1-Semiconductor Diodes Majority and Minority Carriers In an n-type material the electron is called the majority carrier and

hole the minority carrier. In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the minority carrier

Fig1-1 (a) n-type material (b) p-type material The region of uncovered positive and negative ions is called the depletion region due to the depletion of carriers in this region.

Fig 1-2 p-n junction with no external bias No Applied Bias In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in any one direction for a semiconductor diode is zero

Fig 1-3 No-bias conditions for a semiconductor diode Reverse-Bias condition (VD < 0V)

Fig1-4 Reverse-biased p-n junction

The current that exist under reverse-bias conditions is called the reverse saturation current and is represented by IS

Fig1-5 Reverse-bias conditions for semiconductor diode Forward-Bias condition (VD > 0V) A semiconductor diode is forward-biased when the association p-type is positive and n-type is negative has been established

Fig1-6 forward-biased p-n junction

Fig 1-7 Ideal diode (a) symbol; (b) characteristics The characteristics of an ideal are those of a switch that can conduct current in only one direction Therefore the ideal diode is a short circuit for the region of conduction, and an open circuit in the region of non conduction.

Fig 1-8 (a) Conduction (b) non conduction state of ideal diode

[1-1]

Fig1-9 Si semiconductor diode characteristics

Fig1-10 Forward-bias conditions for a semiconductor diode

Resistance Levels DC or Static Resistance

[1-2]

Fig1-11 determining the dc resistance of a diode at particular operating point, the lower the current through a diode the higher the dc resistance level AC or Dynamic Resistance

Fig1-12 defining the dynamic or ac resistance

[1-3]

Fig1-13 determining the ac resistance at a Q-point The lower the Q-point of operation (smaller current or lower voltage) the higher the ac resistance The derivative of a function of a point is equal to the slope of the tangent line drawn at that point

[1-4] [1-5] Average AC Resistance The resistance determined by a straight line drawn between the two intersections established by maximum and minimum values of input voltage

[1-6]

Fig1-14 the average ac resistance

As with the dc and ac resistance levels, the lower the level of currents used to determine the average resistance the higher the resistance level. Summary Table Table 1-1 Resistance Levels

Diode Equivalent Circuit Table 1-2 Diode Equivalent Circuit (Models)

2-Diode Application Load line analysis

Fig2-1 Series diode configuration (a) circuit (b) characteristics

Fig2-2 load line& finding the point of operating Example1: For the Fig2-3; Determine:

Fig2-3 (a) circuit (b) characteristics

Solution:

The intersection between the load line and the characteristic curve defines the Q-point as shown in fig2-4:

Fig2-4 solution of Ex1: Example2: Repeat the analysis of Ex1: with R=2K Solution:

Note: the reduced slope and levels of diode current for the increasing loads The Q-point is defined by:

Fig2-5 Solution of Ex2: Example3: Repeat Ex2: using approximate equivalent for the silicon semiconductor diode.

Solution:

Fig2-6 Solution of Ex3: Diode Approximations Table 2-1 Approximate and ideal semiconductor diode model

Series diode configurations with DC inputs In general, a diode is in the on state if the current established by the applied sources is such that its direction matches that of the arrow in the diode symbol, and VD 0.7V for silicon and VD 0.3V for germanium

Fig 2-7 Series diode configuration

Fig2-8 determining the state of the diode of fig2-7

Fig2-9 the equivalent model for the on diode of fig2-7 Due to the open circuit, the diode current is 0A and the voltage across the resistance is:

(a) (b) (c) Fig2-10 (a) Reversing the diode of fig2-7 (b) the state of diode (c) the equivalent model of the off diode of (a) Example4:

Solution:

Example5: Repeat Ex4: with the diode reversed

Solution:

10

Example6:

Determine ID, VD, and VO for the circuit of fig Solution:

Example 7:

Determine I, V1, V2 and VO for the circuit of fig Solution:

11

Parallel and series-parallel configurations Example8: Determine I 1, ID1, ID2 and VO for the circuit of fig

Solution:

Example9: Determine the current I for the network of fig

Solution:

Diode switching circuit Diode switching circuits typically contain two or more diodes, each of which is connected to an independent voltage source. Understanding the operation of a diode switching circuit depends on determining which diodes, if any, are forward biased and which, if any, are reverse biased. The key to this determination is remembering that is a diode is forward biased only if its anode is positive with respect to it's cathode.

