BINARY OPERATIONS

T. K. SAMANTA

Department of M athematics, U luberia College,

U luberia, Howrah − 711315, W est Bengal, India.
E − mail : mumpu− tapas5@yahoo.co.in

1. Introduction

After the discussion of relation and mapping, we now introduce the concept of bi-
nary operation or binary composition on a set. The concept of a binary operation
is very important in abstract algebra. Through our discussion we will be concerned
with sets together with one or more binary operations. Before going to describe the
formal definition, we first consider the set Z, the set of all integers. There are three
well - known operations on Z namely addition , multiplication , substraction ,
which for every ( m , n ) of elements of Z determine the elements m + n , m · n ,
m − n respectively of Z. We can look upon addition , multiplication and substraction
as three mappings of Z × Z into Z, which for each elements ( m , n ) of Z × Z
determine the elements m + n , m · n , m − n respectively of Z. One can construct
many other mappings of Z × Z into Z. All these mappings are examples of binary
operation or binary compositions which are defined formally as follows.

Definition 1. Let S be a non - empty set. A binary operation of binary compo-

sition on S is a mapping from S × S into S.

If f is a binary composition on S , then by the definition , we have , f :

S × S −→ S. For the sake of convenience , if ∗ is a binary composition on S , we
write x ∗ y instead of ∗ ( x , y ) for all x , y ε S. Since image of ∗ is a subset of S ,
we say that S is closed under ∗ or closure property holds in S with respect to the
binary composition ∗.

Note 1. Usually binary compositions are denoted by ∗ , ◦ etc. If a binary composition

∗ is defined on a set S , we say that the set S has got a algebraic structure with respect
to ∗. Later on , when we will impose different properties on ∗ , we will see that the set
S will get different algebraic structure with respect to ∗.

1
2 T. K. SAMANTA

Example 1. Z the set of all integers , is closed under + , since if we add any two
integers we obtain an integer. Again since 2, 5 ε N ( set of all natural numbers ) and
2 − 5 = −3 ∈ / N , we see that − ( Substraction ) is not a binary composition
on N and we say that N is not closed under − .

Definition 2. By a mathematical system we mean an ordered ( n + 1 ) - tuple

( S , ∗ 1 , ∗ 2 , · · · , ∗ n ) , where S is a non - empty set and ∗ i is a binary composi-
tion on S , i = 1 , 2 , · · · , n . Here S is called underlying set of the system.
If we consider only one binary composition ∗ on a non - empty set S, then the ordered
pair ( S , ∗ ) is called a groupoid or S is said to form a groupoid with respect to ∗ .

For example, ( Z , + ) is a mathematical system but ( N , − ) is not a mathemati-

cal system.

Definition 3. Let ( S , ∗ ) be a mathematical system. Then ∗ is called associative

in S or associative property holds in S with respect to ∗ if
. x ∗ ( y ∗ z ) = ( x ∗ y ) ∗ z , for all x , y , z ε S.

In such case, the groupoid ( S , ∗ ) is called a semigroup .

Note 2. In a semigroup ( S , ∗ ) , due to associative property of the system , al-

ways we can omit parenthesis from any mathematical expression which would contain
parenthesis.

Definition 4. Let ( S , ∗ ) be a mathematical system. Then ∗ is called commutative

in S or commutative property holds in S with respect to ∗ if
. x ∗ y = y ∗ x , for all x , y ε S.

If a semigroup is commutative then it is called commutative semigroup otherwise it

is called noncommutative semigroup.

Example 2. Consider the mathematical system ( Z , + ). Since addition of integers

is both associative and commutative , it follows that + is both associative and com-
mutative.

Example 3. Consider the mathematical system ( Z , − ). Here − is neither asso-

ciative nor commutative .

Example 4. Let M 2 ( R ) be the collection of all real 2 × 2 matrices and we consider

the binary composition · as the usual matrix multiplication. The mathematical system
( M 2 ( R ) , · ) is associative but not commutative .
 BINARY OPERATIONS 3

Example 5. Let R be the set of all real numbers and ∗ : R × R −→ R be

described by ∗ ( x , y ) = x ∗ y = | x + y | ∀ x , y ε R. It is easy to see
that ( R , ∗ ) is a mathematical system. In fact, ∗ is commutative but not associative,
because, 2 ∗ ( ( − 3 ) ∗ 6 ) 6= ( 2 ∗ ( − 3 ) ) ∗ 6

Example 6. Let Z be the set of all integers and a binary composition ◦ is defined
on Z by a ◦ b = a ∀ a , b ε Z. Here ( Z , ◦ ) is a mathematical system
and the binary composition ◦ is associative but not commutative.

Example 7. Let ◦ be a binary composition on Z × Z be described by ( a , b ) ◦

( c , d ) = ( a − c , b − d ). ( Z × Z , ◦ ) is a mathematical system which is
neither associative nor commutative.

Definition 5. Let ◦ be a binary composition defined on a non - empty set S. If

there exists an element e ε S such that a ◦ e = a ∀ a ε S, then e is said to
be a right identity of the groupoid ( S , ◦ ).

