Annex D to SEMBCO Submission

MTB Environmental Impact Study

Environmental Impacts of Mountain Biking: Science Review and Best Practices

By Jeff Marion and Jeremy Wimpey

Mountain biking is still a relatively ne activity !ose environmental impact and contribution to trail degradation is poorly understood" As it! all recreational pursuits# it is clear t!at mountain biking contributes some degree o$ environmental degradation" In t!e absence o$ ade%uate researc!# land and trail managers !ave $re%uently been cautious# implementing restrictive regulations in some instances &Edger '(()*" Surveys o$ managers !ave s!o n t!at t!ey $re%uently perceive mountain biking to be a substantial contributor to trail degradation but lack scienti$ic studies or monitoring data to substantiate suc! concerns &C!ave+ and ot!ers '((,- Sc!uett '(()*" In recent years# !o ever# a small number o$ studies !ave been conducted t!at !elp clari$y t!e environmental impacts associated it! mountain biking" T!is article describes t!e general impacts associated it! recreational uses o$ natural sur$ace trails# it! a $ocus on t!ose studies t!at !ave examined mountain biking impacts" Trails are generally regarded as essential $acilities in parks and $orests" T!ey provide access to remote areas# accommodate a diverse array o$ recreational activities# and protect resources by concentrating visitor trampling on narro and resistant tread sur$aces" .ormal or designated trails are generally designed and constructed# !ic! involves vegetation removal and soil excavation" T!ese c!anges may be considered /unavoidable#/ in contrast to /avoidable/ post0 construction degradation $rom t!eir subse%uent use &e"g"# trail idening# erosion# muddiness*# or $rom t!e development and degradation o$ in$ormal visitor0created trails" Common environmental impacts associated it! recreational use o$ trails include1 o 2egetation loss and compositional c!anges o Soil compaction o Erosion o Muddiness o Degraded ater %uality o Disruption o$ ildli$e T!is article is organi+ed into $our broad categories1 impacts to vegetation# soil# ater# and ildli$e"

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MTB Environmental Impact Study

On $ormal trails# most vegetation is typically removed by construction# maintenance# and visitor use" T!is impact is necessary and /unavoidable/ in order to provide a clear route $or trail users" One goal o$ trail construction and maintenance is to provide a trail only ide enoug! to accommodate t!e intended use" Trails made ider t!an t!is t!roug! visitor use or erosion represent a $orm o$ /avoidable/ impact" .or example# a doubling o$ trail idt! represents a doubling o$ t!e area o$ intensive trampling disturbance" 4ider trails also expose substantially greater amounts o$ soil to erosion by ind or ater" T!e creation and maintenance o$ trail corridors also removes s!rubs and trees# allo ing greater sunlig!t exposure t!at $avors a di$$erent set o$ groundcover plants it!in trail corridors" Occasional trailside trampling it!in trail corridors also $avors t!e replacement o$ $ragile plants it! t!ose more resistant to trampling tra$$ic" .or example# s!ade0tolerant but $ragile broadleaved !erbs are $re%uently replaced by grasses and sedges t!at are trampling0resistant and re%uire more sunlig!t to survive" Trail construction# use# and maintenance can also be !arm$ul !en trails divide sensitive or rare plant communities" Trampling 0 t!e action o$ crus!ing or treading upon vegetation# eit!er by $oot# !oo$# or tire 0 contributes to a ide range o$ vegetation impacts# including damage to plant leaves# stems# and roots# reduction in vegetation !eig!t# c!ange in t!e composition o$ species# and loss o$ plants and vegetative cover &5eung 6 Marion# '((7- T!urston 6 8eader# 9::'*" Trampling associated it! /avoidable/ o$$0trail tra$$ic can %uickly break do n vegetation cover and create a visible route t!at attracts additional use" Complete loss o$ vegetation cover occurs %uickly in s!ady $orested areas# less %uickly in open areas it! resistant grassy vegetation" 8egardless# studies !ave consistently revealed t!at most impact occurs it! initial or lo use# it! a diminis!ing increase in impact associated it! increasing levels o$ tra$$ic &;ammit 6 Cole# '((<- 5eung 6 Marion# '((7*" .urt!ermore# once trampling occurs# vegetative recovery is a very slo process" Compositional c!anges in t!e vegetation along trail corridors can !ave bot! bene$icial and adverse e$$ects" Trampling0resistant plants provide a durable groundcover t!at reduces soil loss by ind and ater runo$$# and root systems t!at stabili+e soils against displacement by !eavy tra$$ic" T!e ecological impacts o$ suc! compositional c!anges are not $ully kno n# except !en non0native vegetation is introduced to and spreads along trail corridors" Many o$ t!ese species are disturbance0associated and are naturally limited to areas !ere t!e vegetation is routinely trampled or cut back" ;o ever# a $e non0native species# once introduced to trail corridors# are able to out0compete native plants and spread a ay $rom t!e trail corridor in undisturbed !abitats" Some o$ t!ese species $orm dense cover t!at cro d out or displace native plants" T!ese /invasive/ species are particularly undesirable and land managers actively seek

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to prevent t!eir introduction and spread" =n$ortunately t!eir removal is di$$icult and expensive" Impacts to egetation: Mountain Biking#Specific Researc" Only one study $ound speci$ically addresses t!e vegetation impacts associated it! mountain biking" T!urston and 8eader &9::'* conducted an experimental trampling study involving mountain bikers and !ikers in Boyne 2alley 3rovincial 3ark o$ Ontario# Canada" T!e researc!ers measured plant density &number o$ stems>area*# diversity &number o$ species present*# and soil exposure &area o$ mineral soil exposed* be$ore and a$ter ?:: one0 ay passes by bikers and !ikers" Data analysis and statistical testing revealed t!at t!e impacts o$ !iking and biking ere not signi$icantly di$$erent $or t!e t!ree indicators measured" T!ey also concluded t!at impacts $rom bot! !ikers and bikers ere spatially con$ined to t!e centerline o$ t!e lane &trail*" Impacts to egetation: Management Implications Trail managers can eit!er avoid or minimi+e impacts to vegetation t!roug! care$ul trail design# construction# maintenance# and management o$ visitor use" ;ere are some recommendations to reduce vegetation impacts1
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Design trails t!at provide t!e experience t!at trail users seek to reduce t!eir desire to venture o$$0trail" 5ocate trails a ay $rom rare plants and animals and $rom sensitive or critical !abitats o$ ot!er species" Involve resource pro$essionals in designing and approving ne trail alignments" @eep trails narro to reduce t!e total area o$ intensive tread disturbance# slo trail users# and minimi+e vegetation and soil impacts" 5imit vegetation disturbance outside t!e corridor !en constructing trails" ;and construction is least disruptive- mec!ani+ed construction it! small e%uipment is less disruptive t!an $ull0si+ed e%uipment- skilled operators do less damage t!an t!ose it! limited experience" 5ocate trails on side0!ills !ere possible" Constructing a side0!ill trail re%uires greater initial vegetation and soil disturbance but sloping topograp!y above and belo t!e trail benc! ill clearly de$ine t!e tread and concentrate tra$$ic on it" Trails in $latter terrain or along t!e $all line may involve less initial disturbance but allo excessive $uture tread idening and o$$0tread trampling# !ic! $avor non0native plants" =se construction tec!ni%ues t!at save and redistribute topsoil and excavated plants"