Fig (2-11) One of the very import applications of diode switching circuits is diode logic circuits AND/OR Gates

12

OR gate: is such that the output voltage level will be a 1 if either or both input is a 1. The 10V level is assigned a 1 for Boolean algebra while the 0V input is assigned a 0 Example10: Determine Vo for the network in fig (2-12)

Fig (2-12)

Fig (2-13)

D1 is in the on state due to the applied voltage (10V) while D2 is in the off state . Vo = E - VD = 10v - 0.7 = 9.3v = (E - VD ) / R = (10-0.7) / 1K = 9.3mA The output voltage level is not 10V as defined for an input of 1, but the 9.3V is sufficiently at a 1 level with only one input.

AND gate: is such that the output voltage level is will be 1 if both inputs are a 1. Example11: Determine the output level for the positive logic AND gate of fig (2-14).

Fig (2-14)

Fig (2-15)

With 10v at the cathode D1 , is assumed that D1 is in the off state. D2 is assumed to be in the on state due to the low voltage at the cathode side and the availability of the 10v source through 1K resistor.The voltage at Vo is 0.7v due to forward i.e. I = (E-Vo) / R = (10-0.7) / 1K = 9.3mA biased diode D2

13

Half-Wave Rectifier Half-wave rectification: is the process of removing one half of the input signal to establish a dc level. The cct of the fig(2-16) called a half wave rectifiers will generates a waveform Vo that will have an average value of particular use in the ac todc conversion process.

Fig (2-16) half wave Rectifier.

During the interval (t=0 to T/2) the polarity of the input voltage Vi is shown in fig (2-17).

Fig (2-17) conducting region (0 toT/2)

The result that for period 0 to T/2, Vo=Vi. For period T/2 to T, the polarity of the input voltage Vi is shown in fig(2-18 ) and the ideal diode produces in off state, Vo=0V.

Fig (2-18) Non conducting region (T/2 to T) An average value determined by average value determined by average dc value = 0.318Vm

Fig (2-19) half wave rectified signal.

14

The effect of using a silicon diode with VT=0.7V is shown by fig (2-20) for the forward bias. The input must now be at least 0.7V before the diode conducts. When conducting Vo =Vi - VT If Vm > VT if Vm is close to VT i.e. Vdc= 0.318Vm i.e. Vdc 0.318(Vm VT)

Fig (2-20) Effect of VT on Half-wave rectified signal. Eexample 1: for Half wave Rectifier: (a) Sketch the output vo and determine the dc level of the output for the network of Fig (2-21), (b) Repeat part (a) if the ideal diode is replaced by a silicon diode.

Fig (2-21) Solution: (a) In this situation the diode will conduct during the negative part of the input and vo will appear as shown in fig (2-22)

Fig (2-22) For the full period, the dc level is Vdc = -0.318Vm = -0.318(20) = -6.36 V (b) Using a silicon diode, the output has the appearance of Fig (2-23)

Fig (2-23) Vdc = -0.318(Vm - 0.7) = -0.318(19.3) = -6.14 V

15

Full-Wave Rectification The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input by half wave rectifier can be improved using a process called Full-Wave Rectification. Four diodes in a bridge configuration can be used as Full Wave Rectifier as shown in fig (2-24).

Fig (2-24) Full-wave bridge rectifier

Fig (2-25) Network for period (0 to T/2)

For the positive region of the input the conducting diodes are D2 & D3 while D1& D4 are in the off state as shown in fig (2-25).

Fig (2-25) For the negative region of the input the conducting diodes are D1 & D4 while D2 & D3 are in the off state as shown in fig (2-26).

Fig (2-26) The dc level for Full wave rectifier is twice that obtained for a half wave system i.e. average(d.c) level= 0.636Vm Over one full cycle the input and output voltage is shown in fig (2-27)

Fig (2-27) The effect of Vo has also doubled, as shown in fig (2-28) for silicon diodes during the conduction state (for positive region).

16

i.e. Vd.c=0.636Vm (Vm >> 2VT) And if Vm is close to 2VT i.e. Vd.c=0.636(Vm- 2VT)

A second popular full wave rectifier used only two diodes but requiring a centre tapped (CT) transformer to establish the input signal across each section of the secondary of the transformer as shown in fig (2-28).

