CHAPTER 3: Body Tissues

Cells are specialized for particular functions Have hazards, when a small group of cells is indispensable, its loss can destroy the body Tissues -group of cells that are similar in structure and function -interweave to form the fabric of the body 1. Epithelium- covering 2. Connective-support 3. Muscle- movement 4. Nervous- control

3. Filtration -kidney 4. Secretion -glandsperspiration, oil, digestive enzymes, mucus Special Characteristics of Epithelium 1. Except for glandular epithelium, cells fit together to form continuous sheets bound together by desmosomes and tight junctions. 2. Has an APICAL SURFACE -free or unattached surface -exposed to the bodys exterior or cavity of an internal organ -may be slick and smooth -others exhibit modifications: microvilli or cilia 3. BASEMENT MEMBRANE -lower surface of the epithelium -structureless -secreted by both epithelial cells and connective tissue cells 4. Avascular -depends on diffusion from capillaries in the underlying connective tissue for food and oxygen 5. Regenerate easily -when well nourished

A. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
-lining, covering and glandular tissue of the body -forms outer layer of skin -lines cavities -nearly all substances must pass through epithelium Types: 1. Glandular- forms various glands in the body 2. Covering and lining- covers all free body surfaces, contains versatile surfaces Functions: 1. Protection - skin, cilia in respiratory tract 2. Absorption -lines stomach and small intestine

Classifications of Epithelium A. Arrangement/ # of layers: 1. Simple 1 layer 2. Stratified- more than 1 layer B. Cell shape 1. Squamous- flat scales 2. Cuboidal- square dices 3. Columnar- rectangle, pahaba *Stratified epithelia are named for cells at the free surface of the epithelial membrane, not those resting on the basement membrane I. Simple Epithelia - absorption, secretion and filtration - NOT PROTECTION A. Simple Squamous -fit closely together like floor tiles -where filtration or exchange of substances by rapid diffusion occurs Found in: air sacs of lungs (exchanges of H20 and CO2), walls of capillaries (nutrients and gases pass bet. tissues and blood) serous membranes

-membranes that line the ventral body cavity and cover the organs in that cavity B. Simple Cuboidal Found in: glands and ducts walls of kidney tubules covers surface of ovaries C. Simple columnar Found in: Goblet cells -produce mucus entire length of digestive tract of stomach and anus Mucous membranes -line body cavities open to the body exterior D. Pseudostratified Columnar -some of its cells are shorter than others, and their nuclei appear at different heights above the basement membrane -gives false impression that its stratified Function: 1. Absorption 2. Secretion Found in: lining of respiratory tract (pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium)

 II. Stratified Epithelia -more durable than simple epithelium -FOR PROTECTION A. Stratified Squamous -most common in the body -cells at the free edge: squamous cells -cells close to the basement membrane: cuboidal or columnar -found in sites full of friction Found in: esophagus, mouth, outer portion of skin B. Stratified cuboidal & stratified columnar -rare in the body Found in: ducts of large glands C. Transitional Epithelium -highly modified, stratified squamous -lining of urinary bladder, ureters and part of urethra -subject to stretching -cells of basal cells: cuboidal, columnar -those at the free surface: vary in appearance During rest (no stretching): - membrane is many layered, cells are rounded, dome-like

During stretching: - when filled with urine, epithelium thins, surface cells flatten and become squamous-ish

*ALLOWS MORE URINE TO BE STORED III. Glandular Epithelium Gland -consists of one or more cells that make and secrete a particular product Secretion -may refer to as: 1. Product of a gland - protein molecules in an aqueous fluid 2. An active process in which glandular cells obtain materials from blood to make a secretion Two types: 1. Endocrine -lose their connections to the surface -DUCTLESS -secretion: hormones -hormones diffuse directly to the blood vessels 2. Exocrine

-RETAIN DUCTS -secretions empty through ducts then to the epithelial surface -both internal and external Found in: sweat/oil glands, liver and pancreas

B. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
-connects body parts -found everywhere in the body -most abundant and widely distributed -protecting, supporting and binding together Common Characteristics of Connective Tissue 1. Variations in blood supply -mostly well vascularized -except: tendons and ligaments -poor blood supply cartilages -no blood supply 2. Extracellular matrix -produced by connective tissue cells and secreted to the exterior 2 main elements: 1. Ground substance -water + adhesion proteins + large, charged polysaccharide molecules

