Renewable Energy 43 (2012) 140e148

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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Expansion of the residential photovoltaic systems and its harmonic impact on the distribution grid
Kresimir Fekete*, Zvonimir Klaic, Ljubomir Majdandzic
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, J.J. Strossmayer University of Osijek, K. Trpimira 2B, 31000 Osijek, Croatia

a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history: Received 1 April 2011 Accepted 20 November 2011 Available online 23 December 2011 Keywords: Photovoltaic systems Power converters Harmonics Distribution grid Computer model

a b s t r a c t
As photovoltaic systems incorporate power converters, which are harmonic generating devices, they will have an inuence on power quality of supply network. This paper investigates the impact of the rst 10 kW residential photovoltaic (PV) system connected to the low-voltage distribution network in Croatia. The harmonic impact of such a PV plant is measured in two periods: winter and summer. Analysis of the recorded data is done regarding harmonic content of the PV current. Based on the measured data, a computer model of the plant and local distribution network is made. The model is used to simulate several scenarios of residential PV plant expansion. In the rst scenario it is assumed that one third of the households that are connected to the local grid will install 10 kW PV plants. The second scenario assumes that all the households will install 10 kW PV plants. However, the PV plants are not the only harmonic sources in a distribution grid. The grid usually supplies many nonlinear loads, which absorb distorted current. To consider that inuence, another harmonic current source is modeled. Mutual inuence of PV and grid harmonics is also analyzed. The results of the simulations and conclusions are given at the end of the paper. 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The use of PV systems is increasing in many countries (Croatia included) as a result of technology improvements, decreasing technology costs, active government policies for renewable energy sources, environmental concerns etc. The presence of a large number of grid-connected PV systems creates new problems related to safety and protection systems, the grid interface and especially power quality [1]. From the power quality point of view, the goal is to obtain a sinusoidal current as the output of the grid-connected PV plant. However, harmonics are presented in the output PV current because of the use of power converters and variable power ow of the PV system. These currents, owing through the impedances of the distribution system (variable with frequency), result in distortion of system voltage [2]. The size of most residential PV systems is very small compared to short-circuit power of the distribution grid. Then, as far as system voltage distortion is concerned, the effect of the single PV plant operation is almost negligible [3]. But, the number of PV systems connected to the same local grid is increasing and the question arises whether it will affect the grid voltage harmonics. Also, the grid usually supplies many nonlinear loads, which absorb distorted current. These two inuences will jointly produce negative effects on the system voltage.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 385 31 224 640; fax: 385 31 224 605. E-mail address: kfekete@etfos.hr (K. Fekete). 0960-1481/$ e see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2011.11.026

There is extensive available literature concerning the design and economics of the PV systems [4,5]. The practical interaction of already installed PV plant and distribution grid is also subject of research papers [1,6]. Power quality disturbances and especially the contribution of PV system to utility grid harmonic level are discussed in literature [2,3,6e10]. The level of harmonic distortion in grid currents and voltages caused by grid-connected PV systems is the subject of several international standards [11,12]. The European standard EN50160 [12] provides a limit for the total voltage harmonic distortion (THD) equal to 8%, including up to the 40th harmonics. As an example, in Croatia, harmonic limits are given by considering only the THD factor. Moreover, in Croatia, when connecting the PV plants to the public electrical grid, the document [13] edited by the Croatian electric utility (HEP) must be considered. The maximum voltage THD factor that is caused by individual power generation must not exceed 2.5%. Better understanding of the short-term behavior of gridconnected PV systems regarding its harmonic impacts on the public grid voltage will lead to improved designs and help alleviate these problems [7]. Two tools commonly used in research of harmonic distortion problems are extensive eld measurements and software simulations. This paper combines these tools in order to create an easy to use software model of grid-connected PV plant. The structure of this paper is as follows: rst, a brief theoretical introduction to harmonic analysis in a power system is given in Section 2. A short description of eld measurements that were carried out in the residential 10 kWp PV plant in Zagreb (Croatia)