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T!ere are also important considerations $or maintaining and managing trails to avoid unnecessary ongoing impacts to vegetation1
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4!ile it is necessary to keep t!e trail corridor $ree o$ obstructing vegetation# suc! ork s!ould seek to avoid /day0lig!ting/ t!e trail corridor !en possible" Excessive opening o$ t!e overstory allo s greater sunlig!t penetration t!at permits greater vegetation compositional c!ange and coloni+ation by non0native plants" An active maintenance program t!at removes tree $alls and maintains a stable and predictable tread also encourages visitors to remain on t!e intended narro tread" A variety o$ maintenance actions can discourage trail idening# suc! as only cutting a narro section out o$ trees t!at $all across t!e trail# limiting t!e idt! o$ vegetation trimming# and de$ining trail borders it! logs# rocks# or ot!er obAects t!at onBt impede drainage" =se education to discourage o$$0trail travel# !ic! can %uickly lead to t!e establis!ment o$ in$ormal visitor0created trails t!at unnecessarily remove vegetation cover and spread non0native plants" Suc! routes o$ten degrade rapidly and are abandoned in $avor o$ adAacent ne routes# !ic! unnecessarily magni$y t!e extent and severity o$ trampling damage" Educate visitors to be a are o$ t!eir ability to carry non0native plant seeds on t!eir bikes or clot!ing# and encourage t!em to remove seeds by as!ing mud $rom bikes# tires# s!oes# and clot!ing" 3reventing t!e introduction o$ non0natives is key# as t!eir subse%uent removal is di$$icult and costly" Educate visitors about lo impact riding practices# suc! as t!ose contained in t!e IMBA0approved 5eave Co Trace Skills 6 Et!ics1 Mountain Biking booklet & "5CT"org*"

.or $urt!er reading see1 Cess$ord '((?- Drutt+ and ;ollings!ead '((?- T!urston and 8eader 9::l" Impacts to Soils: !eneral Researc" T!e creation and use o$ trails also results in soil disturbance" Some loss o$ soil may be considered an acceptable and unavoidable $orm o$ impact on trails" As it! vegetation loss# muc! soil disturbance occurs in t!e initial construction and use o$ t!e trail" During trail construction# sur$ace organic materials &e"g"# t igs# leaves# and needles* and organic soils are removed $rom treads- trails built on side!ill locations re%uire even more extensive excavation" In addition# t!e underlying mineral soils are compacted during construction and initial use to $orm a durable tread substrate t!at supports trail tra$$ic" In contrast# post0construction soil displacement# erosion# and muddiness represent core $orms o$ avoidable trail impact t!at re%uire sustained management attention to avoid long0lasting resource degradation" T!is degradation can reduce t!e utility o$ trails as recreation $acilities and diminis! t!e

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%uality o$ visitor experiences" .or example# soil erosion exposes rocks and plant roots# creating a rutted and uneven tread sur$ace" Erosion can also be sel$0 perpetuating !en treads erode belo t!e surrounding soil level# !indering e$$orts to divert ater $rom t!e trail and causing accelerated erosion and muddiness" Similarly# excessive muddiness renders trails less usable and aggravates tread idening and associated vegetation loss as visitors seek to circumvent mud !oles and et soils &Marion# 9::7*" 8esearc! !as s!o n t!at visitors notice obvious $orms o$ trail impact# suc! as excessive muddiness and eroded ruts and tree roots# and t!at suc! impacts can degrade t!e %uality o$ visitor experiences &8oggenbuck and ot!ers"# '((,- 2aske and ot!ers"# '((,*" Suc! conditions also increase t!e di$$iculty o$ travel and may t!reaten visitor sa$ety" 8emedying t!ese soil impacts can also re%uire substantial re!abilitation costs" Clearly# one primary trail management obAective s!ould be t!e prevention o$ excessive soil impacts" 5etBs examine $our common $orms o$ soil impact in greater detail1 $"e %our &ommon %orms of Soil 'egradation on $rails: o Compaction o Muddiness o Displacement o Erosion Compaction1 Soil compaction is caused by t!e eig!t o$ trail users and t!eir e%uipment# !ic! passes t!roug! $eet# !ooves# or tires to t!e tread sur$ace" Compacted soils are denser and less permeable to ater# !ic! increases ater runo$$" ;o ever# compacted soils also resist erosion and soil displacement and provide durable treads t!at support tra$$ic" .rom t!is perspective# soil compaction is considered bene$icial# and it is an unavoidable $orm o$ trail impact" .urt!ermore# a primary resource protection goal is to limit trailside impacts by concentrating tra$$ic on a narro tread" Success in ac!ieving t!is obAective ill necessarily result in !ig!er levels o$ soil compaction" T!e process o$ compacting t!e soil can present a di$$icult c!allenge# especially on ne trails" =nless soils are mec!anically compacted during tread construction# initial use compacts t!e portions o$ t!e tread t!at receive t!e greatest tra$$ic# generally t!e center" T!e associated lo ering o$ t!e tread sur$ace creates a cupped cross0section t!at intercepts and collects sur$ace ater" In $lat terrain t!is ater can pool or $orm muddy sections- in sloping terrain t!e ater is c!anneled do n t!e trail# gaining in volume# speed# and erosive potential" Displacement1 Trail users can also pus! soil laterally# causing displacement and development o$ ruts# berms# or cupped treads" Soil displacement is particularly evident !en soils are damp or loose and !en users are moving at !ig!er rates o$ speed# turning# braking# or ot!er movements t!at create more lateral $orce"

