MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Muscle
- mus meaning little mouse - dominant tissue in the heart - makes up nearly the bodys mass - function: shortening/ contraction - machines of the body

I. Muscle Types
- skeletal, cardiac and smooth -Table 6.1 page 184 -skeletal & smooth: elongated (muscle fibers) -ability of a muscle to shorten or contract: depends on two types of myofilaments: actin & myosin A. Skeletal Muscle fibers packaged into organs called skeletal muscles -form the smoother contours of the body -huge, cigar-shaped, multi-nucleated -largest of the muscle fiber types -striated & voluntary -often activated by reflexes (without our willed command) -can contract rapidly w/ great force, pero madaling mapagod -How are skeletal muscles not ripped apart? thousands of their fibers are bundled together by connective tissue - Parts: Endomysium -enclosure of each muscle fiber Perimysium -wraps a fascicle (bundle of fibers wrapped in endomysium) Epimysium

-wraps many fascicles -blends to either: 1. Tendons -anchor muscles to bones 2. Aponeuroses -attach muscles indirectly to bones, cartilages, or connective tissue coverings B. Smooth Muscle fibers -no striations & involuntary hollow visceral organs -propels substances along a definite tract or pathway -spindle shaped, single nucleus, surrounded by endomysium -arranged in layers: one circular and one longitudinal to contract & relax, changing the size and shape of organ -contraction: slow & sustained C. Cardiac Muscle found only in the heart -striated & involuntary -cushioned by small amounts of endomysium -arranged in spiral or figure 8 bundles -when heart contracts, internal chambers become smaller blood goes to large arteries (away from heart)

II. Muscle Functions

- All muscles produce movement 1. Producing Movement -all movements in the body are a result of muscle contraction 2. Maintaining Posture -erect & seated posture

3. Stabilizing Joints -as skeletal muscles pull on bones to cause movements, they also stabilize the joints 4. Generating Heat -As ATP is used to power muscle contraction, nearly of its energy escapes as heat heat: vital for temperature -40% of body mass

III. Microscopic Anatomy

Sarcolemma -plasma membrane Myofibrils -long ribbon like organelles -pushes nuclei aside Light (I) Band 1. Z disc -darker area Dark (A) band 1. H zone -lighter area 2. M-line -center of H-zone -contains tiny protein rods that hold adjacent thick filaments together Sarcomeres - tiny contractile units of myofibrils, meaning, Maraming sarcomere= myofibril -aligned end-end like boxcars

-contains myofilaments (actin & myosin) Myofilaments -threadlike proteins 1. Thick/ Myosin filaments -myosin protein + ATPase enzymes (split ATP to generate power for muscle contraction) -extend the entire length of A band -midparts are smooth -but ends are studded w/ projections myosin heads -called cross bridges when they link the thick and thin filaments together during contraction 2. Thin/Actin filaments -contractile protein: Actin + regulatory proteins that prevent/allow myosin head to bind with actin -anchored to Z-disc (a disclike membrane) *I band- contains parts of 2 adjacent sarcomeres & thin filaments only -thin filaments dont extend into the middle of a relaxed sarcomere, kaya ang H-zone ay walang actin and looks lighter sometimes called bare zone -when contractions occur, and actin filaments slide toward each other, hzones disappear since the actin and myosin filaments have overlapped NOTE *precise arrangement of the myofilaments in the myofibrils produces banding pattern, or striations in skeletal muscle cells *sarcoplasmic reticulum -interconnecting tubules and sacs of the SR surround each myofibril -stores calcium and to release it on demand when muscle fiber is stimulated to contract

IV. Stimulation & Contraction

-special functional properties: 1. Excitability/ Responsiveness/ Irritability -ability to receive and respond to a stimulus 2. Contractility -ability to shorten forcibly when adequately stimulated 3. Extensibility -ability to be stretched 4. Elasticity -ability to recoil, resume their resting length after stretching A. The Nerve Stimulus & Action Potential -to contract, skeletal muscle cells must be stimulated by nerve impulses -A motor neuron or nerve cell may stimulate a few/hundreds of muscle cells (depending on particular muscle, and its work)