Fig (2-28) During the positive portion of Vi applied to the transformer, the diode D1 is short circuit and the diode D2 is open circuit.

Fig (2-29) During the negative portion of Vi applied to the transformer, the diode D1 is open circuit and the diode D2 is short circuit as shown in fig (2-30).

Fig (2-30) Example 2: for Full-wave rectifier. Determine the output wave-form for the network of Fig (2-31) and calculate the output dc level

Fig (2-31)

17

Solution: The network will appear as shown in Fig (2-32) for the positive region of the input voltage,

Fig (2-32) Where vo=1/2vi or Vo(max) = 1/2Vi(max) = 1/2(10) = 5 volt

For the negative region of the input voltage the network will be appear as shown in Fig (2-33).

Fig (2-33) The effect of removing two diodes from the bridge configuration was therefore to reduce the available dc level to the following: Vdc = 0.636(5) = 3.18 volt Clippers Clippers: is the network that has the ability to clip off a portion of the input signal without distorting the remaining part. 1-Series clipper: The diode is in the series with load as shown in fig (2-34).

Fig (2-34) Series clipper The addition of a dc supply can have a clear effect on the output of a clipper

Fig (2-35)

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1- Determine the diode is an open or short circuit (off or on state). 2-Determine the applied voltage (transition voltage) that will cause a change in state for the diode. Applying the condition: id = 0 at vd = 0 The level of vi that will cause a transition in state is: vi = Vdc For an input voltage greater than Vdc volts the diode is in the short-circuit state, while for input voltages less than Vdc volts it is in the open-circuit or (off state).

Fig (2-36) 3-Defined terminals and polarity of vo when the diode is in the short circuit state, the output voltage vo can be determined by using KVL.

Fig (2-37) vi - V - vo = 0 And vo = v i -V (CW direction)

4-Sketch the input signals above the output and determine the output at instantaneous values of the input by using the formula for each case. Keep in mind that at an instantaneous value of vi the input can be treated as a dc supply of that value and the corresponding dc (the instantaneous) value of the output determined.

19

Fig (2-38) Eexample 1: Determine the output waveform for the network of Fig (2-39)

Fig (2-39) Solution: The diode will be in the on state for the positive region of vi , aiding effect of V = 5 volts. Vo = vi + 5.

Fig (2-40)

20

Substituting id = 0 at Vd = 0 for the transition voltage, we obtain the network of Fig(2-41)

Fig (2-41) Vi = -5 V. For voltages more negative than -5 V the diode will enter its open-circuit state, while for voltages more positive than -5 V the diode is in the short-circuit state as in Fig (2-42).

Fig (2-42) Example2: Repeat Example 1: for the square-wave input of fig (2-43).

Fig (2-43) Solution: For vi = 20 volt (0 to T/2) the network of Fig (2-44) will result.

Fig (2-44) The diode is in the short circuit state (on state) And Vo = 20 + 5 = 25 volt.

21

For vi = -10 volt the network of Fig (2-45) will result,

Fig (2-45) Placing the diode in the open circuit state (off state), And Vo = iR R = (0) R = 0 volt. The resulting output voltage appears in Fig(2-46)

Fig (2-46) Note: the clipper not only clipped off 5volt from the total swing but raised the dc level of the signal by 5volts. 2-parallel clipper: The diode is in the parallel to the load as shown in fig (2-47).

Fig (2-47) Example 1: Determine vo for the network of Fig (2-48)

Fig (2-48) Solution: The polarity of the dc supply and the direction of the diode suggest that the diode will be in the (on state) for the negative region of the input signal. Fig (2-49)

Fig (2-49)

22

Where the defined terminals for vo require that vo = V = 4 volts. The condition id = 0A at vd = 0 V has been imposed. The result is: vi (transition) = V = 4 volts.

Fig (2-50) The input voltage must be greater than 4 volt for the diode to be in the (off state). Any input voltage less than 4 volt will result in a short-circuited diode (on state). For the open-circuit state the network will appear as shown in Fig (2-51),

Fig (2-51) Where v o = vi .

Completing the sketch of vo results in the waveform of Fig (2-52).

