P. C. G. H. S.

LOWER 6 BIOLOGY Compiled & prepared

By Yeap Chee Beng
 Kingdom Animalia
• Eukaryotic • Body plan • Most animals
• – basic structure – are capable of
Multicellular
and functional locomotion at
• Heterotrophic design of body some time during
• Cells life cycle
specialized – can respond
• Animals have adaptively to
for specific
diverse body external stimuli
functions
plans – can reproduce
sexually
 Sexual Reproduction
• Sperm and egg unite (zygote)
• Zygote undergoes cleavage
– cell divisions produce hollow ball of
cells (blastula)
• Blastula undergoes gastrulation
– forms embryonic tissues
 Marine Environments
• Provide
– relatively stable temperatures
– buoyancy
– readily available food

• Fluid and salt balance

– more easily maintained than in fresh water

• Disadvantages:
– currents and other water movements
 Fresh Water
• Provides
– less constant environment
– less food

• Animals must osmoregulate

– fresh water is hypotonic to tissue fluid
 Terrestrial Animals

• Have adaptations that

– protect them from drying out
– protect them from temperature changes
– protect their gametes and embryos
 How do biologists use structural characters
(variations in body symmetry, number of tissue
layers, type of body cavity) and patterns of early
development to infer relationships among animal
phyla?

Symmetry
• Cnidarians and ctenophores are closely related
– because they share radial symmetry
– most other animals exhibit bilateral symmetry

• Cephalization (development of head)

– evolved with bilateral symmetry
Radial and
Bilateral
Symmetry
In radial symmetry,
multiple planes can
be drawn through
the central axis;
each divides the
animal into two
mirror images.
Radial symmetry (top view)
 In radial symmetry, multiple
planes can be drawn through
the central axis; each divides
the animal into two mirror
images.

Radial symmetry (side view)

 Dorsal Cross (or transverse) section

Frontal
section
Caudal

Anterior Posterior

Cephalic

Ventral

Bilateral symmetry (lateral view)

 Dorsal

Sagittal section

Medial

In bilateral symmetry, the head end of the Frontal Lateral

animal is its anterior end, and the section
opposite end is its posterior end. The
back of the animal is its dorsal surface,
and the belly is its ventral surface. The
diagrams also illustrate various ways the
body can be sectioned (cut) to study its
internal structure. A sagittal section Ventral
(lengthwise vertical cut) divides the animal
into right and left parts. A frontal, or
longitudinal, cut (lengthwise horizontal)
divides the body into dorsal and ventral
parts. Bilateral symmetry (front view)
 Other Structural Characters
• Relationships can be based on
– level of tissue development
– type of body cavity

• Embryonic tissues (germ layers)

 Coelom
Formation
 Schizocoely — Enterocoely —
characteristic of characteristic of Two types of
protostomes deuterostomes
coelom formation
Ectoderm Ectoderm • The coelom originates in
Developing Presumptive the embryo from blocks of
mesoderm mesoderm mesoderm that split off
Blastopore
Enterocoelic pouch from each side of the
Endoderm embryonic gut.
Mesoderm Ectoderm • In protostomes, the
Endoderm coelom typically forms by
Ectoderm Gut
the process of
Developing coelom Ectoderm
(Schizocoel) schizocoely, in which the
Endoderm
mesoderm splits. The split
Mesoderm widens, forming a cavity
Gut Gut Coelom that becomes the coelom.
(Enterocoel) • In enterocoely,
characteristic of
Coelom
deuterostomes, the
Mesoderm Gut
mesoderm outpockets
from the gut, forming
pouches. The cavity within
Endoderm Mesentery these pouches becomes
Coelom Epidermis (ectoderm)
the coelom.
Muscle layer Peritoneum
(mesoderm) • Ectoderm is shown in
(mesoderm)
Gut blue, endoderm in yellow.
 Germ Layers
• Outer layer (ectoderm)
– gives rise to body covering, nervous system

• Inner layer (endoderm)

– lines the gut and other digestive organs

• Middle layer (mesoderm)

– gives rise to most other body structures
 Body Plans

• The germ layer from which each tissue was derived is indicated in
parentheses. Ectoderm is shown in blue, mesoderm in red, and endoderm
in yellow.
Epidermis (a) Acoelomate — flatworm (liver fluke)
(from ectoderm)

Muscle layer
(from
mesoderm)

Mesenchyme
(gelatin-like
tissue)

Epithelium
(from endoderm)
 Body Plans

Pseudocoelom

Epidermis
(from ectoderm)
Muscle layer
(from mesoderm)

Epithelium
(from endoderm)
(b) Pseudocoelomate—nematode.
 Body Plans

Coelom
Epidermis
(from ectoderm)
Muscle layer
(from mesoderm)
Peritoneum
(from mesoderm)