-may absorb large amounts of water: serve as water reservoir for the body Adhesion proteins -glue that allows connective tissue cells to attach to matrix fibers Charged polysaccharide -trap water as they intertwine -when abundant: cause the matrix to vary in consistency (the larger the amount, the harder the matrix gets) 2. Fibers A. Collagen -white -high tensile strength B. Elastic -yellow -stretch and recoil C. Reticular fibers -fine collagen fibers that form internal skeleton of soft organs * MONOMERS -building block of fibers -secreted by connective tissue into the ground substance in the matrix, where they join together to form fibers

 Because of the extracellular matrix the tissue is able to: 1. Form soft-packing tissue around Organs 2. Bear weight 3. Withstand stretching and abrasion like no other tissue could endure VARIATION IN CELLULAR MATRIX 1. Fat tissue -composed mostly of cells -matrix is soft 2. Bone and cartilage -few cells -large amount of matrix, extra strong TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE -from rigid to softest: Bone, Cartilage, Dense , Loose, Blood A. BONE -or osseous tissue (cell: osteocytes) - contains a Lacunae -cavity surrounded by hard matrix that contains calcium salts+ collagen fibers -protect and support body organs B. CARTILAGE -cell: chondrocyte

-less hard, more flexible than bone -found only in a few places in the body Types: 1. Hyaline cartilage -most abundant cartilage in the body -has abundant collagen fibers -rubbery matrix -blue white in appearance Found in: supports voice box/larynx attaches ribs to the breastbone covers ends of many bones (joints) SKELETON OF A FETUS IS HYALINE CARTILAGE 2. Fibrocartilage -highly compressible Found in: cushion-like disks between the vertebrae of the spinal column 3. Elastic cartilage -where elasticity is desired Found in: external ear, epiglottis C. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE -dense fibrous tissue -collagen fibers: main matrix element

- cells: fibroblasts -manufacture building blocks of the fibers Forms rope-like structures: 1. Tendons -attach skeletal muscles to bones 2. Ligaments -are more stretchy and contain more elastic fibers than tendons Found in: lower layers of skin (dermis) D. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUES -softer, more cells and fewer fibers than any other connective tissue type except blood 1. Areolar Tissue -most widely distributed connective tissue variety in the body -soft, pliable, cobwebby -cushions and protects body organs it wraps universal packing tissue and connective tissue glue -holds internal organs together in their proper positions - contains: Lamina Propria: soft layer of areolar connective tissue underlies all mucous membrane

-matrix contains all types of fibers (loose network) -most of the matrix seems like an empty space when viewed under the microscope -areola- small open space -reservoir for water and salts for surrounding tissues -all body cells obtain their nutrients from and release their wastes into this tissue fluid -in inflammation, areolar tissue soaks the excess fluid up like a sponge, and the area swells and becomes puffy (edema) -many phagocytes wander through this tissue 2. Adipose Tissue -cells: adipocytes -commonly called fat -basically an areolar tissue in which fat cells dominate -a glistening drop of oil occupies most of fat cells volumecompresses nucleus and displacing it to one side -also known as signet ring cells Found in: subcutaneous tissue beneath skin =insulates the body, protects from bumps and extremes of both heat and cold surrounds kidney cushions the eyeballs

fat depots: hips and breasts =fuel if needed 3. Reticular Connective Tissue -consists of a delicate network of interwoven reticular fibers associated with reticular cells - cell: reticular cells resemble fibroblasts -limited to certain sites: 1. Lymphoid organs (nodes, spleen, bone marrow) - where it forms the stroma (bed) or internal framework for the support of blood cells such as lymphocytes E. BLOOD -also known as vascular tissue -considered to be connective tissue because: Consists of blood cells Surrounded by a nonliving, fluid matrix called blood plasma -fibers: soluble protein molecules for blood clotting -atypical connective tissue -transport vehicle for the cardiovascular system carries nutrients, wastes, respiratory gases

Types of Muscle Tissue A. SKELETAL MUSCLE -packaged by connective tissue sheets into organs attached to the skeleton called skeletal muscles -can be controlled voluntarily/consciously -form the muscular system or flesh of the body -when muscles contract, they pull on bones or skin Reaction: gross body movements, change in facial expression -cells: called muscle fibers Long, cylindrical, multinucleate, have obvious striations Elongated to provide a long axis for contraction B. CARDIAC MUSCLE Found in: HEART ONLY -.When heart contracts, it acts as pump and propels blood through blood vessels -cells: Uninucleate, relatively short Striated Have branching cells that fit together at junctions called intercalated disks -Intercalated disks: contain gap junctions