Motor unit -1 neuron+ all the skeletal muscle cells it stimulates 1. Axon/ Nerve fiber (long, threadlike extension of the neuron) reaches a muscle 2. Upon reaching the muscle, axon will branch out into a number of axon terminals 3. Each axon terminal will form a neuromuscular/myoneural junction with the sarcolemma of a diff. muscle cell NOTE: *Synaptic cleft - gap formed as nerve endings and muscle cells membranes are formed, but never touch -filled w/ interstitial fluid

1. When a nerve impulse reaches the axon terminals, a neurotransmitter to stimulate skeletal muscles (Acetylcholine) is released. 2. ACh diffuses across synaptic cleft then attaches to receptors (membrane proteins) in sarcolemma. 3. If okay na yung amount ng ACh, the sarcolemma temporarily becomes permeable to Na+ ions. K+ ions diffuse out the cell. *More Na ions rush in the cell than K leaves. *Cell interior: contains excess of positive ions reverses the electrical conditions of sarcolemma: opens more channels that allow Na+ entry only. 4. This upset triggers an electrical current called action potential. *Action potential -all or none phenomenon -travels over the entire surface of the sarcolemma, conducting electrical impulse from one end of the cell to another. (contraction) 5. During action potential, ACh is broken down into acetic acid & choline by acetylcholinesterase enzyme on sarcolemma. *prevents continued contractions of the cell without additional nerve impulses Note: *Events that return the cell to its resting state: 1. Diffusion of K atoms out of the cell 2. Operation of the sodium potassium pump (active transport that returns K & Na back to initial positions) B. Muscle Contraction: Sliding Filament Theory http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ct8AbZn_A8A -When muscle fibers are activated by the nervous system, myosin heads attach to binding sites on thin filaments, and sliding begins. -Each cross bridge attaches and detaches several times during a contraction, creating tension that helps pull the thin filaments toward the center of sarcomere (kaya nawawala ang H-zone, the cell shortens)

-Some myosin heads are always in contact with actin (ground), so that the thin filaments cannot slide backward as this cycle repeats again & again during contraction. - Myofilaments do not shorten during contraction, they simply slide past each other -Action potential that runs down from the T-tubules stimulate the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium ions into the cytoplasm -Calcium ions bind to troponin, and causes it to change shape -As troponin changes shape, tropomyosin moves to expose the myosin binding sites in the actin -For a myosin head to be stimulated to do a power stroke, an ATP molecule attaches to it. This ATP molecule undergoes hydrolysis to form ADP and inorganic phosphate -When a myosin head attaches to the binding site of actin, a cross bridge is formed, and inorganic phosphate is released -A power stroke happens when ADP is released, causing the myosin head to pivot, sliding thin filament toward the center of sarcomere -Another ATP molecule binds to the myosin head, causing the myosin head to detach from the binding site -ATP will be hydrolyzed again, reactivating the myosin head NOTE: as long as the binding sites are exposed, the sliding of the filaments will repeat again and again, and will only cease once Ca2+ are actively

transported back to the SR troponin returns to original shape, putting tropomyosin back to original position of covering binding site. -When calcium ions are back in the SR areas, the muscle relaxes and settles back to its original length -this event takes a few thousandths of a second

V. Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole

A. Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction -Figure 6.10 page 196 -As muscle contracts, the bonds of ATP molecules are hydrolyzed to release needed energy -muscles store limited supply of ATP- only 4-6 seconds worth -Regeneration of ATP is vital for contraction to continue, as it is the only energy source that can power muscle activity -3 pathways for ATP regeneration: 1. Direct Phosphorylation of ADP by creatine Phosphate -creatine phosphate is found in muscle fibers but not other cell types -interactions between CP and ADP result in transfers of high-energy phosphate group from CP to ADP more ATP -muscle cells store 5 times as much CP as ATP -CP supplies are exhausted easily (less than 15 seconds)) 2. Aerobic respiration -during rest and during light to moderate exercise: 95% of ATP comes from this -occurs in mitochondria -involves a series of metabolic pathways that use oxygen