Again if there exists an element f ε S such that f ◦ a = a ∀ a ε S,

then f is said to be a left identity of the groupoid ( S , ◦ ).

If there exists an element in a groupoid which is a left identity and as well as a right
identity then it is called an identity of the groupoid. That is, if ( S , ◦ ) be a groupoid
and if there exists e ε S such that a ◦ e = a = e ◦ a ∀ a ε S, then e is
said to be an identity element of the groupoid ( S , ◦ ).

Example 8. In the mathematical system ( Z , + ) , 0 ia a left identity as well as

a right identity element . In the mathematical system ( Z , · ) , 1 is right identity
element as well as left identity element . But , the groupoid ( E , · ) has no identity
element , where E being the set of all even integers .

Example 9. In the mathematical system ( Z , − ) , there is no left identity element

but 0 is a right identity element .

Example 10. Here we consider the mathematical system ( R , ◦ ) , where the binary
composition , ◦ is described by a ◦ b = | a b | ∀ a , b ε R. This mathematical
system neither has left identity element nor has right identity element.

Example 11. Consider the binary composition ◦ on R as follows : a ◦ b =

a ∀ a , b ε R. Here it is an example of a mathematical system in which
there are infinitely many right identity elements but there are no left identity element.
Similarly, if we define the binary composition ∗ on R as follows : a ∗ b = b
∀ a , b ε R. Here, ( R , ∗ ) is a groupoid, in which there are infinitely many
left identity elements but this mathematical system does not contain any right identity
element.
4 T. K. SAMANTA

Example 12. Let R # = { x ε R : x ≥ 0 } and a binary composition ◦

on R is defined by a ◦ b = max { a , b } ∀ a , b ε R. The mathematical
system ( R , ◦ ) has no left as well as no right identity element. But if we consider
the restriction of ◦ on R # × R # , 0 ( zero ) would be both left identity element
and right identity element also of ( R # , ◦| R # ).

Example 13. Consider the mathematical system ( R , ◦ ) where the binary compo-
sition ◦ is given by a ◦ b = a + 2 b ∀ a , b ε R. Here 0 ( zero ) is a right
identity element of R with respect to ◦ but ( R , ◦ ) has no left identity element.

Note 3. A mathematical system may contain only left identity and may not contain
any left identity. In fact, left identity in a mathematical system need not be unique.
Similarly, a mathematical system may contain only right identity and may not contain
any right identity. In fact, right identity in a mathematical system need not be unique.
Also it is to be noted that a mathematical system may have identity element and may
not have identity element.

So, naturally we may arise the following questions :

(i) If an identity element exists in ( G , ◦ ), is this identity element unique

in ( G , ◦ ) ?

( ii ) If both left and right identity element exist in ( G , ◦ ), are they equal

in ( G , ◦ ) ?

The following theorems will give the answer of the above questions :

Theorem 1. An identity element ( if it exists ) of a mathematical system ( G , ◦ )

is unique.

Proof. Let ( G , ◦ ) be a mathematical system which contains an identity element.

We now prove that such an element is unique. Let e , f be identity elements of
( G , ◦ ). Since e being an identity element of ( G , ◦ ), we have e ◦ a = a
∀ a ε G, which implies that

(1) e ◦ f = f

Again, since f being an identity element of ( G , ◦ ), we have a ◦ f = a

∀ a ε G, which implies that

(2) e ◦ f = e
 BINARY OPERATIONS 5

From ( 1 ) and ( 2 ), it follows that e = f. Hence, an identity element ( if it

exists ) is unique. ¤

Theorem 2. If a mathematical system ( G , ◦ ) contain a left identity and also a

right identity elements then they are equal and the equal element is the unique identity
element in the system.

Proof. Let us suppose that the system ( G , ◦ ) contain a left identity and also a
right identity. Let e be a left identity and f be a right identity of ( G , ◦ ). Since
e being a left identity element of ( G , ◦ ), we have e ◦ a = a ∀ a ε G,
which implies that

(1) e ◦ f = f

Again, since f being a right identity element of ( G , ◦ ), we have a ◦ f = a

∀ a ε G, which implies that

(2) e ◦ f = e

From ( 1 ) and ( 2 ), it follows that e = f . This proves that e is an identity

element of ( G , ◦ ) and by the above theorem it follows that e is the unique
identity element of ( G , ◦ ). This completes the proof. ¤

Definition 6. If a semigroup contains the identity element then it is called a monoid.

That is, a groupoid ( G , ◦ ) is said to be a monoid if the following two conditions
hold simultaneously

(1) ◦ is associative in ( G , ◦ )

(2) ∃ e ε G such that e ◦ a = a = a ◦ e ∀ a ε G

In the above discussion we have already seen different examples of monoidal structure
and non - monoidal structure. Before going to the next discussion, now, we like to
consider an example.
Example 14. Let R∗ be the set of all non − zero real numbers. Then ( R∗ , · )
is a groupoid with identity, where the binary composition · is the usual multiplication
of real numbers. In this groupoid, for each x ε R∗ , ∃ y ε R∗ such that
x · y = 1 = y · x.

Again in the groupoid ( Z , · ), excepting 1 and −1, for each x ε Z, there

does not exists any y ε Z for which x · y = 1 = y · x.

