Chapter 1 ANATOMY - The study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts and their

relationships to one another. - Ana (apart) & Tomy (to cut) Gross Anatomy studying large, easily observable structures Microscopic Anatomy- study of the body structures that are too small to be seen with the naked eye. (ex. Cells and tissues) PHYSIOLOGY - Study of how the body and its parts work or function - Physio (nature) & Ology (the study of) LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION 1. Chemical level- atoms combine to form molecules Atoms tiny building blocks of matter 2. Cellular level- cells are made up of molecules 3.

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Cells- smallest units of all living things Simplest creatures only have single cells Tissue level- tissues consist of similar types of cell Tissues- consist of similar cells that have a common function Types: epithelial, connective, muscular, neural) Organ level- organs are made up of tissues Organ- structure compose of 2 or more tissue types that performs a specific function for the body Extremely complex functions become possible Organ system- organ systems are made up of organs that work together closely Organ system- group of organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose There are 11 organ systems Organismal level- human organisms are made up of many organ systems

 Organism- living body; highest level of structural organization ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW 1. Integumentary system - External covering of the body, or the skin. - Waterproofs/cushions/protects the deeper tissues from injury - Excretes salts and urea (perspiration) - Regulates body temperature - Where temperature, pressure and pain receptors (cutaneous receptors) are located - Synthesizes vitamin D - Sweat and oil glands 2. Skeletal System - Bones, cartilages, ligaments and joints - Supports the body and provides a framework that skeletal muscles use for movement - Has a protective function - Hematopoiesis (formation of blood cells) happen within the cavities of the skeleton - Bones hard substance: storehouse for minerals

3. Muscular System -function of muscles: contract or shorten for movement to occur -muscles: machines of the body - Skeletal muscles: mobility of the body as a whole Skeletal muscles- large, fleshy muscles attached to the bones - form the muscular system - produces heat 4. Nervous System - Bodys fast acting control system - Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory receptors - Responsible for the response to irritants or stimuli from outside the body/ inside the body 1. Sensory receptors detect changes and send messages via nerve impulses or electric signals. 2. The central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) receives and assesses the information

then induces response by activating the body effectors (muscles or glands) 5. Endocrine system - Acts very slowly - Release chemical molecules called hormones and release them into the blood to regulate other structures - Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, thymus, pancreas, pineal, ovaries and testes - Not connected anatomically - Responsible for growth, reproduction and food use (metabolism) of cells 6. Cardiovascular system Primary organs: heart and blood vessels Blood: transporting fluid Blood vessels: transport blood Carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones and other substances to and from the tissue cells Tissue cells- where exchanges are made

- White blood cells & chemicals in blood: help protect body from foreign invaders (bacteria, toxins, tumor cells) - Heart: pumping blood out chambers to blood vessels to be transported to body tissues 7. Lymphatic System - Organs: lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs: spleen and tonsils - Return fluid leaked from the blood back to the blood vessels - Lymph nodes and lymphoid organs: help cleanse the blood by disposing debris in the lymphatic stream - House white blood cells involved in immunity 8. Respiratory system - Keep the body constantly supplied with oxygen and remove carbon dioxide - Organs: nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs - Thin walls of air sacs (housed by lungs): gases are transported to and from the blood

9. Digestive System - Basically a tube running through the body from mouth to anus - Organs: oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum - Role: break down food and deliver the products to the blood for dispersal to the body cells - Undigested food leaves the body through the anus as feces - Breakdown activities: starts with mouth, completed in the small intestine - After completion in the small intestine, the main function is to: reclaim water - Liver: produces bile to break down fats - Pancreas: deliver digestive enzymes to the small intestine 10.Urinary System - Disposes of waste containing nitrogen, which results when the body cells break down proteins and nucleic acids

- Often called excretory system - Organs: kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra - Maintaining water and salt (electrolyte) balance - Regulating acid-base balance of blood 11.Reproductive System - Produce offspring - Male: testes, scrotum, penis, accessory glands, duct system Testes- produces sperm Duct system- carries sperm to the outside of the body - Female: ovaries, female duct system (uterine tubes, uterus, vagina) Ovaries- produces eggs Uterus- site for development of fetus, once fertilization has occurred

MAINTAINING LIFE
I. NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS A. Maintaining Boundaries *Cell