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is presented in Section 3. In Section 4 the recorded data are presented and analyzed. The proposed simulation model of PV plant and local distribution grid is explained in Section 5. The purpose of the model is to simulate several scenarios of the possible PV plant expansion. The impact of nonlinear loads in the utility grid is also taken into consideration. The explanation of all simulation scenarios and presentation of results are done in Section 6. A brief conclusion and comments on the model are given at the end of the paper. 2. Harmonics in power system Ideally, an electricity supply should invariably show a perfect sinusoidal voltage waveform at every customer location. However, utilities often nd it hard to preserve such desirable conditions. The deviation of the voltage and current waveforms from sinusoidal is described in terms of waveform distortion, i.e. harmonic distortion [14]. Harmonics occur due to equipment with nonlinear characteristics such as transformers and uorescent lamps, and today are principally due to power electronics components [15]. A harmonic component in an AC power system is dened as a sinusoidal component of a periodic waveform that has a frequency equal to an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency of the system. Harmonics of the original waveform can be obtained by Fourier analysis. Any periodic signal with the period T can be represented by a Fourier series in accordance with the following equation:
N X a f t 0 ah coshu1 t bh sinhu1 t 2 h1

characteristics determined in this way are known as the Partial Weighted Harmonic Distortion (PWHD):

v u 40  2 uX I PWHDI t h h 100 I1
h 14

(6)

Harmonics deviation inuence in the distribution networks does not have to be initially visible, but it can have serious long term consequences. The most important are [16]: 1. Overloading of consumers electrical installation and power system elements by higher order frequencies of currents and voltages, 2. Increased heating of neutral conductors caused by higher current harmonics whose frequency is the multiplier of number 3. Increased level of the 3rd harmonics in the neutral conductor can cause serious damages and even re, because the neutral conductor is not usually overload protected, 3. Increased transformer heating caused by higher harmonics, as well as saturation effects in the core, 4. Higher harmonic appearance in the power system can cause interferences on telecommunication lines, 5. Overstressing and resonant condition on the capacitors bank.

3. Measurement campaign 3.1. Description of the site The PV plant studied in this paper is a 10 kW residential system located in Zagreb, Croatia. The observed PV plant is the rst residential PV system installed in Croatia, and therefore the measured data present a valuable source of information for further PV expansion in Croatia. The system is composed of 56 PV modules (42 of 170 W [17] and 14 of 175 W [18]) connected to four strings. Every string is then connected to a string inverter as shown in Fig. 1. There are three string inverters of 3000 VA maximal AC power and one inverter of 4200 VA maximal AC power [19]. The inverters are then connected via the electrical switchboard to the three phase LV distribution grid of 230/400 V. The power factor that is adjusted for the PV system is 0.95 and this value is used also in the further simulations. The point where the PV plant is connected to the distribution grid is part of the radial feeder that is fed from the transformer station 10/ 0.4 kV. The PV plant is located in the residential part of the city where similar family houses prevail. 3.2. Description of the measurement

(1)

The content where h 1 forms the fundamental component and the content where h > 1 forms the harmonics. The coefcients ah and bh can be determined in accordance with:

ah

2p Z

f t coshu1 t dut

(2)

0 2p Z

bh

f t sinhu1 t dut

(3)

When a signal is sampled (periodically in 2p) the Fourier coefcients can be calculated approximately by summation. The waveform distortion is evaluated at the harmonic orders h 2, ., Hmax, where Hmax 40 [12,16] is a typical value. For instance, a current waveform can be characterized by individual harmonics:

ch Ih =I1 for h 1; .; Hmax

(4)
In the measurement campaign Power Quality Analyzer of class A is used. Voltage and current harmonics are calculated based on a 10 cycle (200 ms) averaging interval. This interval (200 ms) contains exactly 2048 sample values. From these samples 1024 FFT bins (5 Hz) are calculated. The harmonics are then calculated using a gapless harmonic subgroup assessment. Harmonics and interharmonics calculation is per IEC 61000-4-7:2002 [20]. The measurements are taken at the point where the PV plant is connected to the distribution grid as shown in Fig. 1. Harmonic impact of a photovoltaic plant is measured in two periods: 1. Winter week e from 20th till 27th February, 2. Summer week e from 14th to 21st June.

In order to describe harmonic distortion of the signal, the well known Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) index is used (example for current):

v u 40  2 uX I h THDI t 100 I1
h2

(5)

The total harmonic distortion is an important index widely used to describe power quality issues in transmission and distribution systems. It considers the contribution of every individual harmonic component on the signal. To assess the harmonics of certain orders, THD weighting factors can be introduced into calculation of the harmonic distortion. The

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Fig. 1. Layout of the 10 kW residential PV plant.

