phone No (M)

9912548300

R.Vinoth Dept. of E&CEngg.,Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal 576 104 (Karnataka State), INDIA vinoth.nair@manipal.edu

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