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Soil can also be caug!t in !ooves# $oot ear# or tire treads# $licked to t!e side or carried some distance and dropped" 8egardless o$ t!e mec!anism# soil is generally displaced $rom t!e tread center to t!e sides# elevating inslopes or berms# and compounding drainage problems" Muddiness1 4!en trails are located in areas o$ poor drainage or across !ig!ly organic soils t!at !old moisture# tread muddiness can become a persistent problem" Muddiness is most commonly associated it! locations !ere ater $lo s across or becomes trapped it!in $lat or lo 0lying areas" Soil compaction# displacement# and erosion can exacerbate or create problems it! muddiness by causing cupped treads t!at collect ater during rain$all or sno melt" T!us# muddiness can occur even along trails !ere t!ere is su$$icient natural drainage" Subse%uent tra$$ic skirts t!ese problem spots# compacting soils along t!e edges# idening mud !oles and tread idt!# and sometimes creating braided trails t!at circumvent muddy sections" Erosion1 Soil erosion is an indirect and largely avoidable impact o$ trails and trail use" Soil can be eroded by ind# but generally# erosion is caused by $lo ing ater" To avoid erosion# sustainable trails are generally constructed it! a slig!tly cro ned &$lat terrain* or outsloped &sloping terrain* tread" ;o ever# subse%uent use compacts and>or displaces soils over time to create a cupped or insloped tread sur$ace t!at intercepts and carries ater" T!e concentrated run0o$$ picks up and carries soil particles do n!ill# eroding t!e tread sur$ace" 5oose# uncompacted soil particles are most prone to soil erosion# so trail uses t!at loosen or detac! soils contribute to !ig!er erosion rates" Erosion potential is closely related to trail grade because ater becomes substantially more erosive it! increasing slope" T!e si+e o$ t!e aters!ed draining to a section o$ trail is also in$luential 0 larger volumes o$ ater are substantially more erosive" 4ater and t!e sediment it carries ill continue do n t!e trail until a natural or constructed $eature diverts it o$$ t!e tread" Suc! $eatures include a natural or constructed reversal in grade# an outsloped tread# rocks or tree roots# or a constructed drainage dip or ater bar" Once t!e ater slo s# it drops its sediment load# $illing in tread drainage $eatures and causing t!em to $ail i$ not periodically maintained" Sediment can also be carried directly into atercourses# creating secondary impacts to a%uatic systems" 3roperly designed drainage $eatures are designed to divert ater $rom t!e trail at a speed su$$icient to carry t!e sediment load ell belo t!e tread# !ere vegetation and organic litter can $ilter out sediments" A ell0designed trail s!ould !ave little to no cumulative soil loss# $or example# less t!an an average o$ one0%uarter inc! &7", mm* per year"

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Impacts to Soils: Mountain Biking#Specific Researc" Several studies !ave evaluated t!e soil impacts o$ mountain biking" 4ilson and Seney &'((E* evaluated tread erosion $rom !orses# !ikers# mountain bikes# and motorcycles on t o trails in t!e Dallatin Cational .orest# Montana" T!ey applied one !undred passes o$ eac! use0type on $our sets o$ '9 trail segments# $ollo ed by simulated rain$alls and collection o$ ater runo$$ to assess sediment yield at t!e base o$ eac! segment" Control sites t!at received no passes ere also assessed $or comparison" 8esults indicated t!at !orses made signi$icantly more sediment available $or erosion t!an t!e ot!er uses# !ic! did not signi$icantly vary $rom t!e control sites" Tra$$ic on pre0 etted soils generated signi$icantly greater amounts o$ soil runo$$ t!an on dry soils $or all uses" Marion &9::7* studied )< miles &'9? km* o$ trail &E) segments* in t!e Big Sout! .ork Cational 8iver and 8ecreation Area# Tennessee and @entucky# measuring soil loss along transects across t!e trail to evaluate t!e in$luence o$ use0related# environmental# and management $actors" Side!ill0aligned trails ere signi$icantly less eroded t!an trails in valley bottom positions# in part due to t!e in$luence o$ periodic $loods" Trail grade and trail alignment angle ere also signi$icant predictors o$ tread erosion" Erosion rates on trails it! :07 percent and )0'? percent grades ere similar# !ile erosion on trails it! grades greater t!an '7 percent ere signi$icantly !ig!er" And t!ere as signi$icantly greater erosion on $all line trails &alignment angles o$ :099 degrees* t!an t!ose it! alignments closer to t!e contour" T!is study also provided an opportunity to examine t!e relative contribution o$ di$$erent use types# including !orse# !iking# mountain biking# and AT2" Trails predominantly used $or mountain biking !ad t!e least erosion o$ t!e use types investigated" Computed estimates o$ soil loss per mile o$ trail also revealed t!e mountain biking trails to !ave t!e lo est soil loss" 4!ite and ot!ers &9::7* also examined trails predominantly used $or mountain biking in $ive ecological regions o$ t!e Sout! est along '7, miles &979 km* o$ trail" T o trail condition indicators# tread idt! and maximum incision# ere assessed at eac! sample point" 8esults s!o t!at erosion and tread idt! on t!ese trails di$$ered little in comparison to ot!er s!ared0use trails t!at receive little or no mountain biking" Doe$t and Alder &9::'* evaluated t!e resource impacts o$ mountain biking on a recreational trail and racing track in Australia over a '90mont! period" A variety o$ trail condition indicators ere assessed on ne and older trail segments it! up!ill# do n!ill# and $lat trail sections" 8esults $ound t!at trail slope# age# and time ere signi$icant erosion $actors# and t!at do n!ill slopes and curves ere t!e most susceptible to erosion" Ce trails experienced greater amounts o$ soil compaction but all trails ex!ibited bot! compaction and loosening o$ soils over