Fig (2-52) Example2: Repeat Example 1 using a silicon diode with VT = 0.7 volts. Solution: The transition voltage can first be determined by applying the condition id = 0 A at Vd = VD = 0.7 volts

23

Fig (2-53) Applying KVL around the output loop in the clockwise direction, we find Vi + VT - V = 0 And Vi = V - VT = 4 - 0.7 = 3.3 volts For input voltages greater than 3.3 volts, the diode will be an open circuit and Vo = Vi. For input voltages less than 3.3 volts, the diode will be in the (on state) Fig (2-54) where Vo = 4 - 0.7 = 3.3 volts

Fig (2-54) The resulting output waveform appears in Fig (2-55) Note that the only effect of VT was to drop the (on state) level to 3.3 volt from 4 volt.

Fig (2-55)

24

A variety of series and parallel clippers with the resulting output for the sinusoidal input are provided in Fig (2-56)

Fig (2-56)

25

Clampers The clamping network will clamp a signal to a different dc level. The network must have a capacitor, a diode, and a resistive element, the magnitude of R & C must be chosen such that the time constant (t=RC) is large enough to ensure that the voltage across the capacitor does not discharge during off state of the diode. We will assume that the capacitor will fully charge or discharge in five time constant (t).

Fig (2-57) During the interval (0 to T/2) the diode is in short circuit (on state) shorting out the effect of the resistor R, thus the capacitor will charge to V very quickly and Vo = 0, as shown in fig (2-58),

Fig (2-58) During the interval (T/2 toT) the diode is in open circuit (off state) now R is back in the network,

Fig (2-59) The capacitor holds the charge and therefore voltage (V=Q/C). Thus by using KVL: - V V Vo = 0 Vo= -2V The output signal is as shown in fig (2-60)

Fig (2-60) For clamping networks the total swing of the output is equal to the total swing of the input signal. The following steps may be used for analyzing clamping networks:1- Start the analysis from the period of the input signal that will forward bias the diode 2-During this period assume that the capacitor will charge up to a level determined by the voltage across the capacitor in its equivalent open-circuit state.

26

3-Assume that during the period the diode is an open circuit off state the capacitor will hold on its charge and therefore voltage. 4-Applying KVL to determine Vo for both state on & off. 5-The general rule that the swing of the output must match the swing of the input signal Eexample 1: Determine vo for the network of Fig (2-61) for the indicated input.

Fig (2-61) Solution: T=1/f = 1/1000Hz=1ms and 1/2 T = 0.5 ms The analysis will begin with the period t1 to t2 of the input signal since the diode is in it's shortcircuit state .For this interval the network will appear as shown in Fig (2-62)

Fig (2-62) The output is across R, but it is also directly across the 5volts battery. The result is vo = 5 volts for this interval. Applying KVL around the input loop will result in -20 + Vc - 5 = 0 Vc = 25 volts The capacitor will therefore charge up to 25 volt, as stated in comment 2. For the period t2 to t3 the network will appear as shown in Fig (2-63).

Fig (2-63) The open-circuit equivalent for the diode will remove the 5volt battery from having any effect on vo, and applying KVL around the outside loop of the network will result in + 10 + 25 - Vo = 0 Vo = 35 volts The time constant of the discharging network is determined by the product RC: = RC = (100 k) (0.1 F) = 0.01 s = 10 ms The total discharge time is therefore 5 = 5(10 ms) = 50 ms. Since the interval t2 to t3 = 0.5 ms, i.e. the capacitor will hold its voltage during the discharge

27

period between pulses of the input signal. The resulting output appears in Fig (2-64) with the input signal.

Fig (2-64) Example 2: Repeat Example 1 using a silicon diode with VT = 0.7 volts. Solution: For the short-circuit state vo can be determined by KVL in the output section. +5 - 0.7 - vo= 0 vo= 5 - 0.7 = 4.3 volts

Fig (2-65) For the input section KVL will result in -20 + Vc + 0.7 - 5 = 0 Vc = 25 - 0.7 = 24.3 volts For the period t2 to t3 the network as in Fig (2-66), Applying KVL

Fig (2-66) + 10 + 24.3 - Vo= 0 Vo= 34.3 volts The resulting output appears in Fig (2-67).

Fig (2-67)

28

A number of clamping circuits shown in fig (2-68)

29

Zener Region When the applied reverse potential becomes more and more negative, a few free minority carriers have developed sufficient velocity to liberate additional carriers through ionization. When VZ decreases to very low levels,this mechanism, called Zener breakdown, will contribute to the sharp change in the characteristic. It occurs because there is a strong electric field in the region of the junction that can destroy the bonding forces within the atom and "generate" carriers. Diodes employing this unique portion of the characteristic of a p-n junction are called Zener diodes.