Epithelium
(from endoderm)
Mesentery
(from mesoderm) (c) True coelomate—vertebrate.
 Bilateral Symmetry
• Acoelomate
– no body cavity

• Pseudocoelomate
– body cavity not completely lined with mesoderm

• Coelomate, (animal with true coelom)

– body cavity completely lined with mesoderm
 Bilateral Animals
Two major evolutionary branches:

• Protostomia
– mollusks, annelids, arthropods

• Deuterostomia
– echinoderms, chordates
 Blastopore
• Opening from embryonic gut to outside

• In protostomes
– develops into the mouth

• In deuterostomes
– becomes the anus
 Cleavage 1
• Protostomes
– undergo spiral cleavage
– early cell divisions diagonal to polar axis

• Deuterostomes
– undergo radial cleavage
– early cell divisions either parallel or at right
angles to polar axis
– cells lie directly above or below one another
 Spiral and
Radial
Cleavage
• The pattern of
cleavage can be
appreciated by
comparing the
positions of the
purple cells in (a)
& (b).
 Cleavage 2
• Protostomes
– undergo determinate cleavage
– fate of each embryonic cell is fixed very early

• Deuterostomes
– undergo indeterminate cleavage
– fate of each embryonic cell is more flexible
Relationships
based on
Structure
 Evolutionary relationships of major animal phyla,
based on structure.
The bilateral animals are grouped by several criteria,
including type of body cavity: acoelomate, pseudocoelomate,
or coelomate.

KEY CONCEPTS
• Biologists classify animals based on their
body plan and features of their early
development
Phylum Porifera

• Sponges
– animals characterized by flagellate collar cells
(choanocytes)

• The only members of the Parazoa

– sister group of Eumetazoa
 Sponge Structure
• Sponge body
– sac with tiny openings for water to enter
– central cavity (spongocoel)
– open end (osculum) for water to exit

• Sponge cells
– loosely associated
– do not form true tissues
 Sponge
Structure
 Lophotrochozoa

Deuterostomia
Ecdysozoa
Parazoa

Porifera

Radiata
Choanoflagellate
ancestor

Sponge structure.
(a) Tube sponges (Spinosella
plicifera) from the Caribbean,
attached to the coral reef substrate.
 Osculum

Incurrent Spongocoel

Water movement
pores

Sponge structure. Epidermal

(b) Diagram of a simple sponge cut to expose cell
its organization. Collar cells (choanocytes) beat
their flagella, producing a current of water that
enters through the pores. The water passes Porocyte
through the spongocoel and exits through the
osculum. Food particles in the stream of water Spicule
are trapped by the collars.
Microvillus
Nucleus Collar cell Amoeboid cell
in mesohyl
Flagellum

Collar
KEY CONCEPTS
• Sponges (phylum Porifera) are characterized by collar
cells and by loosely associated cells that do not form
true tissues
 Phylum Cnidaria

• Characterized by
– radial symmetry
– two tissue layers
– cnidocytes (cells containing nematocysts)
 Nematocysts

When cnidarian stinging cells

(cnidocytes) are stimulated,
the nematocyst discharges,
ejecting a thread that may
entangle or penetrate the
prey. Some nematocysts
secrete a toxic substance
that immobilizes the prey.
 Cnidocyte

Nucleus

Thread

Capsule

Nematocyst
(not discharged)

Cnidocil Thread
(trigger)

Nematocyst
(discharged)
 Phylum Cnidaria
• Gastrovascular cavity
– with single opening for mouth and anus

• Nerve cells form irregular, nondirectional nerve nets

– connect sensory cells with contractile and gland cells
Cnidarian
Structure
• Hydra
 Tentacles
Cnidocytes
(stinging
cells)

1 mm Mouth

Egg
Bud (ovum)

Cnidarian Gastrovascular
cavity Ovary
Structure
Epidermis
Mesoglea
Gastrodermis

• Hydra
• a freshwater
hydrozoan.
 Cnidaria Life Cycle

• Sessile polyp stage

– form with dorsal mouth surrounded by tentacles

• Free-swimming medusa (jellyfish) stage

 1 Reproductive polyps produce
medusae by budding asexually
Cnidaria
Mouth Medusae
(Obelia)
Tentacle
Feeding
Life Cycle
polyp
2 Free-swimming
medusae
reproduce
Medusa bud sexually.
Egg Sperm
Reproductive
polyp

3 Zygote develops
Gastrovascular
into ciliated planula
cavity
Planula larva.
larva

Polyp colony
4 Larva develops into
5 Colony grows as new polyps polyp that forms new
bud and remain attached. Young colony.
polyp colony

Obelia, a marine colonial hydrozoan.