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time" T!e idt! o$ t!e recreational trail varied over time# it! no consistent trend# !ile t!e idt! o$ t!e racing trail gre $ollo ing events but ex!ibited net recovery over time" Impacts ere con$ined to t!e trail tread# it! minimal disturbance o$ trailside vegetation" BAorkman &'((7* evaluated t o ne mountain biking trails in 4isconsin be$ore and $or several years a$ter t!ey ere opened to use" 2egetation cover it!in t!e tread t!at survived trail construction ork declined it! increasing use to negligible levels !ile trailside vegetation remained constant or increased in areas damaged by construction ork" Similarly# soil compaction it!in t!e tread rose steadily !ile compaction o$ trailside soils remained constant" 2egetation and soil impacts occurred predominantly during t!e $irst year o$ use it! minor c!anges t!erea$ter" 4o!rstein &'((<* evaluated t!e impacts $rom a 4orld C!ampions!ip mountain biking race it! <): participants and <:#::: spectators" Erosion as $ound only on intensively used racing trails in steep terrain !ere alignments allo ed !ig!er ater runo$$" T!e mountain biking routes ex!ibited !ig!er levels o$ compaction but to a s!allo er dept! in comparison to t!e spectator areas# !ere compaction as lo er but deeper" Cess$ord &'((?* provides a compre!ensive# t!oug! dated# summary o$ trail impacts it! a $ocus on mountain biking" O$ particular interest is !is summary o$ t!e t o types o$ $orces exerted by bike tires on soil sur$aces1 T!e do n ard compaction $orce $rom t!e eig!t o$ t!e rider and bike# and t!e rotational s!earing $orce $rom t!e turning rear !eel" Mountain bikers generate t!e greatest tor%ue# it! potential tread abrasion due to slippage# during up!ill travel" ;o ever# t!e tor%ue possible $rom muscle po er is $ar less t!an t!at $rom a motorcycle# so !eel slippage and abrasion occur only on et or loose sur$aces" Tread impact associated it! do n!ill travel is generally minimal due to t!e lack o$ tor%ue and lo er ground pressures" Exceptions include !en riders brake !ard enoug! to cause skidding# !ic! displaces soil do nslope# or bank at !ig!er speeds around turns# !ic! displaces soil to t!e outside o$ t!e turn" Impacts in $latter terrain are also generally minimal# except !en soils are et or uncompacted and rutting occurs" Impacts to Soils: Management Implications Soil loss is among t!e most enduring $orms o$ trail impact# and minimi+ing erosion and muddiness are t!e most important obAectives $or ac!ieving a sustainable trail" Soil cannot easily be replaced on trails# and !ere soil disappears# it leaves ruts t!at make travel and ater drainage more di$$icult# prompting $urt!er impacts# suc! as trail idening" Existing studies indicate t!at mountain biking di$$ers little $rom !iking in its contribution to soil impacts" Ot!er $actors# particularly trail grade# trail>slope

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alignment angle# soil type> etness# and trail maintenance# are more in$luential determinants o$ tread erosion or etness" T!ere are a number o$ tactics $or avoiding t!e orst soil0related impacts to trails1 o Discourage or pro!ibit o$$0trail travel" In$ormal trails created by o$$0trail travel $re%uently !ave steep grades and $all0line alignments t!at %uickly erode# particularly in t!e absence o$ tread maintenance" Exceptions include areas o$ solid rock or non0vegetated cobble" o Design trails it! sustainable grades and avoid $all0line alignments" &See p" ''9 $or more* o 4!en possible# build trails in dry# co!esive soils t!at easily compact and contain a larger percentage o$ coarse material or rocks" T!ese soils better resist erosion by ind and ater or displacement by $eet# !ooves and tires" o Minimi+e tread muddiness by avoiding $lat terrain# et soils# and drainage0 bottom locations" o =se grade reversals to remove ater $rom trail treads" Drade reversals are permanent and sustainable 0 !en designed into a trailBs alignment t!ey remain ':: percent e$$ective and rarely re%uire maintenance" Ot!er strategies are more temporary in nature and ill re%uire periodic maintenance to keep t!em e$$ective1
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4!ile t!e use o$ a substantial outslope &e"g"# ? percent* !elps remove ater $rom treads# it is rarely a long0term solution" Tread cupping and berm development ill generally occur it!in a $e years a$ter tread construction" I$ it is not possible to install additional grade reversals# res!ape t!e tread to reestablis! an outsloped tread sur$ace periodically# and install !eel0$riendly drainage dips or ot!er drainage structures to !elp ater $lo o$$ t!e trail" I$ it is not possible to install proper drainage on a trail# consider rerouting trail sections t!at are most problematic# or possibly !ardening t!e tread" In $latter areas# elevate and cro n treads to prevent muddiness# or add a gravel>soil mixture in lo spots"

.inally# it is important to reali+e t!at visitor use o$ any type on trails !en soils are et contributes substantially greater soil impact t!an t!e same activities !en soils are dry" T!us# discouraging or pro!ibiting t!e use o$ trails t!at are prone to muddiness during rainy seasons or sno melt is anot!er e$$ective measure" Denerally suc! use can be redirected to trails t!at !ave design or environmental attributes t!at allo t!em to better sustain et season uses" .or additional in$ormation about minimi+ing soil impacts t!roug! trail design# construction# maintenance# and tread !ardening# see Trail Solutions" Impacts to Water Resources: !eneral Researc"