These two measurement periods are taken into consideration because of the different production performance of the PV plant. During the year, the production from the plant is the lowest in the winter (due to short day and smaller solar irradiation) and highest in the summer. The chosen periods present two extreme periods of the plant production.

small passing clouds may cause sudden dips in output power. It is especially signicant in the summer week. 4.2. Current harmonic prole The time evolution of the current THDI and plant generation during a summer day with large PV output power variations is outlined in Fig. 3. As can be seen, the THDI is characterized by a comparatively high value of up to 95% during the morning and evening hours when generation is low (below 25%). Also when the PV generation is affected by sudden changes (like passing of clouds) during the day, current THDI is also high. Current harmonic emission of a PV is strongly dependent on PV output power. When generation is higher, the THDI is reduced below the value of 20%. The shape of the THDI curve in Fig. 3 corresponds to those obtained in similar research projects [3,6,8,10]. Very high value of harmonic distortion of the PV current in the early mornings and evenings hours is due to the so called shading effect. The shading effect occurs when a PV array (or part of it) is not reached by direct solar irradiation as it should be according to the available solar irradiation, due to the effect of an obstacle [3]. Spectral analysis of the current signal in winter period is shown in Fig. 4. As can be seen in Fig. 4, the dominant current harmonics recorded through the measurement campaign are of the odd order

4. Analysis of the measured data 4.1. Generation of the PV plant Measurements carried out in the PV plant captured a variety of cases during the observed two weeks. Daily curves of output power of the PV plant for winter week (a) and summer week (b) are depicted in Fig. 2. During the winter period, daylight lasts from about 7:00 to 17:30, while during the summer period it lasts from about 6:00 to 21:00. Daily curves of output power of the PV plant in the summer week, as shown in Fig. 2b, indicate a large variety in generation because the summer week was very cloudy and rainy especially at the end of the week. The correlation between output power and solar radiation is strong. The measurements showed that even short interruptions of

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Fig. 2. Output power of PV plant during (a) winter week and (b) summer week.

especially the 3rd, 5th, 7th and 9th. The even order harmonics are almost negligible. Similar results are obtained for the summer week.

4.3. Voltage harmonic prole Measurement results in both periods indicate that the voltage harmonic prole at the point where the PV plant injects energy into the grid is not affected by the solar variations. Based on the recorded data, the correlation between voltage harmonics and PV plant generation cannot be found. Fig. 5 shows the correlation between current and voltage THD and generated power. It is obvious that THDI is strongly dependent on generating conditions while THDU is not.

1. During the period of high generation, harmonic distortion of the PV current is below the value of 20%, and in the period of low generation harmonic distortion of the PV current is high. 2. Analysis of the current harmonic content shows dominance of the odd order harmonics, especially the 3rd, 5th, 7th and 9th. 3. Because the heavily distorted PV current is small (period of reduced generation), its impact on the system voltage at the PCC is negligible. This acknowledgment made the general guide for the proposed computer model. DigSILENT Power Factory software package is used to create a computer model of the PV plant and local distribution network. The PV plant is modeled as a set of current sources according to [21,22] representing the generated output current and its harmonic component. The harmonic behavior of the PV plant, especially regarding the harmonic components of current, is rather variable. For the purpose of simulation the PV plant operation needs to be separated in sections, where the current harmonics are presented with at values. Two sections are of major interest: 1. In the period of low generation when current is small but very distorted (shading effect, sunrise and sunset) and

5. Simulation model Some basic guidelines can be derived from the measurement results regarding harmonic impact of the PV plant:

Fig. 3. Daily evolution of the generated power and THDI for average winter day.

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Fig. 4. Harmonic spectrum of the PV current signal.

2. In the period of high generation when current is high but less distorted (high irradiation, midday). Both of the mentioned periods were analyzed in the winter and in the summer, so that nally four cases were analyzed. Table 1 gives an example of average current harmonic component during periods of low and high generation. Values in Table 1 are used as input data for the PV plant model. The PV plant is connected to the distribution grid as a part of the radial feeder connected to the transformer station 10/0.4 kV. In the simulation model, three radial feeders are connected to the 0.4 kV side of the transformer station as shown in Fig. 6. It is the most

common situation in the residential distribution grid in Croatia. It is assumed that 20 consumers (households) are fed from one radial feeder. Transformers data are: 10/0.4 kV, rated power Sn 630 kVA, short-circuit voltage uk% 6%. The LV network where the PV plant is connected is an overhead line ACSR 35 mm2 with the following characteristics: R 0.835 Ohm/km and X 0.3 Ohm/km. External distribution grid that is connected to the 10 kV side of the transformer is modeled with its maximal and minimal short-circuit powers: Skmax00 50 MVA and Skmin00 5.2 MVA. Different load levels are modeled for every analyzed case according to characteristic load curves for average winter and summer working day in Croatia [23] as shown in Table 2.