4 Classes of Phylum Cnidaria
1. Class Hydrozoa (hydras, hydroids,
Portuguese man-of-war)
– typically polyps
– may be solitary or colonial

2. Class Scyphozoa (jellyfish)

– generally medusae
4 Classes of Phylum Cnidaria
3. Class Cubozoa (“box jellyfish”)
– have complex eyes that form blurred
images

4. Class Anthozoa (sea anemones, corals)

– polyps
– may be solitary or colonial
– differ from hydrozoans in organization of
gastrovascular cavity
 Cnidarians
• Polyp and medusa body forms of
cnidarians
 Parazoa

Cnidaria
Radiata

Ctenophora

ancestor
Choanoflagellate
Lophotrochozoa

Ecdysozoa

Deuterostomia
 Mouth

Epidermis

Mesoglea
Gastrodermis

Gastrovascular
cavity

Class Hydrozoa (polyp)

 Mouth Mesoglea
Gastrodermis
Epidermis

Gastrovascular
cavity

Class Scyphozoa (medusa)

 Mouth

Epidermis

Mesoglea

Gastrodermis
Gastrovascular
cavity

Class Anthozoa (polyp)

 KEY CONCEPTS
• Members of phylum Cnidaria (hydras, jellyfish, sea
anemones) are characterized by
– radial symmetry,
– two tissue layers, and
– cnidocytes,
• cells that contain stinging organelles
 Phylum Ctenophora

• Comb jellies
– fragile, luminescent marine predators
– biradial symmetry
– eight rows of cilia that resemble combs
– tentacles with adhesive glue cells
Comb Jelly
 KEY CONCEPTS
• Members of phylum Ctenophora (comb jellies) have
biradial symmetry, two tissue layers, eight rows of
cilia, and tentacles with adhesive glue cells
 Coelom
• True coelom is a fluid-filled body cavity
– completely lined by mesoderm between digestive tube
and outer body wall

• Allows tube-within-a-tube body plan

– body wall is outer tube
– inner tube is digestive tube
 Coelom
• An enclosed • A space in which internal
compartment (or series organs develop
of compartments) of – including gonads
fluid under pressure

• Helps transport materials

• Serve as hydrostatic
skeleton
– contracting muscles • Protects internal organs
push against tube of
fluid
 KEY CONCEPTS
• Evolution of the coelom has been associated
with important innovations in body plan,
including
– cephalization,
– the tube-within-a-tube body plan,
– compartmentalization and segmentation
 Protostomes
• Characterized by
– spiral cleavage
– determinate cleavage
– development of mouth from
blastopore
 Two Branches of Protostomes
• Lophotrochozoa
– platyhelminths, nemerteans, mollusks, annelids,
lophophorate phyla, rotifers

• Ecdysozoa
– nematodes (roundworms) and arthropods
• Protostomes are a monophyletic group that gave rise
to two major clades: Lophotrochozoa and Ecdysozoa

Phylum Nemertea (Ribbon Worms)

• Characterized by proboscis
– muscular tube for capturing food, defense
• Reduced coelom (rhynchocoel)
– space surrounding proboscis

• Nemerteans have
– tube-within-a-tube body plan
– complete digestive tract with mouth and anus
– a circulatory system
Nemerteans
 Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)
• Acoelomate animals with • Ladder-type nervous
system
– bilateral symmetry – sense organs
– cephalization – simple brain composed of
– 3 definite tissue layers two ganglia
– 2 nerve cords that extend
– well-developed organs the length of body

• Many are hermaphrodites • Protonephridia

– function in osmoregulation
– single animal produces and disposal of metabolic
both sperm and eggs wastes
 3 Classes of
Phylum Platyhelminthes
• Class Turbellaria
– free-living flatworms, including planarians

• Classes Trematoda and Monogenea

– parasitic flukes

• Class Cestoda
– parasitic tapeworms
Planarian
 Parazoa

Radiata

Platyhelminthes

Nemertea

Mollusca
Annelida

ancestor
Choanoflagellate
Lophophorate
Lophotrochozoa

phyla

Rotifera

Ecdysozoa

Deuterostomia
 Ganglia
Auricle
Auricle
Eyespot
Nerve
Gastrovascular
cavity
Pharynx
Sheath
surrounding
pharynx
Mouth

1 mm
 Pharyngeal Inner
sheath muscle
cavity Pharyngeal layer of
cavity pharynx
Outer
muscle
Muscle layer

Epidermis

Adhesive
Sperm gland
Ventral
mass
nerve Cilia
Body wall
cords
composed of
Muscle
epidermis,
layers
circular muscle, and
longitudinal muscle
 Parasitic Flukes and Tapeworms
• Typically have suckers or hooks
– for holding on to their hosts

• Have complicated life cycles

– intermediate hosts
– large numbers of eggs
 Larvae make their way to
2 circulatory system, where they
mature. During reproduction,
which takes place in veins, male
holds female in a long groove.
1 Larvae
burrow
through
skin. 1 mm