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Trails and t!eir use can also a$$ect ater %uality" Trail0related impacts to ater resources can include t!e introduction o$ soils# nutrients# and pat!ogenic organisms &e"g"# Diardia*# and alter t!e patterns o$ sur$ace ater drainage" ;o ever# in practice# t!ese impacts are avoidable# and properly designed and maintained trails s!ould not degrade ater %uality" =n$ortunately t!ere is very little researc! to dra $rom on t!ese topics# and none t!at is speci$ic to mountain biking" 3oorly sited and>or maintained trails can be eroded by ater# it! tread sediments carried o$$ by runo$$" Denerally# i$ ater control $eatures suc! as grade reversals and outsloped treads are used to divert runo$$ $rom trails# t!e ater drops its sediment close to trails# !ere it is trapped and !eld by organic litter and vegetation" Soils eroded $rom trails rarely enter ater bodies# unless trails cross streams or run close to stream or lake s!orelines and lack ade%uate tread drainage $eatures" Since many recreational activities# suc! as $is!ing# s imming# boating# and vie ing scenery &e"g"# ater$alls* dra visitors and trails to t!e vicinity o$ ater resources# it is o$ten necessary to route trails to ater resources or visitors ill simply create t!eir o n in$ormal trails" Trails t!at are close to ater resources re%uire special consideration in t!eir design and management to prevent t!e introduction o$ suspended sediments into bodies o$ ater" Eroded soil t!at enters ater bodies increase ater turbidity and cause sedimentation t!at can a$$ect a%uatic organisms &.rit+ and ot!ers '((,*" Trout and ot!er $is! lay t!eir eggs in gravels on t!e bottom o$ streams and lakes# and sediments can smot!er t!ose eggs# reducing reproductive success" Sedimentation can also !urt invertebrate organisms# !ic! serve as $ood $or $is! and ot!er creatures" In addition# some sediment may contain nutrients t!at can contribute to algal blooms t!at deplete t!e dissolved oxygen in ater bodies !en t!ey die o$$" 3oorly designed trails can also alter !ydrologic $unctions 0 $or instance# trails can intercept and divert ater $rom seeps or springs# !ic! serve important ecological $unctions" In t!ose situations# ater can sometimes $lo along t!e tread# leading to muddiness or erosion and# in t!e case o$ cupped and eroded treads# t!e ater may $lo some distance be$ore it is diverted o$$ t!e trail# c!anging t!e ecology o$ small etland or riparian areas" Trail users may also pollute ater it! pat!ogenic organisms# particularly t!ose related to improperly disposed !uman aste" 3otential pat!ogenic organisms $ound t!roug! surveys o$ backcountry ater sources include Cryptosporidium spp"# Diardia spp"# and Campylobacter AeAuni &5eC!evallier and ot!ers# '(((- Suk and ot!ers# '(<)- Taylor and ot!ers# '(<,*" T!is is rarely a signi$icant concern !ere trail use is predominantly day0oriented# and aste issues can be avoided by installing toilet $acilities or $ollo ing 5eave Co Trace practices &i"e"# digging cat0!oles $or aste a ay $rom ater resources*"

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Impacts to Water Resources: Management Implications T!e same trail design# construction# and maintenance measures t!at !elp minimi+e vegetation and soil impacts also apply to ater" But t!ere are also some additional e$$orts needed to protect ater resources1
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Trails s!ould avoid close proximity to ater resources" .or example# it is better to build a trail on a side!ill along a lo er valley all t!an to align it t!roug! $lat terrain along a stream edge# !ere trail runo$$ ill drain directly into t!e stream" It is best to minimi+e t!e number o$ stream crossings" 4!ere crossings are necessary# scout t!e stream care$ully to select t!e most resistant location $or t!e crossing" 5ook $or rocky banks and soils t!at provide durable sur$aces" Design ater crossings so t!e trail descends into and climbs out o$ t!e steam crossing# preventing stream ater $rom $lo ing do n t!e trail" Armor trails at stream crossings it! rock# geotextiles# or gravel to prevent erosion" Include grade reversals# regularly maintained outsloped treads# and>or drainage $eatures to divert ater o$$ t!e trail near stream crossings" T!is prevents large volumes o$ ater and sediment $rom $lo ing do n t!e trail into t!e stream# and allo s trailside organic litter# vegetation# and soils to slo and $ilter ater" On some !eavily used trails# a bridge may be needed to provide a sustainable crossing" 4!ere permanent or intermittent stream c!annels cross trails# use !eel0 $riendly open rock culverts or properly si+ed buried drainage culverts to allo ater to cross properly# it!out $lo ing do n t!e trail"

Impacts to Wildlife: !eneral Researc" Trails and trail uses can also a$$ect ildli$e" Trails may degrade or $ragment ildli$e !abitat# and can also alter t!e activities o$ nearby animals# causing avoidance be!avior in some and $ood0related attraction be!avior in ot!ers &;ellmund# '((<- @nig!t 6 Cole# '(('*" 4!ile most $orms o$ trail impact are limited to a narro trail corridor# disturbance o$ ildli$e can extend considerably $urt!er into natural landscapes &@as orm 6 Monley# '((:- Tyser 6 4orley# '((9*" Even very locali+ed disturbance can !arm rare or endangered species" Di$$erent animals respond di$$erently to t!e presence o$ trail users" Most ildli$e species readily adapt or become /!abituated/ to consistent and non0t!reatening recreational activities" .or example# animals may notice but not move a ay $rom !umans on a $re%uently used trail" T!is is $ortunate# as it can allo !ig! %uality ildli$e vie ing experiences $or visitors and cause little or no impact to ildli$e"

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Ot!er $orms o$ !abituation# !o ever# are less desirable" 2isitors !o $eed ildli$e# intentionally or $rom dropped $ood# can contribute to t!e development o$ $ood0related attraction be!avior t!at can turn ild animals and birds into beggars" In places !ere visitors stop to eat snacks or lunc!es# ildli$e %uickly learn to associate people it! $ood# losing t!eir innate $ear o$ !umans and returning $re%uently to beg# searc! $or $ood scraps# or even raid unprotected packs containing $ood" .eeding ild creatures also endangers t!eir !ealt! and ell0 being" .or instance# a$ter $ood0attracted deer in Drand Canyon Cational 3ark became sickly and dangerously aggressive# researc!ers $ound up to six pounds o$ plastic and $oil rappers obstructing intestinal passages o$ some individuals" T!e opposite conduct in ildli$e 0 avoidance be!avior 0 can be e%ually problematic" Avoidance be!avior is generally an innate response t!at is magni$ied by visitor be!aviors perceived as t!reatening# suc! as loud sounds# o$$0trail travel# travel in t!e direction o$ ildli$e# and sudden movements" 4!en animals $lee $rom disturbance by trail users# t!ey o$ten expend precious energy# !ic! is particularly dangerous $or t!em in inter mont!s !en $ood is scarce" 4!en animals move a ay $rom a disturbance# t!ey leave pre$erred or prime !abitat and move# eit!er permanently or temporarily# to secondary !abitat t!at may not meet t!eir needs $or $ood# ater# or cover" 2isitors and land managers# !o ever# are o$ten una are o$ suc! impacts# because animals o$ten $lee be$ore !umans are a are o$ t!e presence o$ ildli$e" Impacts to Wildlife: Mountain Biking#Specific Researc" T!e impacts o$ mountain biking on ildli$e are similar to t!ose o$ !ikers and ot!er non motori+ed trail users" Taylor and @nig!t &9::,* investigated t!e interactions o$ ildli$e and trail users &!ikers and mountain bikers* at Antelope Island State 3ark in =ta!" A !idden observer using an optical range$inder recorded bison# mule deer# and prong!orn antelope response to an assistant !o !iked or biked a section o$ trail" T!e observer t!en measured ildli$e reactions# including alert distance# $lig!t response# $lig!t distance# distance $led# and distance $rom trail" Observations revealed t!at ): percent o$ animals located it!in ,,: $eet &':: m* o$ a trail ere likely to $lee !en a trail user passed# and t!at ildli$e ex!ibited statistically similar responses to mountain biking and !iking" 4ildli$e reacted more strongly to o$$0trail recreationists# suggesting t!at visitors s!ould stay on trails to reduce ildli$e disturbance" 4!ile Taylor and @nig!t $ound no biological Austi$ication $or managing mountain biking any di$$erently t!an !iking# t!ey note t!at bikers cover more ground in a given time period t!an !ikers and t!us can potentially disturb more ildli$e per unit time" T!is study also surveyed 7E: !ikers# mountain bikers# and !orseback riders on t!e island to assess t!eir perceptions o$ t!e e$$ects o$ recreation on ildli$e" Most respondents $elt t!ey could approac! animals $ar closer t!an t!e $lig!t distance