Fig. 5. Scatter plot of voltage and current THD for different generation conditions.

K. Fekete et al. / Renewable Energy 43 (2012) 140e148 Table 1 Average current harmonic components during two extreme generation period. Harmonic order Ih relative to I1 (%) in winter P/Pn 75% 3 5 7 9 11 2.05 5.82 2.63 0.42 0.63 P/Pn 9.1% 26.35 30.83 8.84 9.92 4.87 Ih relative to I1 (%) in summer P/Pn 85% 1.91 7.20 3.26 0.61 0.74 P/Pn 9% 20.20 25.29 7.67 7.64 2.61 Table 2 Load level for analyzed cases. Period of the year Total load (kW) Low production Winter Summer 186 168

145

High production 250 210

6. Simulation and results 6.1. Case studies and scenarios Four cases that are mentioned in Section 5 are analyzed using simulation model in order to nd the case that has the most negative impact on the system voltage. The secondary side of the 10/0.4 kV transformer is considered as a PCC (Point of Common Coupling) and the THD of the system voltage is observed as an overall index of harmonic distortion. The cases are: 1. Case 1 e winter, period of low generation load 186 kW, 2. Case 2 e winter, period of high generation load 250 kW, 3. Case 3 e summer, period of low generation load 168 kW, 4. Case 4 e summer, period of high generation load 210 kW. (sunrise), total (midday), total (sunrise), total (midday), total

analyzes harmonic impacts of PV penetration on the distribution system. One residential PV plant, as one in our example, cannot affect the system voltage. The use of the residential PV system is increasing. What would happen if there were large number of PV plants connected to the same distribution feeder? Because they are geographically close to each other they would exhibit similar behavior regarding harmonic impacts. Shading effect, as well as the period of maximum production, would practically take place in all the PV plants at the same time. Would PV plant expansion lead to such a harmonic distortion that the harmonic limits set in EN50160 [12] or IEEE 1547 [11] would be violated? The proposed simulation model is used to examine PV plant expansion through two scenarios. In the rst scenario it is assumed that one third of the households that are connected to the local grid will install 10 kW PV plants. The assumption of the second scenario is that all the households will install 10 kW photovoltaic plants. However, the photovoltaic plants are not the only harmonic sources in a distribution grid. The grid usually supplies many nonlinear loads, which absorb distorted current. To consider that inuence, another harmonic current source is modeled. The third scenario was created by mutual inuence of PV and grid harmonics. 6.1.1. First scenario of the PV plant penetration The PV plant which has the same characteristics as the one analyzed in Section 3.1 is connected to every third bus in the model. The generation and the harmonic pattern of Case 4 are used for every PV plant. After the harmonic load ow is done, the THDU of 1% is obtained at the PCC. The active power that is produced by PV plants is mostly consumed locally and there is low exchange of active power with grid. That is the reason why voltage THD at the PCC is low. Similar situation is with reactive power. 6.1.2. Second scenario of the PV plant penetration This scenario presents the most extreme case and has the smallest probability to be realized in the near future. It is assumed that every household that is connected to the local distribution grid will install a 10 kWp PV plant. As a result of the simulation, a THDU of 2.71% is obtained at the PCC. Fig. 7 shows the voltage waveform obtained at the PCC and current waveform of one PV plant. Besides the harmonic impact on the system voltage, this scenario also produces high impact on network performances (voltage prole, loading of lines etc.). Fig. 8 shows voltage prole along one distribution feeder for the case without PV plants and for the case when every household has installed 10 kWp PV plant. As can be seen there is voltage drop along distribution feeder when there is no PV plant and the house at the end of the feeder has the lower voltage. When PV plants are added voltage prole is changed. Voltage rises along the feeder and the houses at the end of the feeder have to high voltage. The power ows in the case of 100% PV penetration also changes. The feeder is now exporting energy to the network and exported power is about two times bigger than demand what causes loading of lines close to its thermal limits. The inuence of high PV penetration on network performance is very interesting problem but it isnt primary focus of this paper.