Life cycle of the 3

7 Finally, fork- Eggs pass
tailed larvae blood fluke into
(cercariae) intestine.
develop and (Schistosoma)
leave snail. 4 Eggs containing
developing embryos are
excreted with faeces.
6
Larvae must enter a second 5 If they find their way to fresh water,
host, a freshwater snail. After the eggs hatch, releasing free-
burrowing into tissues of snail, swimming larvae (miracidia).
larvae develop into a form that
reproduces asexually.
Tapeworm
 Cephalization
• Evolution of a head
– concentration of sense organs and nerve cells (simple
brain) at anterior end
– (Flatworms show beginnings of cephalization)

• Increases effectiveness of bilateral animal

– to actively find food, shelter, mates
– to detect enemies
 Phylum Mollusca
• Soft-bodied animals
– usually covered by a shell

• Ventral foot
– for locomotion

• Mantle
– covers visceral mass (body organs)
 Mollusks
• Most have open circulatory system
– Cephalopods have closed circulatory system

• Most have rasplike radula for feeding

– Bivalves are suspension feeders

• Most marine mollusks have free-swimming, ciliated

trochophore larva
Trochophore Larva

• The first larval stage of a

marine mollusk, the
trochophore larva, is also
characteristic of annelids.

• Just above the mouth a band

of ciliated cells functions as a
swimming organ and, in
some species, collects
suspended food particles.
 Digestive
tract

Cilia

Mouth

Nephridium

Mesodermal
cells
Anus Trochophore
Larva
 Class Polyplacophora

• Includes marine chitons

• Shells consist of 8 overlapping plates
 The mollusk body plan.
(a) Chitons are sluggish marine animals with shells composed
of eight overlapping plates.
• This sea cradle chiton (Toni cella lineata), which
reaches about 5 cm (2 in) in length, inhabits rocks
covered with corraline algae in coastal waters off the
U.S. Pacific Northwest.

Class Polyplacophora

Shell
Digestive
tract
 Class Gastropoda

• Largest group of mollusks

– snails, slugs, and their relatives

• Body undergoes torsion

– a twisting of the visceral mass
The mollusk body plan.
(b) The broad, flat foot of the gastropod is an adaptation to its
mobile lifestyle.
• The mystery snail (Pomacea bridgesi) inhabits fresh
water and can be found burrowing in the mud.
Class Gastropoda

Shell

Digestive
Foot tract
Torsion
 Class Bivalvia
• Includes aquatic clams, scallops, oysters

• Two-part shell
– hinged dorsally
– encloses bodies

• Suspension feeders
The mollusk body plan.
(c) The compressed body of the horseneck clam (Tresus capax)
is adapted for burrowing in the North Pacific mud.
• Its shell grows to about 20 cm (8 in) in length.

Class Bivalva

Shell

Digestive
Foot tract
Clam
 Excurrent
siphon
Incurrent
siphon

Internal anatomy of a clam

• The two shells of a bivalve hinge dorsally and open ventrally.
 Class Cephalopoda
• Includes squids, octopods, Nautilus

• Active, predatory swimmers

• Tentacles surround the mouth

– located in the large head
The mollusk body plan.
(d) The squid body is streamlined for swimming.
• To avoid being seen by potential predators, the squid can
change color to blend with its background.
• This northern shortfin squid (Illex illecebrosus), which
grows to a mantle length of up to about 31 cm (about 1 ft),
inhabits the North Atlantic ocean.

Class Cephalopoda

Tentacles Internal
(modified shell
foot)

Digestive
tract
Phylum Annelida (Segmented Worms)
• Aquatic worms, earthworms, leeches

• Conspicuously long bodies

• Segmentation
– both internally and externally

• Large, compartmentalized coelom

– serves as hydrostatic skeleton
Annelids
Earthworm
Leeches
 Class Polychaeta
• Marine worms with parapodia
– appendages for locomotion, gas exchange

• Parapodia have many setae

• Well-defined head with sense organs

– unlike other annelids
 Class Oligochaeta
• Earthworms

• Characterized by few short setae per segment

• Body divided into > 100 segments

– separated internally by septa
 Class Hirudinea
• Leeches

• Characterized by absence of setae and appendages

• Parasitic leeches have suckers

– for holding on to their host
 The Lophophorate Phyla

• Marine animals with a lophophore

– brachiopods, phoronids, bryozoans

• Lophophore
– ciliated ring of tentacles surround the mouth
– specialized to capture particles in water
 Lophophorates
• Phylum Brachiopoda

• Phylum Phoronida

• Phylum Bryozoa
Phylum Rotifera
 Learning Objective
• What are the distinguishing characteristics of
phylum Nematoda?
 Phylum Nematoda (Roundworms)