pathways are called: oxidative Phosphorylation -How does it happen? 1. Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water. 2. Energy released from breaking bonds is captured in the bonds of ATP molecules. -36 ATP per 1 glucose -fairly slow -requires continuous delivery of oxygen & nutrient fuels 3. Anaerobic glycolysis & lactic acid formation -Glucose breakdown mechanism: Glycolysis -occurs in the cytosol -How does it happen? 1. Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid. 2. Small amounts of energy are captured in ATP bonds (2 ATP per 1 glucose) Can lead to two things: A) With sufficient oxygen, pyruvic acid will undergo aerobic respiration in mitochondria B) If oxygen and glucose delivery is inadequate to meet needs of muscles, pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid =anaerobic glycolysis -produces only about 5% as much ATP from glucose molecule as aerobic respiration -2 times faster than aerobic respiration -provides ATP needed for 30-60 seconds of strenuous muscle activity -shortcomings: uses huge amounts of glucose for small ATP harvest; lactic acid promotes muscle fatigue & soreness B. Types of Muscle Contractions -muscles do not always shorten when they contract

 Tension -event common to all muscle contraction 1. Isotonic contractions -muscle shortens, movement occurs ex. Bending knee, smiling 2. Isometric contractions -myosin filaments are spinning wheels -tension increases Ex. Carrying 400 pound dresser C. Muscle tone -cant be consciously controlled -even when a muscle is voluntarily relaxed, some of its fibers are contracting -state of continuous partial contractions -result of different motor units, scattered through muscle, stimulated by nervous system in a systematic way D. Effect of Exercise on Muscles -Muscle inactivity leads to muscle wasting and weakness -Not all types of exercise promote muscle size, strength and endurance 1) Aerobic/ Endurance Exercise aerobics, jogging, biking -stronger, more flexible muscles resistant to fatigue -principle: blood supply to muscles increase, muscle cells form more mitochondria & store more oxygen -benefits: makes overall metabolism efficient improves digestion & elimination

 enhances neuromuscular coordination makes skeleton stronger heart enlarges so more blood is pumped out fat deposits are cleared lungs become more efficient in gas exchange -benefits depend on how often and how vigorously one exercises -does not cause the muscles to increase in size 2) Isometric/ Resistance -muscles are pitted against some immovable object -require very little time/little equipment -key: forcing the muscles to contract with as much force as possible -increased muscle size and strength result from enlargement of individual muscle cells rather than increasing in their number -amount of connective tissue that reinforces muscle also increases *Note: best exercise program is one that includes both types of exercise PART 2:

I. Muscle Movements, Types And Names

A. Types of Body Movements -every one of our 600-odd skeletal muscles is attached to bone, or to other connective tissue structures, at no fewer than 2 points: 1. Origin -attached to immovable or less movable bone 2. Insertion -attached to the movable bone

-when muscle contracts, insertion moves toward origin -some muscles have interchangeable origins and insertions Ex. Rectus femoris -body movement occurs when muscles contract across joints -type of movement depends on: 1) mobility of joint 2) on where the muscle is located in relation to the joint COMMON: Flexion -decreases angle of bone, bringing them closer together -typical of hinge joints & all ball & socket joints Extension -increases angle or distance bet. 2 bones or part of the body Ex. Straightening elbow Hyperextension =extension greater than 180 degrees Ex. Chin points toward ceiling Rotation -movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis Ex. Ball and socket joints, movement of atlas around dens of axis Abduction -moving a limb away from the midline Ex. Fanning movement of fingers when they spread apart Adduction -movement of a limb toward the body midline Circumduction -combination of flexion, extension, adduction & abduction Ex. Ball & socket joint (shoulder)

-proximal of the end: stationary, distal end: moves in circle (cone) SPECIAL: Dorsiflexion & plantar flexion -up & down movements of the foot at the ankle Inversion & Eversion - Invert: medial -Evert: lateral Supination & Pronation -Supination palm anterior radius & ulna are parallel -Pronation palm posterior radius across ulna (forms X) Opposition -saddle joint between metacarpal 1 and carpals -move your thumb to touch the tips f other fingers on the same hand -grasping & manipulating things B. Interactions of Skeletal Muscles in the Body -muscles cant push, they can only pull -most often, body movements are the result of the activity of 2 or more muscles acting together or against each other. -whatever one muscle can do, other muscles can reverse 1) Prime mover -muscle that has major responsibility for causing movement