C. MUSCLE TISSUE
-highly specialized to contract or shorten, to produce movement

 allows ions to freely pass from cell to cell, resulting in rapid conduction of the exciting electrical impulse across the heart -under involuntary control C. SMOOTH MUSCLE -or visceral muscles -cells: no striations single nucleus spindle shaped -as smooth muscle contracts, cavity of an organ becomes smaller (contraction) or enlarges (relaxation) for the propelling of substance -contracts more slowly than 2 other muscle types -Peristalsis= wavelike motion that keeps food moving in the smooth intestine Found in: walls of hollow organs: stomach, uterus, blood vessels

-contains supporting cells Insulate, support and protect the delicate neurons Make up the structures of the nervous system: brain spinal cord and nerves

TISSUE REPAIR/ WOUND HEALING

-when tissue injury occurs, it stimulates the bodys inflammatory and immune responses, and healing process begins almost immediately Protective responses: -Inflammation Generalized nonspecific body response that attempts to prevent further injury -Immune response Extremely specific and mounts vigorous attacks against invaders Tissue repair occurs in 2 major ways: 1. Regeneration -replacement of destroyed tissue by same kind of cells 2. Fibrosis -involves repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue by formation of scar tissue depends on: A. The type of tissue damaged B. Severity of the injury *In general, incisions or clean cuts heal faster that ragged tears of tissue Series of events in tissue injury:

D.NERVOUS TISSUE
-cells: neurons Receive and conduct electrochemical impulses from 1 part of the body to the other Functional characteristics: irritability, conductivity Structure: 1. Cytoplasm is drawn into long processes (3 ft or more, allows a single neuron to conduct an impulse over long distances)

1. The capillaries become very permeable -allows clotting proteins to seep into the injured area from bloodstream -clotting proteins form a clot Stops the loss of blood Holds the edges of the wound together and walls off the injured area to prevent bacteria to spread to neighbor tissues -where the clot is exposed to air, it quickly dries and hardens, forming a scab 2. Granulation tissue forms -Granulation tissue Delicate pink tissue composed largely of new capillaries that grow into the damaged area from undamaged blood cells nearby Capillaries: fragile and bleed freely Contains phagocytes -dispose of blood clot Contains connective tissue cells or fibroblasts -synthesize the building blocks of collagen fibers (scar tissue) to permanently bridge the gap 3. Surface epithelium regenerates -makes its way across the granulation tissue just beneath the scab

-scab detaches, the final result is a fully regenerated surface epithelium that covers underlying area of fibrosis the scar -visibility of scar depends on severity of wound In general: Epithelial, fibrous connective tissues and bone regenerate easily Skeletal muscle regenerates poorly Cardiac muscle and nervous tissue are replaced largely by scar tissue

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF CELLS AND TISSUES

Very early in embryonic development, the cells begin to specialize to form tissues By birth, most organs are well formed and functioning Cell division is extremely important during the bodys growth period Most cells, except neurons undergo mitosis Puberty- when adult body size is reached and overall body growth ends After puberty, only certain cells routinely divide: ex: skin cells Heart muscle & nervous tissue: amitotic (almost completely lose their ability to divide when full mature)

Amitotic cells: when injured, cannot be replaced by same type of cells Aging process begins once maturity has been reached No one has been able to explain what causes aging, but there are suggestions: 1. Chemical insults- presence of toxic chemicals (alcohol, drugs) in the blood or temporary absence of needed substances such as glucose or oxygen 2. External factors (radiation) 3. Aging clock is genetically programmed or built in our genes Aging process: EPITHELIUM: 1. Epithelial membranes thin and are more easily damaged 2. Skin loses elasticity and begins to sag 3. Exocrine glands become less active as we begin to dry out (less oil, mucus, sweat) 4. Endocrine glands produce decreasing hormones body processes become less efficient CONNECTIVE: 1. Bones become porous and weaken 2. Repair of tissue injuries slows 3. Muscles begin to waste away 4. Decreased efficiency of circulatory system

MODIFICATIONS: 1. Neoplasm- cell multiplying wildly resulting to an abnormal mass of proliferating cells -may be benign or malignant cancer 2. Hyperplasia - certain body tissues may enlarge because there is some local irritant or condition that stimulates the cells - when a womans breasts enlarge during pregnancy 3. Atrophy -when an organ decreases in size because it loses normal stimulation -muscles that are not used, or that have lost their nerve supply