• Highly successful ecdysozoans

• Pseudocoelom

• Body covered by tough cuticle

– helps prevent desiccation
 Phylum Nematoda (Roundworms)
• Parasitic nematodes in humans
– Ascaris
– hookworms
– trichina worms
– pinworms
Ascaris
 Mouth
Pharynx

Dorsal nerve

The roundworm Ascaris. Excretory

Pharynx
Muscle of
canal
(a) Note the complete Excretory
pharynx
wall
digestive tract that gland

extends from mouth to Pseudocoelom

anus. Uterus
Ovary
(b) This cross section
through Ascaris shows Intestine

the tube-within-a-tube Vulva Excretory

canal
body plan. The Muscle layer
protective cuticle that Epidermis Ventral nerve

covers the body helps Cuticle (b) Cross section

the animal resist

drying. Anus

(a) Longitudinal section

 Phylum Arthropoda

• Segmented animals with paired, jointed appendages

• Armorlike exoskeleton of chitin

• Molting necessary for arthropod to grow

 Phylum Arthropoda
• Open circulatory system
– dorsal heart, pumps hemolymph

• Aquatic forms have gills for gas exchange

• Terrestrial forms have either tracheae or book lungs

 Trilobites
• Extinct marine arthropods
– covered by hard, segmented shell

• Each segment had a pair of biramous appendages

with two jointed branches
– inner walking leg
– outer gill branch
Trilobites
 Subphylum Myriapoda
• 2 Classes
– Chilopoda (centipedes)
– Diplopoda (millipedes)

• Uniramous (unbranched) appendages

• Single pair of antennae

Myriapods
 Subphylum Chelicerata
• Merostomes (horseshoe crabs) and Arachnids
(spiders, mites, and relatives)

• Body with cephalothorax and abdomen

• 6 pairs of uniramous, jointed appendages

– 4 pairs serve as legs
 Subphylum Chelicerata
• First appendages are chelicerae
– second are pedipalps

• Appendages adapted for manipulation of food,

locomotion, defense, copulation

• No antennae, no mandibles
Chelicerates
 Subphylum Crustacea
• Lobsters, crabs, shrimp, pill bugs, barnacles

• Body with cephalothorax and abdomen

• Most have five pairs of walking legs

• Appendages are biramous

 Subphylum Crustacea
• Two pairs of antennae
– sense taste and touch

• Third appendages are mandibles

– for chewing

• Two pairs of maxillae

– posterior to mandibles
– manipulate and hold food
Crustaceans
Lobster
 Cephalothorax
Abdomen Thorax Head Anatomy of
the lobster.
(a) Like other
decapods, the
spiny lobster
(Panulirus
argus) has five
pairs of
walking legs.
The first pair
of walking legs
is modified as
chelipeds
(large claws).
Eye
Fifth
walking leg
Tail fan Fifth Second Third
walking leg walking maxilliped
leg
Cheliped
Mouth

First
antenna

Second
antenna

Swimmerets First Anatomy of the lobster.

swimmeret (b) Ventral view of a lobster.
(used by male Note the variety of specialized
in copulation)
appendages.
 Subphylum Hexapoda

Anatomy of the grasshopper.

Head Thorax Abdomen Forewing

Antenna
Simple eye

Compound eye

Sound receptor Spiracles Hindwing

(a) External structure. Note the three pairs of segmented legs.

 Insects

• Body with head, thorax, and abdomen

• Uniramous appendages
• Single pair of antennae
• Tracheae for gas exchange
• Malpighian tubules for excretion
 Grasshopper
Ovary
Digestive gland Heart Anus

Brain

Nerve cord Intestine

Malpighian tubules Genital opening

(b) Internal Anatomy.

 Insect Adaptations
• Versatile exoskeleton • Metamorphosis
• Segmentation – transition from one
developmental form to
• Specialized jointed another
appendages – reduces intraspecific
• Highly developed sense competition
organs
• Ability to fly • Insects have developed
– effective reproductive
strategies
– effective mechanisms for
defense, offense
– ability to communicate
Metamorphosis
 Deuterostome Relationships
• All: • The deuterostomes include
– Have radial cleavage both invertebrates and
– Cleavage is vertebrates
indeterminate • Relationships among the
– Triploblastic deuterostomes:
– Coelom forms from
1. Echinoderms
cavities in the mesoderm
– Blastopore becomes the 2. Chordates
anus; mouth develops – The fish
from a second opening – The amphibians
at the anterior end
• Two major groups: – The amniotes
– Echinoderms • Reptiles
– Chordates • Birds
• Mammals
 Deuterostomes

• Shared derived characters

– radial, indeterminate cleavage
– blastopore becomes anus
– larva have a loop-shaped ciliated band used for
locomotion