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suggested by t!e researc!# and ?: percent $elt t!at recreational uses did not !ave a negative e$$ect on ildli$e" Anot!er study evaluated t!e be!avioral responses o$ desert big!orn s!eep to disturbance by !ikers# mountain bikers# and ve!icles in lo 0 and !ig!0use areas o$ Canyonlands Cational 3ark &3apouc!is and ot!ers"# 9::'*" .ollo ing observations o$ '#:9( big!orn s!eep>!uman interactions# t!e aut!ors reported t!at s!eep $led 7' percent o$ t!e time $rom !ikers# ') percent o$ t!e time $rom ve!icles# and 7 percent o$ t!e time $rom mountain bikers" T!e stronger reaction to !ikers# particularly in t!e !ig!0use area# as attributed to more o$$0trail !iking and direct approac!es to t!e s!eep" T!e researc!ers recommended t!at park o$$icials restrict recreational uses to trails# particularly during t!e lambing and rut seasons# in order to minimi+e disturbance" An experimental study in S it+erland evaluated t!e disturbance associated it! !iking# Aogging# and mountain biking on !ig! elevation c!amois# !ic! are goat0 like mammals $ound in t!e European mountains &Dander 6 Ingold '(()*" T!e aut!ors assessed alert distance# $lig!t distance# and distance $led# and $ound t!at approximately 9: percent o$ t!e animals $led $rom trailside pastures in response to visitor intrusions" T!e aut!ors $ound no statistically signi$icant di$$erences# !o ever# bet een t!e be!avioral responses o$ animals to t!e t!ree di$$erent types o$ user# and aut!ors concluded t!at restrictions on mountain biking above timberline ould not be Austi$ied $rom t!e perspective o$ c!amois disturbance" A study o$ t!e Boise 8iver in Ida!o examined $lus!ing distances o$ bald eagles !en exposed to actual and simulated alkers# Aoggers# $is!ermen# bicyclists# and ve!icles &Spa!r '((:*" T!e !ig!est $re%uency o$ eagle $lus!ing as associated it! alkers &E7 percent*# $ollo ed by $is!ermen &,E percent*# bicyclists &'? percent*# Aoggers &', percent*# and ve!icles &7 percent*" ;o ever# bicyclists caused eagles to $lus! at t!e greatest distances &mean F 'E< meters*# $ollo ed by ve!icles &':)m*# alkers &<)m*# $is!ermen &7Em*# and Aoggers &?:m*" Eagles ere most likely to $lus! !en recreationists approac!ed slo ly or stopped to observe t!em# and ere less alarmed !en bicyclists or ve!icles passed %uickly at constant speeds" Similar $indings !ave been reported by ot!er aut!ors# !o attribute t!e di$$erence in $lus!ing $re%uency bet een alkers and bikers>ve!icles eit!er to t!e s!orter time o$ disturbance and>or t!e additional time an eagle !as to /decide/ to $ly &2an der Gande and ot!ers" '(<E*" Sa$ety issues related to gri++ly bear attacks on trail users in Ban$$ Cational 3ark prompted ;errero and ;errero &9:::* to study t!e Morraine 5ake ;ig!line Trail" 3ark sta$$ noted t!at !ikers ere $ar more numerous t!an mountain bikers on t!e trail# but t!at t!e number o$ encounters bet een bikers and bears as disproportionately !ig!" .or example# t!ree o$ t!e $our !uman0gri++ly bear encounters t!at occurred along t!e trail during '(()0(< involved mountain bikers" 3revious researc! !ad s!o n t!at gri++ly bears are more likely to attack !en t!ey $irst become a are o$ a !uman presence at distances o$ less t!an ?:

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meters" ;errero and ;errero concluded t!at mountain bikers travel $aster# more %uietly# and it! closer attention to t!e tread t!an !ikers# all attributes t!at limit reaction time $or bears and bikers# and increases t!e likeli!ood o$ sub0$i$ty meter encounters" In addition# most o$ t!e bear0cyclist encounters took place on a $ast section o$ trail t!at ent t!roug! !ig!0%uality bear !abitat it! abundant berries" To reduce suc! incidents# t!ey recommended education# seasonal closures o$ t!e trail to bikes and>or !ikers# construction o$ an alternate trail# and regulations re%uiring a minimum group si+e $or bikers" Impacts to Wildlife: Management Implications Many potential impacts to ildli$e can be avoided by ensuring t!at trails avoid t!e most sensitive or critical ildli$e !abitats# including t!ose o$ rare and non0rare species" T!ere are a number o$ tactics $or doing t!is1
o

8oute trails to avoid riparian or etland areas# particularly in environments !ere t!ey are uncommon" Consult it! $is! and ildli$e specialists early in t!e trail planning p!ase" .or existing trails# consider discouraging or restricting access during sensitive times>seasons &e"g"# mating or birt!ing seasons* to protect ildli$e $rom undue stress"

T!e education o$ trail users is also an important and potentially !ig!ly e$$ective management option $or protecting ildli$e" Organi+ations s!ould encourage 5eave Co Trace practices and teac! appropriate be!aviors in areas !ere ildli$e are $ound1
o o o o