- every cell of the body is surrounded by an external membrane that contains its contents which allows needed substances in, preventing entry of damaging substances *Integumentary system -protects internal organs from drying out, bacteria, and damaging effects of heat and chemical substances in the ext. environment B. Movement -includes all activities promoted by muscular system Ex. Walking, swimming -manipulating external environment w/ our fingers -Muscles pull on bones to create movement -Also occurs when substances such as blood, food and urine are propelled through internal organs of cardiovascular, digestive and urinary systems C. Responsiveness -also called irritability -ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment and then react to them

-nerve cells are highly irritable, communicate with each other via electrical impulses -all body cells are irritable to some extent D. Digestion -process of breaking down ingested food into simple molecules that the blood can absorb -nutrient- rich blood is distributed to all body cells by cardiovascular system -for one-celled organisms, the cell itself is the digestion factory E. Metabolism -refers to all chemical reactions that occur within body cells -breaking down complex substances to simpler building blocks -making larger structures from smaller ones -uses nutrients and oxygen to produces ATP ATP- energy-rich molecules that power cellular activities -depends on the digestive and respiratory systems to make nutrients and oxygen

-also depends on cardiovascular system to distribute these needed substances -regulated by hormones secreted by glands of endocrine systems F. Excretion -process of removing excreta or wastes from the body -getting rid of non-useful substances produced during digestion and metabolism -digestive system rids of indigestible food through feces -urinary system disposes of nitrogen-containing metabolic wastes through urine G. Reproduction -production of offspring -can occur on the Cellular or Organismal level Cellular- original cell divides, producing 2 identical daughter cells that may be used for body growth or repair -production of sperm and egg to make a whole new person

-regulated by the hormones of the endocrine system H. Growth -an increase in size -usually accomplished by an increase in the number of cells -cell constructing activities must occur at a faster rate than cell destroying ones II. SURVIVAL NEEDS -includes nutrients (food), oxygen, water, and appropriate temperature and atmospheric pressure Nutrients- the body takes in through food, contain chemicals used for energy and cell building Carbohydrates- major energy providing fuel for body cells Proteins and fats-building cell structures Fats- cushion body parts, provide reserve fuel Minerals and vitamins- required for chemical reactions that go on in cells; oxygen transport in blood

 Oxygen -all nutrients in the world are useless unless oxygen is also available -chemical reactions that release energy from food require oxygen -20% of the air we breathe is oxygen Water - Accounts for 60-80% of body weight - Single most abundant chemical in the body - Provides fluid base for body secretions and excretions - Obtained: ingested food and liquids - Lost: evaporation from lungs and skin; excretion Body temperature - 37 degrees C (98 F) if body temp drops below this pt, metabolic reactions become slower, and slower until it stops if too high, chemical reactions proceed too rapidly, and body proteins begin to break down - Heat is generated mostly by the activity of skeletal muscles

Atmospheric pressure - Force exerted on the surface of the body by the weight of air - Involves breathing, exchange of O and CO2 in lungs - High altitudes (atmospheric pressure is lower) gas exchange may be too low to support cellular metabolism HOMEOSTASIS -bodys ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world is continuously changing -means unchanging (homeo= same; stasis= standing still) -indicates a dynamic state of equilibrium, or a balance in w/c internal conditions change and vary but always within relatively narrow limits -body demonstrates homeostasis: when needs are met and it functions smoothly -every organ system plays a role HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS

-Communication w/in the body is accomplished chiefly by the nervous and endocrine systems Nervous systems- electrical signals as info carriers Endocrine- blood borne hormones as info carriers -Variable: factor or event being regulated -HCM Components: 1. Receptor-some sensor that monitors and responds to changes in the environment Stimuli- what the changes are called - sends input to the control center, along the afferent pathway 2. Control center- determines the level at w/c a variable is to be maintained, analyzes the info then determines the appropriate response or course of action 3. Effector- provides the means for the control centers output to the stimulus

- Information from the control center to the effector flows along the efferent pathway 4. The results of the response will induce a feedback to influence the stimulus: Negative feedback- depressing it -shutting off original stimulus or reducing its intensity -regulating body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, blood levels of glucose/O/CO2/minerals Positive feedback mechanism -rare -increase the original stimulus and increase the variable farther from its original number -control infrequent events that occur explosively and do not require continuous adjustments -blood clotting, birth of baby LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY

Anatomical position -standard position -body is erect, w/ feet parallel and arms hanging at the sides w/ palms facing forward (thumbs pointing away) Directional Terms (TABLE 1.1)