• The echinoderms and the chordates are the two

most successful deuterostome lineages in terms of
diversity, number of species, and number of
individuals
 Phylum Echinodermata
• Marine; ~13,000 species; throughout all oceans
• Six classes:
– Crinoidea
• Sea lilies and feather stars
– Asteroidea
• Sea stars
– Ophiuriodea
• Brittle stars
– Echinoidea
• Sea urchins and sand dollars
– Holothuria
• Sea cucumbers
– Concentricycloidea
• Sea daisies
 Echinoderm Anatomy
• Larvae are bilateral, ciliated and free-swimming
• Pentaradial symmetry develops as the animal settles
• Develops an endoskeleton (internal skeleton) of calcium carbonate
plates and spines
• Some of the endoskeleton projects through the outer skin giving rise to
name: spiny skinned (echinoderm)
• Modified spines call pedicellariae on the surface have tiny pincers that
clean the surface
• Hydraulic water vascular system is a system of fluid filled canals
– Leads to many tiny tube feet that extend under pressure and
stick to surfaces, used for locomotion, prey capture
– Ampulla, muscular sac, used to pressurize the water vascular
system
• Have well-developed coelom, transports materials.
• No excretory organs
• Simple nervous system, nerve ring around mouth
 Class Asteroidea
• Commonly named as sea stars
– central disc with five or more arms
– use tube feet for locomotion
Sea Star Body Plan
 Body plan
of a sea star Stomach

Digestive
gland

Tube feet
Ampulla Anus

Gonad

A sea star viewed from above, with

Spine
its arms in various stages of
dissection. Similar structures are
Dermal gill
present in each arm. The two-part
stomach is in the central disc with
the anus on the aboral (upper) Pedicellariae
surface and the mouth beneath on
the oral surface.
 Class Holothuria

• Commonly named as sea cucumbers

• Look much like a cucumber, are various colours
• Body is flexible, saclike with pentameric symmetry around the
long axis
• Better developed circulatory system, transports oxygen and
nutrients
• Sluggish, benthic, some burrow
• Food is trapped in mucus that covers tentacles
• Will eviscerate; ejective the digestive trace, respiratory
structures and gonads under unfavorable conditions;
• Will regenerate lost parts later
 Class Holothuroidea

• Sea cucumbers
– elongated flexible bodies
– circle of modified tube feet surrounds mouth
 Phylum Chordata

• At some time during life

cycle have
– flexible, supporting
notochord
– dorsal, tubular nerve
cord
– pharyngeal (gill) slits
– muscular postanal tail
– endostyle (or thyroid
gland)
The Chordates
• All have
– Notochord: dorsal, stiff rod,
supports body
– Dorsal tubular nerve cord, not
ventral
– Pharyngeal slits in the embryo
• Alternating branchial arches
and grooves develop, look
like gills
• Probably a vestigial
characteristic from filter
feeding which was modified
for gas exchange
– Most have a muscular, post
anal tail
 Vertebrate Adaptations
• Endoskeleton based upon a vertebral column, forms
skeletal axis
• Made of vertebrae (either bone or cartilage or both)
• Anterior end has a cranium or brain case
• Structures in vertebrates derived from neural crest
cells, found only in vertebrates and early in
development
• Vertebrate evolution characterized by exceptional
cephalization – brain more elaborate, well-developed
sense organs
• Two pairs of appendages: fins / legs
• Closed circulatory system, ventral heart and blood
with haemoglobin and efficient oxygen carrier
• Usually have complex endocrine glands
 One View of
Chordate Affinities

• ~ 48,000 species
• A traditional view of
evolutionary relationships
• Six classes of fish, four
classes of tetrapods
(aquatic tetrapods such as
penguins evolved from
terrestrial forms)
Chordate Body Plan
 supporting structures

Evolution of Jaws Early

jawless
fish
(agnathan)
gill slit

• First fishes lacked

Early jawed
fish
jaws (placoderm)
jaw
• Jaws are modifications
spiracle jaw
support
of anterior gill supports
Modern
jawed fish
(shark)

jaw
 Existing Jawless Fishes

• Cylindrical body • No paired fins

• Cartilaginous skeleton

Hagfish

tentacles gill slits (twelve pairs) mucous glands

Lamprey gill openings (seven pairs)
 Jawed Fishes

• Most diverse and numerous group of

vertebrates
• Two classes:
– Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes)
– Osteichthyes (bony fishes)
Cartilaginous
Fishes
Modern Bony
Fishes
Cartilaginous Fishes: Bony Fishes:
Class Chondrichthyes Class Osteichthyes

• Most are marine • Includes 96 percent of

predators living fish species
• Cartilaginous skeleton • Three subclasses:
• Main groups: – Ray-finned fishes
– Skates and rays
– Lobe-finned fishes
– Sharks
– Lung fishes
– Chimaeras (ratfishes)
 The Cartilaginous Fish:
Class Chondricthyes
• Includes sharks, rays and skates
• Mainly marine, a few freshwater
– Can be very small but the whale
shark is the largest known fish
• Rays and skates are greatly flattened
• All retain embryonic cartilaginous
skeletons
• Have paired jaws and two pairs of fins
• Skin has placoid scales, really a
toothlike structure; the mouth contains
large ones that serve as teeth
– Placoid scales are homologous
to other vertebrate teeth
 Shark Anatomy