Store $ood sa$ely and leave no crumbs be!ind 0 $ed animals too o$ten become dead animals" ItBs O@ $or ildli$e to notice you but you are /too close/ or /too loud/ i$ an animal stops !at its doing and>or moves a ay $rom you" ItBs best to vie ildli$e t!roug! binoculars# spotting scopes# and telep!oto lenses" All ildli$e can be dangerous 0 be a are o$ t!e possible presence o$ animals and keep your distance to ensure your sa$ety and t!eirs"

&onclusion 4!ile land managers !ave long been concerned about t!e environmental impacts o$ mountain biking# t!ere are still very $e good studies publis!ed in peer0revie ed Aournals" 4!ite and ot!ers &9::7* and ;endricks &'(()* note t!at t!e maAority o$ mountain biking researc! !as $ocused on social issues# suc! as con$licts bet een trail users" As a conse%uence# t!e ecological e$$ects o$ mountain biking on trails and natural resources remain poorly understood"

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Still# an emerging body o$ kno ledge on t!e environmental impact o$ mountain biking can !elp guide current management decisions" All o$ t!e existing scienti$ic studies indicate t!at !ile mountain biking# like all $orms o$ recreational activity# can result in measurable impacts to vegetation# soil# ater resources# and ildli$e# t!e environmental e$$ects o$ ell0managed mountain biking are minimal" .urt!ermore# !ile t!e impact mec!anics and $orces may be di$$erent $rom $oot tra$$ic# mountain biking impacts are little di$$erent $rom !iking# t!e most common and traditional $orm o$ trail0based recreational activity" @ey observations about t!e environmental impacts o$ mountain biking1 '" Environmental degradation can be substantially avoided or minimi+ed !en trail users are restricted to designated $ormal trails" Many studies !ave s!o n t!at t!e most damage to plants and soils occur it! initial tra$$ic and t!at t!e per capita increase in $urt!er impact diminis!es rapidly it! increasing subse%uent tra$$ic" Many environmental impacts can be avoided and t!e rest are substantially minimi+ed !en tra$$ic is restricted to a ell0designed and managed trail" T!e best trail alignments avoid t!e !abitats o$ rare $lora and $auna and greatly minimi+e soil erosion# muddiness# and tread idening by $ocusing tra$$ic on side0!ill trail alignments it! limited grades and $re%uent grade reversals" Even ildli$e impacts are greatly minimi+ed !en visitors stay on trails- ildli$e !ave a ell0documented capacity to !abituate to non0t!reatening recreational uses t!at occur in consistent places" 9" Trail design and management are muc! larger $actors in environmental degradation t!an t!e type or amount o$ use" Many studies !ave demonstrated t!at poorly designed or located trails are t!e biggest cause o$ trail impacts" As evidence# consider t!at use $actors &type# amount# and be!avior o$ trail visitors* are generally t!e same along t!e lengt! o$ any given trail# yet t!ere is o$ten substantial variation in tread erosion# idt!# and muddiness" T!ese impacts are primarily attributable to di$$erences in grade and slope alignment angle# soil type and soil moisture# and type o$ tread construction# sur$acing# and drainage" T!is suggests t!at a sustainable trail t!at is properly designed# constructed# and maintained can support lo er0impact uses suc! as !iking and mountain biking it! minimal maintenance or degradation" ," T!e environmental degradation caused by mountain biking is generally e%uivalent or less t!an t!at caused by !iking# and bot! are substantially less impacting t!an !orse or motori+ed activities" In t!e small number o$ studies t!at included direct comparisons o$ t!e environmental e$$ects o$ di$$erent recreational activities# mountain biking as $ound to !ave an impact t!at is less t!an or comparable to !iking" .or example# Marion and Olive &9::7* reported less soil loss on mountain bike trails t!an on !iking trails# !ic! in turn ex!ibited substantially less soil loss t!an did !orse and AT2 trails" Similarly# t o ildli$e studies reported no di$$erence in ildli$e disturbance bet een !ikers and mountain bikers &Taylor 6 @nig!t 9::,#

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Dander 6 Ingold '(()*# !ile t o ot!er studies $ound t!at mountain bikers caused less disturbance &3apouc!is and ot!ers" 9::'# Spa!r '((:*" 4ilson and Seney &'((E* $ound t!at !orses made signi$icantly more sediment available $or erosion t!an !ikers or mountain bikers# !ic! ere statistically similar to t!e undisturbed control" One $inal point to consider# !o ever# is t!at mountain bikers# like !orse and ve!icle users# travel $urt!er t!an !ikers due to t!eir !ig!er speed o$ travel" T!is means t!at t!eir use on a per0unit time basis can a$$ect more miles o$ trail or ildli$e t!an !ikers" ;o ever# an evaluation o$ aggregate impact ould need to consider t!e total number o$ trail users# and !ikers are $ar more numerous t!an mountain bikers" Mountain Bike Management Implications So !at does t!is mean $or mountain bikingH T!e existing body o$ researc! does not support t!e pro!ibition or restriction o$ mountain biking $rom a resource or environmental protection perspective" Existing impacts# !ic! may be in evidence on many trails used by mountain bikers# are likely associated $or t!e most part it! poor trail designs or insu$$icient maintenance" Managers s!ould look $irst to correcting design0related de$iciencies be$ore considering restrictions on lo 0impact users" By enlisting t!e aid o$ all trail users t!roug! permanent volunteer trail maintenance e$$orts# t!ey can improve trail conditions and allo $or sustainable recreation" Dr. Jeff Marion is a scientist with the U.S. Geological Survey who studies visitor impacts and management in protected natural areas. Jeremy Wimpey is a doctoral candidate in the Park and ecreation esource Management program at !irginia "ech. #ontact them at !irginia "ech$ %orestry &'()*+$ ,lacks-urg$ !. )*'/'$ 0marion1vt.edu$ wimpey0f1vt.edu. Sources BAorkman# A" 4" &'((7*" O$$0road Bicycle and ;iking Trail =ser Interactions1 A 8eport to t!e 4isconsin Catural 8esources Board" 4isconsin# 4isconsin Catural 8esources Bureau o$ 8esearc!" Cess$ord# D" 8" &'((?*" O$$0road impacts o$ mountain bikes1 a revie and discussion O$$08oad Impacts o$ Mountain Bikes1 A 8evie and Discussion Science 6 8esearc! Series Co (9" 4ellington# CG# Department o$ Conservation" pp1 E90):" C!ave+# D"# 3" 4inter# et al" &'((,*" 8ecreational mountain biking1 A management perspective" Iournal o$ 3ark and 8ecreation Administration '' '1 )"