Fig (2-69) Comparison of Si and Ge semiconductor diodes Zener Diode The Zener diode is a device that is designed to make full use of this Zener region. zener region occurs at a reverse bias potential of VZ.

Fig (2-70) Zener diodes (a) Zener potential (b) characteristic and notation Any voltage from 0 to VZ will result in an open-circuit as occurred below VT for the silicon diode. Silicon diode maintains its open-circuit in the reverse-bias region but the Zener diode assumes a short-circuit state once the reverse voltage is reached (i.e. Vd=VZ for short circuit ). Zener device switch from the open-circuit state to short circuit

Fig (2-71)Zener equivalent cct(a)complete(b) approximate.

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Zener Diode Applications 1- AC Voltage Regulators (limiters or Clippers) Two back-to-back zeners can be used as an ac regulator or a simple square-wave generator as shown in examples below: a- Sinusoidal ac regulator

Fig (2-72)

Fig (2-73) b- Simple square-wave generator

Fig (2-74) 2- DC Voltage Reference Two or more levels can be established by placing zener diodes in series as shown in fig (2-75) as long as vi (E) is greater than the sum of Vz1 and Vz2, both diodes will be in breakdown state(on state) and the three reference voltages will be available

Fig (2-75)

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3- DC Voltage Regulators a- Fixed Vi, Variable RL

Fig (2-76)

[2-1]

[2-2]

[2-3] Example 1: (a) For the network of Fig (2-77), determine the range of RL and IL that will result in VRL being maintained at 10 V. (b) Determine the maximum wattage & rating of the diode as a regulator.

Fig (2-77) Solution: (a)To determine the value of RL that will turn the Zener diode

32

A plot of VL versus RL appears in Fig (2-78a) and VL versus IL in Fig (2-78b)

Fig (2-78) b- Fixed RL, Variable Vi For fixed value of RL in Fig (2-79) the voltage Vi must be sufficiently to turn the Zener diode on. The turn-on voltage is determined by:

Fig (2-79)

[2-4]

[2-5]

[2-6] Example 2: Determine the range of values of Vi that will maintain the zener diode in the (on state).

Fig (2-80) Solution:

33

A plot of VL versus Vi is provided in fig (2-81)

Fig (2-81)

34

Regulators (Filters and Power Supplies) Voltage regulator provide a fixed output voltage The operation is converting an ac voltage into a dc voltage using transformer, rectifier, and filter

Fig (2-82) Block diagram showing parts of a power supply. 1-The ac voltage, typically 120 volts rms, is connected to a transformer which steps that voltage up, or down to the level for the desired dc output. 2-A diode rectifier then provides a half wave or, more typically, full-wave-rectified voltage which is applied to a filter to smooth the varying signal. A rectifier circuit is necessary to convert a signal having zero average value to one that has a nonzero average. The resulting dc signal is not pure dc or even a good representation of it 3-A simple capacitor filter is often sufficient to provide this smoothing action. 4-The resulting dc voltage with some ripple or ac voltage variation is then provided as input to an IC regulator 5-IC regulator that provides as output a well-defined dc voltage level with extremely low ripple voltage over a range of load Ripple Voltage. The filter output voltage of fig (2-83), has a dc value and some ac variation (ripple).

Fig (2-83) Filter voltage wave form showing dc & ripple voltages Consider measuring the output voltage of the filter circuit using a dc voltmeter and an ac (rms) voltmeter.

Example 1 : Using a dc and ac voltmeter to measure the output signal from a filter circuit, a dc voltage of 25V and an ac ripple voltage of 1.5V rms are obtained. Calculate the ripple of the filter output.

35

Solution:

Voltage Regulation Another factor of importance in a voltage supply is the amount of change in the output dc voltage over the range of the circuit operation. This voltage change with respect to either the loaded or unloaded is described by a factor called voltage regulation.