• Sharks are well adapted to swimming

• Very elongate, low friction bodies
• Body shape and fins supplies lift; body is denser
and will sink unless it swims
 Shark Organ Systems

• Well-developed brain
• Keen chemosensory organs
• Electroreceptors sense weak electrical fields of the
muscles of prey
• Lateral line organ is sensitive to mechanical
disturbances
• No lungs, but 5-7 paired gills
• Long pharynx but short straight intestine leading to a
cloaca, which receives metabolic wastes and urine;
– is reproductive organ in females
 Reproduction in Chondrichthys
• Separate sexes, internal fertilization
• Males have modified pelvic fin called a clasper that
transfers sperm to the female
• Eggs fertilized in the upper part of the oviducts
– are coated with covering as they move down the oviduct
• Skates and some sharks are oviparous (egg-laying)
• Many sharks are ovoviviparous,
– in that they hatch within the mother’s body
• Some sharks are viviparous (live-bearing)
 The Bony Fishes

• Bony fish have advantages over cartilaginous fish

– Bone is strong
– Provides support
– Stores calcium
– Bony fish have tough calcareous scales
– Fins are tough, supported by long rays of
bone/cartilage
– Operculum (gill flap), strong and protects head
– Bony fish usually have very large numbers of young
• In the Devonian, diverged into two groups
– Lobe-finned fish (Sarcoptergii)
– Ray finned fish (Actinoptergii)
Bony Fish Structure
Living Amphibian
Groups

• Frogs and toads

• Salamanders

• Caecilians
 Amphibian Groups

• First tetrapods (land vertebrates) were labyrinthodonts

– Some very large size of modern crocodilians
– Heavy-bodied, massive tails
– Legs just strong enough to crawl about
– Thought to have given rise to modern frogs and
salamanders
• Modern amphibia classified into three Orders
– Urodela (visible tail)
• Salamanders, newts and mudpuppies
– Anura (no tail)
• Frogs and toads
– Apoda (no feet)
• Caecilians, which are shaped like worms
 Amphibians Have Metamorphosis
• Amphibians undergo metamorphosis from larva to adult
• Most have tadpoles as larvae
– Tails, gills, feed on plants
– Thyroid gland hormones regulate the change
– Gill and gill slits disappear
– Tail is resorbed
– Limbs appear
– Food shifts to carnivorous diet
• changes occur in digestive tract
– Mouth widens, tongue develops
– The ear drum and eyelids appear and the eye changes
shape
Evolution of Amphibians
Early Amphibians Modern Amphibians

• All require water at some

• Lungs became stage in the life cycle;

more effective most lay eggs in water

• Chambers of the • Lungs are less efficient

heart became than those of other

partially separated, vertebrates

making circulation • Skin serves as respiratory

more efficient organ
 Adult Amphibians
• Have primitive lungs
• Have moist skin that allows cutaneous gas exchange
• Mucus maintains wet skin and allows escape from predators
– Sometimes mucus is poisonous

• Have three-chambered heart

– Two atria receive blood
– One ventricle pumps it to the arteries
– Two circulatory systems:
• Systemic to various tissues and organs that use oxygen
• Pulmonary to the lungs and skin where it is recharged
with oxygen
Terrestrial Vertebrates
• Amniotes
– include reptiles, birds, mammals

• Amniotic egg (with shell and amnion)

– important adaptation for life on land

• Amnion (membrane)
– forms fluid-filled sac around embryo
Amniotic Egg
 Amniotes
• Evolution of the amniotic egg was critical to
advancement beyond amphibia
• The egg contains fluid-filled sac called the amnion
– Keeps embryo wet
• From the amniotic egg organisms were able to diverge
yet again – to reptiles, birds and mammals
• Amniotic egg has
– Yolk – nutrient stores for embryo
– Chorion and allantois – for gas exchange and waste
storage (allantois)
 Amniotes
• Have body coverings that minimize water loss
• Decreases gas exchange across body; requires better
lungs and efficient blood circulatory systems
• Conserve water through excretion of wastes in the
kidney
• Conversion of toxic ammonia to uric acid in birds and
reptiles is a water-saving mechanism; to urea in
mammals
 4 Groups of Extant Reptiles
1. Turtles, terrapins, tortoises
 4 Groups of Extant Reptiles
2. Lizards, snakes, amphisbaenians
 4 Groups of Extant Reptiles
3. Tuataras
 4 Groups of Extant Reptiles
4. Crocodiles, alligators, caimans, gavials
 Modern Reptiles
• Reproduction
– Leathery shell around egg
– Internal fertilization occurs first, then production of the
shell in the oviduct
– Requires a copulatory organ – the penis
• Are ectothermic – require heat from outside source
• Dry scaly skin
– Requires good lung, circulatory system
– Reptiles have 3-chambered, efficient heart
– Crocodilians have 4-chambered heart,
• which is more efficient and keeps the oxygenated
blood separate from the oxygen-depleted blood
 venom gland