2) Antagonists -muscles that oppose or reverse a movement *Note: when a prime mover is active, its antagonist is stretched & relaxed *Antagonists can be prime movers Ex. Biceps of arm is antagonized by Triceps 3) Synergists -syn= together; erg= work -help prime movers by producing the same movement or reducing undesirable movements - when a muscle crosses 2 or more joints, contraction will cause movement in all joints unless synergists are there to stabilize them Ex. Finger-flexor muscles allow you to make a fist w/o bending wrist 4) Fixators -specialized synergists -hold a bone/ stabilize the origin of a prime mover so all the tension can be used to move insertion bone *Antagonistic & Synergistic muscles effect smooth, coordinated & precise movements C. Naming Skeletal Muscles Direction of muscle fibers -named in reference to an imaginary line, usually: 1) midline 2) long axis of limb bone Ex. Rectus (straight)

- parallel to imaginary line Oblique (at a slant) -run at a slant to the imaginary line Relative size of the muscle Ex. Maximus -largest Minimus -smallest Longus -long Location of the muscle -named for the bone with which they are associated Ex. Temporalis overlie temporal bone Number of origins Ex. Biceps, triceps, quadriceps -2, 3 and 4 origins Location of the muscles origin & insertion -named for attachment sites Ex. Sternocleidomastoid -origin: sternum & clavicle -insertion: mastoid process Shape of muscle -have a unique shape that identifies them Ex. Deltoid

-triangular Action of muscle Ex. Flexor, extensor, adductor D. Arrangement of Fascicles -determines a muscles range of motion & power -the longer & more nearly parallel the fascicles are to a muscles long axis= the more a muscle can shorten -muscle power depends more on the total number of muscle cells in the muscle Circular -fascicles are arranged in concentric rings -surrounding external body openings, which they close by contracting -sphincters (squeezers) Convergent -fascicles converge toward a single insertion tendon -triangular/fan-shaped Ex. Pectoralis major muscle Parallel -length of the fascicles run parallel to the long axis of the muscle -straplike Fusiform -modification of parallel -spindle-shaped muscle w/ expanded belly (midsection) Ex. Biceps brachii

 Pennate -feather -short fascicles attach obliquely to a central tendon - stocky bipennate & multipennate muscles, which pack in the most fibers, shorten very little but are very powerful 1) Unipennate - fascicles insert into only one side of the tendon and the muscle 2) Bipennate/ Multipennate -fascicles insert into opposite sides of the tendon or from several different sides, respectively

II. Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles

Head and Neck -all head & neck muscles are paired except: platysma, orbicularis oris, frontalis, occipitalis o Facial -inserted into soft tissues such as other muscles or skin Frontalis Occipitalis (posterior) Orbicularis Oculi Orbicularis Oris -kissing muscle Buccinator -also listed as chewing muscle Zygomaticus -smiling muscle o Chewing Masseter Temporalis -synergist of masseter in closing jaw

o Neck -move head and shoulder girdle, small & straplike Platysma -covers anterolateral neck Sternocleidomastoid -paired: one arises from sternum, one from clavicle -prayer muscles -contraction: head is rotated toward shoulder on opposite side, tilting head on own side Trunk - 1) those that move the vertebral column (posterior antigravity muscles) 2) anterior thorax muscles for movement: ribs, head, arms 3) muscles of abdominal wall which help to move vertebral column, form natural girdle of abdominal body wall o Anterior Pectoralis Major Intercostal Muscles -deep muscles found in ribs External Intercostals -help to raise the ribcage when you inhale Internal Intercostals -depress the ribcage, move air out of lungs (exhalation) Muscles of the Abdominal Girdle -form the natural girdle that reinforces body trunk Rectus Abdominis -paired, most superficial -compress abdominal contents: defecation, childbirth -forced breathing External Oblique -paired, lateral