Example 2: A dc voltage supply provides 60V when the output is unloaded. When full-load current is drawn from the supply, the output voltage drops to 56V. Calculate the value of voltage regulation Solution:

The output voltage from most supplies decreases as the amount of current drawn from the voltage supply is increased. The smaller the voltage decreases, the smaller the percent of V.R. and the better the operation of the voltage supply circuit. Ripple Factor of Rectified Signal The rectified voltage is not a filtered voltage; it contains a dc component and a ripple component. By calculate these components we obtain the ripple factor. 1-Half wave Rectified Signal Since the ac voltage component of a signal containing a dc level is

Vr(rms) is the rms value of the total voltage. For the half wave-rectified signal,

36

The ripple factor of a voltage is defined by:

This can be expressed as

For a half-wave-rectified signal the output dc voltage is:

Vdc = 0.318 Vm

2-Full wave Rectified Signal: For the full-wave-rectified signal

For the full-wave rectifier the value of Vdc is:

Vdc = 0.636 Vm

Simple-Capacitor Filter A popular filter circuit is the simple-capacitor filter circuit, the capacitor is connected across the rectifier output this filtered voltage has a dc level with some ripple voltage riding on it .

Fig (2-84) Simple capacitor filters .

Fig (2-85) capacitor filter operation (a) full-wave rectifier voltage (b) filtered output voltage.

37

Fig2-86(a) capacitor filter circuit (b) output voltage waveform If no load were connected to the filter, the output waveform a constant dc level equal in value to the peak voltage Vm from the rectifier circuit. For the full-wave-rectified signal indicated in Fig (2-86b) T1 is the time during which a diode of the full-wave rectifier conducts and charges capacitor up to the peak rectifier output voltage Vm . T2 is the time during which the rectifier voltage drops below the peak voltage, and the capacitor discharges through the load. The capacitor filter circuit provides a large dc voltage with little ripple for light loads and a smaller dc voltage with larger ripple for heavy loads.

Fig (2-87a) Approximate output voltage of capacitor filter circuit. Figure (2-87a) shows the output waveform approximated by straight line charge and discharge. From an analysis of this voltage waveform the following relation can be:

Since the form of the ripple waveform for half-wave is the same as for full-wave

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Ripple Voltage Vr(rms) Assuming a triangular ripple waveform approximation as shown in fig (2-87b)

Fig (2-87b) Approximate triangular ripple voltage for capacitor filter

Fig (2-87c) Ripple voltage During capacitor-discharge the voltage change across C is:

39

f = frequency of the sinusoidal ac power supply voltage usually 60 Hz Idc = average current drawn from the filter by the load, C = filter capacitor value. For light loads Vdc Vm

f = 60 Hz

Idc in mA , C in f, RL in k. Example 3: Calculate the ripple voltage of a full-wave rectifier with a 100 F filter capacitor connected to a load of 50 mA. Solution:

DC Voltage, Vdc:

f = 60 Hz

Vm = the peak rectified voltage, V Idc = the load current, mA C = the filter capacitor, f Example 4: The peak rectified voltage for the filter circuit of Ex 3: is 30 volts, calculate the filter dc voltage. Solution:

Note: The larger value of average current drawn from the filter the less value of output dc voltage The larger the value of the filter capacitor the closer the output dc voltage approaches the peak value of Vm.

40

Filter-Capacitor Ripple Using the definition of ripple, we obtain the expression for the ripple factor of a full wave capacitor filter

Since Vdc and Idc relate to the filter load RL , we can also express the ripple as

Idc in mA C in f, Vdc in volts RL in k. larger load current, larger ripple factor and inversely with the capacitor size. Example 5: a load current of 50mA is drawn from a capacitor filter circuit C=100 F.if the peak rectified voltage is 30V, calculate r. Solution: Using results of Ex 3 and Ex4, we get

RC Filter It is possible to further reduce the amount of ripple across a filter capacitor while reducing the dc voltage by using an additional RC filter section as shown in Fig (2-88)

Fig (2-88) RC filter stage The purpose of the added network is 1-to pass the dc component of the voltage developed across the first filter capacitor Cl . 2-and to attenuate the ac component of the ripple voltage developed across Cl . This action would reduce the amount of ripple in relation to the dc level, providing better filter operation than for the simple-capacitor filter. Since the rectifier feeds directly into a capacitor, the peak currents through the diodes are many times the average current drawn from the supply.

41

The voltage developed across capacitor Cl is then further filtered by the resistor-capacitor section (R,C2) providing an output voltage having less percent of ripple than that across Cl. The load RL draws dc current through resistor R with an output dc voltage across the load being less than that across Cl due to the voltage drop across R.