Lizards and Snakes

• Largest order (95% of living reptiles)

• Most lizards are insectivores with
hollow
small peglike teeth fang
• All snakes are carnivores with highly
movable jaws
 Lizards and Snakes
• Order Squamata
– Lizards usually run on four legs
• Many rows of scales, flexible armor
• Wide range of sizes, from a few cm to several m
– Snakes have lost limbs secondarily
• Very elongate, no eyelids, no external ear
• Forked tongue is sensory
• Some (pit vipers) have infrared sensing organ
• Kill by constriction, or by poisons
Class Aves (Modern Birds)
 Class Aves (Modern Birds)
• The only group to have feathers
• Found in all habitats; aquatic, terrestrial & marine
• Some very small (hummingbirds) whereas the largest are
ostriches (~ 2 m tall)
• Lay eggs like reptiles
• Anterior limbs usually specialized for flight (or swimming in
some species)
• Posterior limbs for running, perching or swimming
• Very strong bones, yet very light
• Beak replaces teeth and the breastbone is keeled to allow
attachment of very large pectoral flight muscles
• Are endothermic – ‘warm blooded’
– Supports energetic life style
 Avian Respiratory Apparatus
• Birds have extraordinary lungs
– Have extensions called air sacs, occupy spaces
between internal organs and some bones
• Have one-way flow of air through respiratory system
• Very efficient four-chambered heart
• All work together to support very high metabolic rate,
needed for the stress of flying
• Waste
– Excrete waste as uric acid
– Is solid waste, passed to cloaca where it is vented often
– Saves water, keeps weight down
• Adapted to many environments and life styles through
adaptations to beaks, feet, wings, and through behaviour
• Eat energy-rich foods such as fruit
• Partition feeding effort specifically for certain prey, such as
rodents, rabbits, etc
• Birds have a crop, which incorporates pebbles, sand, etc
– to grind up food to increase surface area and speed
digestion
– also they don’t have to grind food with teeth
• Very fast nervous system
– good vision, allows fast reaction to changing environment
• Exceptionally vocal, make calls to find mates, lay out territories
• Tend to be brightly colored to attract mates, advertise territory,
from afar
 Placental Mammals
(Subclass Eutheria)
• Characterized by placenta
– for exchange between embryo and mother
 Class Mammalia
• Hairy
• Mammary glands to produce milk for young
• Differentiated teeth used for cutting, grinding
• Muscular diaphragm pulls air in
• Very complex nervous system with well developed
brain
• Internal fertilization, and except for monotremes,
viviparous
• Placenta transfers nourishment and waste to/from
developing young
 Placental Mammals
• Develop placenta, which is interface between mother
and young
– Provides nutrition and removes wastes
– Forms from embryonic membranes and the mother’s
uterine wall
– Bloods don’t mix but come very close
– Exchange gases, nutrients
• Allows more mature young to be born
– Typically newly-born young interact with others in the
family soon after birth
 Biodiversity in Malaysia
• Malaysia is one of the global biodiversity hotspot
– A relatively small area with an exceptionally large and
diverse concentration of species
– 60% of the world’s known species of plants & animals
are located here
• Ecosystems with high biodiversity are more
productive, more stable & able to withstand
disturbances compared to ecosystems with reduced
biodiversity
 Biodiversity in Malaysia
• Many species in Malaysia are endemic
– Not found anywhere else in the world
– Highly susceptible to habitat loss (caused by human
activities)
• Different types of ecosystems
– Lowland forest
– Montane forest
– Mangrove forest
– Peat swamp forest
– Sulu-Sulawesi seas
 Threat of Implication of the
Declining threat to biodiversity
Biodiversity

• Habitat destruction • Cause flooding & contaminate

water supplies
• Invasion by new
species • Climatic change
• Pollution • Loss genetic variability
• Overexploitation • Economic loss
• Fish bombing • Play a vital, but sometimes
• Illegal logging unrecognized role in the
balance of nature
 Conservation of Biodiversity
• In situ conservation
– Parks, reserves, national parks, sanctuaries
• Ex situ conservation
– Zoos, botanical gardens, aquariums, gene banks
– Techniques used in this approach:
• Captive breeding of endangered organisms & consequent
reintroduction into the wild
• Artificial insemination and host mothering (or embryo
transfer)
• Cloning