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Edger# C" O" &'(()*" Mountain biking and Marin Municipal 4ater District aters!ed" Trends ,E ,1 ?" .rit+# S" C"# I" C" @ingston# et al" &'((,*" Juantitative trop!ic reconstruction $rom sedimentary diatom assemblages 0 A cautionary tale" .res! ater Biology ,:&'*1 '09," Dander# ;" and 3" Ingold &'(()*" 8eactions o$ Male Alpine C!amois 8upicapra r" rupicapra to ;ikers# Ioggers and Mountainbikers" Biological Conservation )(1 ," Doe$t# =" and I" Alder &9::'*" Sustainable mountain biking1 A case study $rom t!e Sout! est o$ 4estern Australia" Iournal o$ Sustainable Tourism ( ,1 '(" Drutt+# I" and D" ;ollings!ead &'((?*" /Managing t!e Biop!ysical Impacts o$ O$$0 8oad Bicycling/ or /S!red 5ig!tly"/ Environmental Et!ics 6 3ractices in Backcountry 8ecreation Con$erence# =niversity o$ Calgary# Alberta" ;ammit# 4" E" and D" C" Cole &'((<*" 4ildland 8ecreation1 Ecology and Management" Ce Kork# Io!n 4iley and Sons# Inc" ;ellmund# 3" C" &'((<*" 3lanning Trails it! 4ildli$e in Mind1 A ;andbook $or Trail 3lanners" Denver# Colorado State 3arks" ;endricks# 4" 4" &'(()*" Mountain bike management and researc!1 An introduction" Trends# ,E&,*# 90E" ;errero# Iake# and Step!en ;errero &9:::* Management Options $or t!e Moraine 5ake ;ig!line Trail1 Dri++ly Bears and Cyclists" =npublis!ed 8eport $or 3arks Canada" @as orm# 4" ." and T" 5" Monley &'((:*" 8oad and trail in$luences on gri++ly bears and black bears in nort! est Montana" Bears1 T!eir Biology and Management1 3roceedings o$ t!e <t! International Con$erence# 2ictoria# B"C"# International Association $or Bear 8esearc! and Management" @nig!t# 8" 5" and D" C" Cole &'(('*" E$$ects o$ recreational activity on ildli$e in ildlands" Transactions o$ t!e Cort! American 4ildli$e and Catural 8esource Con$erence" 5eC!evallier# M" 4"# M" Abbas+adegan# et al" &'(((*" Committee report1 Emerging pat!ogens 0 viruses# proto+oa# and algal toxins" Iournal American 4ater 4orks Association ('&(*1 '':0'9'" 5eung# K" ." and I" 5" Marion &'((7*" Trail degradation as in$luenced by environmental $actors1 A state0o$0t!e0kno ledge revie " Iournal o$ Soil and 4ater Conservation ?'&9*1 ',:0',7"

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Marion# I" 5" &9::7*" Assessing and =nderstanding Trail Degradation1 8esults $rom Big Sout! .ork Cational 8iver and 8ecreational Area" =SDI# Cational 3ark Service" 3apouc!is# C" M"# ." I" Singer# et al" &9::'*" 8esponses o$ desert big!orn s!eep to increased !uman recreation" Iournal o$ 4ildli$e Management 7? ,1 ?),0?<9" 8oggenbuck# I" 4"# D" 8" 4illiams# et al" &'((,*" De$ining Acceptable Conditions in 4ilderness" Environmental Management ') 91 '<)0'()" Sc!uett# M" A" &'(()*" State park directorsB perceptions o$ mountain biking" Environmental Management 9'&9*1 9,(09E7" Spa!r# 8obin" &'((:* .actors A$$ecting T!e Distribution O$ Bald Eagles And E$$ects O$ ;uman Activity On Bald Eagles 4intering Along T!e Boise 8iver# '((:" Boise State =niversity# T!esis" Suk# T" I"# S" @" Sorenson# et al" &'(<)*" T!e relation bet een !uman presence and occurrence o$ Diardia Cysts in streams in t!e Sierra0Cevada# Cali$ornia" Iournal o$ .res! ater Ecology E&'*1 )'0)?" Taylor# A" 8" and 8" 5" @nig!t &9::,*" 4ildli$e 8esponses to 8ecreation and Associated 2isitor 3erceptions" Ecological Applications ', E1 '9" Taylor# D" C"# @" T" Mcdermott# et al" &'(<,*" Campylobacter Enteritis $rom untreated ater in t!e 8ocky Mountains" Annals o$ Internal Medicine (( '1 ,<0E:" T!urston# E" and 8" I" 8eader &9::'*" Impacts o$ experimentally applied mountain biking and !iking on vegetation and soil o$ a deciduous $orest" Environmental Management 9)&,*1 ,()0E:(" Tyser# 8" 4" and C" A" 4orley &'((9*" Alien $lora in grasslands adAacent to road and trail corridors in Dlacier Cational 3ark# Montana &=SA*" Conservation Biology 7&9*1 9?,0979" 2an der Gande# A" C"# I" C" Berk!ui+en# ;" C" van 5atesteiAn# 4" I" ter @eurs# and A" I" 3oppelaars &'(<E* Impact o$ outdoor recreation on t!e density o$ a number o$ breeding bird species in oods adAacent to urban residential areas" Biological Conservation ,:1 '0,(" 2aske# I" I"# M" 3" Donnelly# et al" &'((,*" Establis!ing management standards 0 Selected examples o$ t!e normative approac!" Environmental Management ')&?*1 79(07E,"

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4!ite# D" D"# M" T" 4askey# et al" &9::7*" A comparative study o$ impacts to mountain bike trails in $ive common ecological regions o$ t!e Sout! estern ="S" Iournal o$ 3ark and 8ecreation Administration 9E&9*1 9:" 4ilson# I" 3" and I" 3" Seney &'((E*" Erosional impact o$ !ikers# !orses# motorcycles# and o$$0road bicycles on mountain trails in Montana" Mountain 8esearc! and Development 'E&'*1 ))0<<" 4L!rstein# T" &'((<*" Mountainbike und =m elt 0 Mkologisc!e Aus irkungen und Cut+ungskon$likte &Mountainbike and Environment 0 Ecological Impacts and =se Con$lict*" SaarbrNcken0Dud eiler" Incomplete 8e$erence# 3irrot 2erlag 6 Druck"

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