Fig (2-89) Full wave rectifier and RC filter circuit. DC Operation of RC Filter Section The equivalent circuit used for considering the dc voltage and current in the filter and load shown in fig (2-90). The two filter capacitors are open circuit for dc and

Fig (2-90) (a) dc equivalent circuit (b) ac equivalent circuit Fig (6-90a) show that the voltage Vdc across capacitor Cl is attenuated by a resistor-divider network of R and RL , the resulting dc voltage across the load being V'dc

Example 6: The addition of an RC filter section with R=120, reduces the dc voltage across the initial filter capacitor from 60 V (Vdc). If the load resistance is 1k, calculate the value of the output dc voltage (Vdc) from the filter circuit.

42

Solution:

The drop across the filter resistor and the load current drawn:

AC Operation of RC Filter Section Fig (2-90b) is the equivalent circuit for analyzing the ac operation of the filter cct. Vr (rms) is the input to the filter stage, it is a ripple or ac signal part of the voltage across C1. Both the RC filter stage R, C2 and the load resistance RL affect the ac signal at the output. For C2 = 10F at a ripple voltage frequency f = 60Hz, the ac impedance of the capacitor is:

This capacitive impedance is in parallel with the load resistance RL If RL= 2 k, the parallel combination of the two components would an impedance Z

This is close to the value of the capacitive impedance (Xc) alone. Note: In parallel combination we can neglecting the loading RL if RL > 5Xc The ripple frequency = 60 Hz for the ripple voltage from a half-wave rectifier. The ripple frequency = 120 Hz for the ripple voltage from a full-wave rectifier Xc = 1/ wC We have value of w = 377 for 60 Hz and of w = 754 for 120 Hz. Example7: Calculate the impedance of a 15F capacitor used in the filter section of a circuit using fullwave rectification. Solution:

Using the simplified relation that the parallel combination of the load resistor and the capacitive impedance equals, approximately, the capacitive impedance, the ac attenuation in the filter is

If RL > 5Xc then :

43

Example 8: The output of a full-wave rectifier and capacitor filter is further filtered by an RC filter section (Fig2-91). The component values of the RC section are R = 500 & C = 10 F. If the initial capacitor filter develops 150V dc with a 15V ac ripple voltage, calculate the resulting dc and ripple voltage across a 5k load.

Fig (2-91) RC filter circuit for Example 8: Solution: DC Calculations:

AC Calculations: Calculating the value of the capacitive impedance first (for full-wave operation):

Since this impedance is not quite 5 times smaller than that of the filter resistor (R = 500 ),

Voltage-Multiplier Circuits 1-Voltage Doubler A modification of the capacitor filter circuit allows building up a larger voltage than Vm The use of this type of circuit allows keeping the transformer peak voltage rating low while stepping up the peak output voltage to two, three, four, or more times Vm

Fig (2-92) half wave voltage doubler During the positive-voltage half-cycle across the transformer, Dl conducts D2 is cut off, charging Cl up to the Vm During the negative half-cycle of the secondary voltage,

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Dl is cut off and D2 conducts charging C2

Fig (2-93) Double operation, (a) positive half-cycle (b) negative half-cycle We can sum the voltages around the outside loop (Fig.2-93b):

From which On the next positive half-cycle: D2 is none conducting and C2 will discharge through the load. If no load is connected across C2 both capacitors stay charged Cl to Vm and C2 to 2Vm. If there is a load connected to the output , the voltage across C2 drops during the positive half-cycle and the capacitor is recharged up to 2Vm during the negative half-cycle. Another doubler circuit is the full-wave doubler of Fig (2-94).

Fig (2-94) full wave voltage doubler

Fig (2-95) Alternate half-cycle of operation for full wave voltage doubler

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During the positive half-cycle of transformer secondary voltage D1 conducts charging Cl to a peak voltage Vm , D2 is non conducting at this time. During the negative half-cycle D2 conducts charging C2 while Dl is non conducting. One difference is that the effective capacitance is that of Cl and C2 in series, which is less than the capacitance of either Cl or C2 alone. The lower capacitor value will provide poorer filtering action than the single-capacitor filter In summary: The half-wave or full-wave voltage doubler provide twice the peak voltage 2Vm 2-Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler Fig (2-96) shows an extension of the half-wave voltage doubler, which develops three and four times Vm It should be obvious from the pattern of the circuit connection how additional diodes and capacitors may be connected so that the output voltage may also be five, six, seven, etc., times Vm