-fibers run downward, medial Internal Oblique -fibers run at right angles to those of ext. oblique Transversus Abdominis -deepest muscle of abdomen -fibers: horizontal -compresses abdominal contents o Posterior Trapezius -most superficial -diamond/kite -antagonists of sternocleidomastoid -elevate, depress, adduct, stabilize scapula Latissimus Dorsi -arm power stroke (swimming) Erector Spinae -prime mover of back extension -powerful back extensors, provide resistance that helps control the action of bending over at waist -spasms Longissimus Iliocostalis (lateral) Spinalis (medial) Quadratus Lumborum -separately: flexes spine laterally -together: extend lumbar spine Deltoid -rounded shape of shoulders -injection site for less than 5 mL -prime movers of arm abduction Upper Limb

-1. Arise from the shoulder girdle, cross the shoulder joint to insert into the humerus (pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, deltoid) -2. Causes movement at the elbow joint, enclose the humerus: o Muscles of the Humerus that act on the Forearm -in order of decreasing strength: Biceps Brachii -flexes when elbow is bulged -action: bottle of wine -lifts radius Brachialis -lifts ulna Brachioradialis Triceps Brachii -antagonist of biceps brachii -boxers muscle Lower Limb -causes movement at hip, knee & foot joints -among largest, strongest muscles -walking & balancing -pelvic girdle doesnt need muscled to stabilize it - many muscles of the lower limb span 2 joints & can cause movement at both of them o Muscles causing movement of the Hip Joint Gluteus Maximus -flesh of buttock -extending hip when power is needed -overlies sciatic nerve: avoid for injections Gluteus Medius -steadying pelvis during walking -more than 5 mL (superolateral portion) Iliopsoas -prime mover of hip flexion

-keeps body from falling backward, when standing Iliacus Psoas Major Adductor Muscles -adduct/press the thighs together -tend to become very flabby easily Longus Magnus Brevis Hiatus o Muscles causing movement at the Knee Joint Hamstring Group -felt at the back of the knee Biceps Femoris Semimembranosus Semitendinosus Sartorius -weak thigh flexor -tailors muscle: synergist to bring about cross legged position Quadriceps Group -extend knee powerfully Rectus Femoris -crosses 2 joints: hip & knee -injection site for infants Vastus Muscles Intermedius -rectus femoris lies over this Lateralis- injection site for infants Medialis o Muscles causing movement at the Ankle and Foot Tibialis Anterior Extensor Digitorium Longus

 Fibularis Muscles Longus Brevis Tertius Gastrocnemius -two bellied muscle -toe dancers muscle -if insertion tendons cut, walking will be very hardfoot drags because heel cannot be lifted Soleus -deep to gastrocnemius -does not affect knee movement

III. Developmental Aspects of the Muscular System -in a developing embryo, muscular system is laid down in segments, each
segment invaded by nerves -muscles and their control by the nervous system develop rather early in pregnancy o Quickening - first movements of the fetus - 16th week of pregnancy o Duchennes muscular dystrophy -congenital - boys -2-7 years - Progressive from extremities upward, finally affecting the head and neck -rarely live beyond their early twenties and die of respiratory failure -cause: lack of dystrophin protein - Muscles enlarge due to fat and connective tissue deposit, but the muscle fibers degenerate and atrophy -after birth, a babys movements are all gross reflex types of movements -nervous system must mature before the baby can control muscles

- Reflexes develop first since nervous system must mature before baby can control muscle (cephalo-caudal direction, proximal-distal direction) -muscular control: proceeds in a proximal/distal direction, cephalic/caudal (gross precedes fine) can wave bye before doing pinchers grasp can raise heads before walking -midadolescence peak of muscle control development -skeletal muscle is amazingly resistant to infection -muscles, like bones, will atrophy if they are not used continually o Myasthenia Gravis -autoimmune disease -drooping of eyelids - Shortage of acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction -Muscles not stimulated properly and get progressively weaker -Death due to respiratory failure (inability of inability of respiratory muscles to function -as we age, the amount of connective tissue in muscle increases, amount of muscle tissue decreases muscles become stringier/sinewy -loss of muscle mass: body weight declines decrease in muscle strength (50% by 80)