After a series of performed simulations, the highest impact of PV current on the PCC voltage waveform is obtained in Case 4 when the PV current is the highest but less distorted. The results depend on the measured data and individual topology of the network and do not represent a general case. The highest impact on voltage distortion is due to high current which is injected in the distribution system in that period by PV plant although generated current is less distorted than in the period of low generation. Case 4 is chosen for further simulations that

Fig. 6. Part of the modeled distribution network.

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Fig. 7. Waveforms of (a) voltage at PCC and (b) current of one PV plant.

Fig. 8. Voltage prole along distribution feeder (a) without PV plants and (b) with 100% PV plants penetration.

6.1.3. Third scenario of the PV plant penetration This scenario attempts to capture mutual inuence of PV harmonic impact and already presented harmonic sources in the distribution network. Harmonics that are caused by nonlinear loads in distribution network are modeled as an additional harmonic current source. Data for individual harmonics are average values that are collected from a series of measurements carried out by the authors at different locations in the Croatian distribution grid. Typically voltage THD value when network supply residential load is 2.5%. They are only for illustrative purpose and do not represent actual values of network harmonics at the location of the PV plant observed in this paper. The values of harmonic components in network current used in this scenario are shown in Table 3. This scenario has two variants: the rst variant is a combination of scenario 1 which assumes that one third of the households will install a PV plant and the second variant is combination of scenario 2 assuming that all the households will install a PV plant.

1. Variant 1 e THDU at PCC is 2.46% and 2. Variant 2 e THDU at PCC is 3.66%. Fig. 9 shows a voltage waveform obtained at the PCC when scenario 3, variant 2 is simulated. This case causes the highest harmonic distortion.

6.2. Discussion Table 4 summarizes the results of the simulations of all scenarios and variants. The THDU of the system voltage at PCC is chosen as an overall index of voltage waveform distortion and as an indicator of harmonic impact of the PV plant on the distribution grid. The odd order voltage harmonics at the PCC are also presented in Table 4. The simulation results indicate that the highest harmonic distortion of system voltage caused by PV plants operation is when all the households install PV plants. This case presents the extreme scenario of residential PV plant expansion. Harmonic contribution of the individual PV plant to the THDU of system voltage is less than 2%. However, the overall contribution of all installed PV plants in scenario 2 is higher than 2%. The harmonic limit of system voltage that is stated in EN50160 [12] i.e. THDU < 8% is not violated in any of the simulated scenarios and variants. It is important to notice that the simulation results present an average value (because input data for the harmonic pattern of the PV plant and network model are average values).

Table 3 Harmonic components in network current and typically voltage THD for residential loads. Harmonic order 3 Ih relative to I1 (%) 9.2 5 5.9 7 2 9 2.03 11 1.65 Voltage THD when network supply residential loads 2.5%

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Fig. 9. Voltage waveform at PCC, scenario 3, variant 2.

Table 4 THDU at the PCC obtained from the simulation of all scenarios and variants. Scenario/variant Sc. 1 THDU at PCC (%) VPCC(1) (Vrms) VPCC(3) (Vrms) VPCC(5) (Vrms) VPCC(7) (Vrms) VPCC(9) (Vrms) VPCC(11) (Vrms) 1.00 230.9 0.08 1.09 0.67 0.11 0.23 Sc. 2 2.71 230.7 0.22 3.10 1.90 0.30 0.69 Sc. 3/var. 1 2.46 227.2 0.80 1.70 1.00 0.60 0.90 Sc. 3/var. 2 3.66 227 0.78 3.50 1.90 0.70 1.10

inputs needs to be avoided. The sensitivity of PV current harmonics regarding the change in network voltage harmonics is also interesting for further research.

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7. Conclusion In this paper, results of the measurements campaign that was performed in the rst residential PV plant in Croatia are analyzed. The harmonic behavior regarding PV plant generation is examined. A model of the PV plant and local distribution network is developed. Furthermore, the impact of PV plant expansion on the harmonic distortion of the system voltage is investigated. The inuence of both grid harmonics and PV plant harmonics can be examined with this model. The proposed model is simple to use and, when combined with eld measurements, can be used as a good tool for simulating the harmonic impact of residential PV plant expansion. Because of many uncertainties that are present regarding harmonic modeling, the results are indicative and can help to identify problems that can appear regarding harmonic impact of a PV plant in particular practical cases. The model is general and exible enough to accommodate any network and PV system conguration. Further work on the simulation model requires better data for network harmonics. In order to get more realistic results, when mutual inuence of network and PV harmonics is simulated, the use of average values for harmonics

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