Fig (2-96) voltage tripler and quadrupler. During the positive half-cycle Cl charges through D1 to a peak voltage Vm During the negative half-cycle C2 charges to twice the peak voltage 2Vm During the positive half-cycle: D3 conducts and the voltage across C2 charges C3 to the same 2Vm On the negative half-cycle D2 and D4 conduct with C3 charging C4 to 2Vm. The voltage across C2 is 2Vm The voltage across Cl and C3 is 3Vm The voltage across C2 and C4 is 4Vm. If additional sections of diode and capacitor are used, each capacitor will be charged to 2Vm Measuring from the top of the transformer winding, will provide odd multiples of Vm Measuring from the bottom of the transformer will provide even multiples Vm.

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SUMMARY (Diode) 1- The depletion region is a region adjacent to the p-n junction containing no majority carriers. 2- Forward bias permits majority carrier current through the p-n junction 3- Reverse bias prevents majority carrier current. 4- A p-n structure is called a diode. 5- Reverse breakdown occurs when the reverse-biased voltage exceeds a specified value 6- The single diode in a half-wave rectifier conducts for half of the input cycle. 7- The output frequency of a half-wave rectifier equals the input frequency. 8- The average (dc) value of a half-wave rectified signal is 0.318 or 1/ times its peak value. 9- Each diode in a full-wave rectifier conducts for half of the input cycle. 10- The output frequency of a full-wave rectifier is twice the input frequency. 11- The basic types of full-wave rectifier are center-tapped and bridge. 12- The output voltage of a center-tapped full-wave rectifier is1/2 of the total secondary voltage. 13- The output voltage of a bridge rectifier equals the total secondary voltage. 14- A capacitor filter provides a dc output approximately equal to the peak of the input. 15- Ripple voltage is caused by the charging and discharging of the filter capacitor. 16- The smaller the ripple, the better the filter. 17- Diode limiters cut off voltage above and below specified levels. Limiters are also called clippers. 18- Diode clampers add a dc level to an ac signal. 19- The zener diode operates in reverse breakdown. 20- A zener diode maintains an essentially constant voltage across its terminals over a specified range of zener currents. 21- Zener diodes are used as shunt voltage regulators. 22- Regulation of output voltage over a range of load currents is called load regulation. 23- The smaller the percent regulation, the better. 24- The characteristics of an ideal diode are a close match with those of a simple switch except for the important fact that an ideal diode can conduct in only one direction 25- The ideal diode is a short in the region of conduction and an open circuit in the region of non conduction 26- The region near the junction of a diode that has very few carriers is called the depletion region. 27- In the absence of any externally applied bias. The diode current is zero. 28- In the forward-bias region the diode current will increase exponentially with in crease in voltage across the diode. 29- In the reverse-bias region the diode current is the very small reverse saturation current until Zener breakdown is reached and current will flow in the opposite direction through the diode. 30- The threshold voltage is about 0.7 V for silicon diodes and 0.3 V for germanium diode 31- Rectification is a process whereby an applied waveform of zero average value changed to one that has a dc level. 32- Clippers are networks that "clip" away part of the applied signal either to create a specific type of signal or to limit the voltage that can be applied to a network 33- Clampers are networks that "clamp" the input signal to a different dc level, in any event, the peak-to-peak swing of the applied signal will remain the same 34- Zener diodes are diodes that make effective use of the Zener breakdown potential of an ordinary p-n junction characteristic to provide a device of wide importance and application. For Zener conduction, the direction of conventional flow is opposite to the arrow in the symbol. The polarity under conduction is also opposite to that of the conventional diode. 35- To determine the state of a Zener diode in a dc network, simply remove the Zener from the network, and determine the open-circuit voltage between the two points where the Zener

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diode was originally connected. If it is more than the Zener potential and has the correct polarity, the Zener diode is in the "on" state. 36-A half-wave or full-wave voltage doubler employs 2 capacitors a tripler, 3 capacitors a quadrupler, 4 capacitors. for each, the number of diodes equals the number of capacitors. Equations

Ideal: VT = 0V Half-wave rectifier: Vdc = 0.318 Vm Full-wave rectifier: Vdc = 0.636 Vm

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