From the above two examples, we can say that if ( G , ◦ ) be a groupoid with identity
and x ε G then there may exists y ε G such that x ◦ y = e = y ◦ x,
6 T. K. SAMANTA

where e being the identity element of G. In this case the element x is called
invertible.

Definition 7. Let ( G , ◦ ) be a groupoid with identity element e. An element

a in G is said to be invertible if there exists an element b in G such that
a ◦ b = e = b ◦ a. In this case, b is called an inverse of a in the groupoid
( G , ◦ ).

Example 15. 1 is the identity element in the groupoid ( Z , · ) and − 1 in Z

is invertible because x · ( − 1 ) = 1 = ( − 1 ) · x for x = − 1. 2 in
Z has no inverse in the system ( Z , · ) because there is no x in Z such that
x · 2 = 1 = 2 · x.

Definition 8. Let ( G , ◦ ) be a groupoid with identity element e. An element a

in G is said to be left invertible if there exists an element b in G such that
b ◦ a = e. In such case, b is called a left inverse of a in the groupoid ( G , ◦ ).

An element x in G is said to be right invertible if there exists an element

y in G such that x ◦ y = e and then y is called a right inverse of x in
G.

Example 16. 1 is the identity element in the groupoid ( Q , · ) and 2 is an element

of ( Q , · ). Here we see that 12 is left inverse of 2 in ( Q , · ) and also a right
inverse of 2 in ( Q , · ). In fact, excepting 0 , every elements of Q are left
invertible and also right invertible in ( Q , · ).

Example 17. In the groupoid ( Z , − ) , there are no left identity but 0 is the right
identity in ( Z , − ). Here we see that each element of Z is left − 0 − invertible
and as well as right − 0 − invertible in the groupoid ( Z , − ).

Example 18. Consider the mathematical system ( Z , ∗ ) , where the binary com-
position ∗ is given by a ∗ b = a + 2 b ∀ a , b ε Z. Here 0 is the right
identity and there is no left identity in the groupoid. 3 ε Z and it has left − 0 −
inverse but has no right − 0 − inverse. Again, we see that 4 ε Z and it has both
left − 0 − inverse and also right − 0 − inverse.

Note 4. For the existence of inverse of an element in a groupoid, ’the existence of

identity in this groupoid’ is a necessary condition. Now, if ( G , ◦ ) be a groupoid
with identity, an element of G may have inverse or may not have inverse. Also,
an element of G may be only left invertible but may not be right invertible and vice
versa. Now, natural question aries that if an element x of G be invertible, whether
inverse of x is unique or not ? The following theorem will lead to the answer of this
question.
 BINARY OPERATIONS 7

Theorem 3. In a monoid (G , ◦) if an element a be invertible then it has a

unique inverse.

Proof. Let e be the identity of ( G , ◦ ) and x , y be two inverse of a in G.

Then we have a ◦ x = e = x ◦ a and a ◦ y = e = y ◦ a. Now,
x = x ◦ e = x ◦ ( a ◦ y ) = ( x ◦ a ) ◦ y ( because ◦ is associative )
= e ◦ y = y This completes the proof. ¤

Theorem 4. In a monoid if an element be left invertible and as well as right invertible

then it is invertible and it will have unique inverse.

Proof. Let ( G , ◦ ) be a monoid and e be the identity of ( G , ◦ ). Also let a

be an element of G which is both left invertible and right invertible in ( G , ◦ ).
So, let x be a left inverse of a and y be a right inverse of a in ( G , ◦ ).
Then we have

(1) x ◦ a = e and a ◦ y = e.

Now, x = x ◦ e = x ◦ ( a ◦ y ) [ By ( 1 ) ]

= ( x ◦ a ) ◦ y ( because ◦ is associative )
= e ◦ y = y .
Thus, we see that the element a is invertible in ( G , ◦ ) and by the previous
theorem the inverse of a is unique. ¤

Definition 9. A mathematical system ( G , ◦ ) is said to be a quasigroup if and

only if for any two elements a , b ε G, each of the equations a ◦ x = b,
y ◦ a = b has a unique solution in G.

Example 19. Consider the groupoid ( Z , + ) and let a , b ε Z. Then the

equation a + x = b has unique solution x = b − a in Z and the
equation y + a = b has unique solution y = b − a in Z. Therefore,
( Z , + ) is a quasigroup.

Example 20. In this example, consider the groupoid ( Z , · ) and let 2 , 3 ε Z.

The equations 2 · x = 3 and y · 2 = 3 have no solution in Z. So,
( Z , · ) is not a quasigroup. Note that here ( Z , · ) is a monoid but not a quasigroup.

Example 21. The groupoid ( Z , − ) is a quasigroup but not a semigroup.

Example 22. Define a binary composition ∗ on R by a ∗ b = a + b + a b

for all a , b ε R. Then ( R , ∗ ) is monoid but not a quasigroup ( Verify ).
8 T. K. SAMANTA

Example 23. Let R # = R − { 0 } and define a binary composition ◦ on R #

by a ◦ b = a / b for all a , b ε R # . Here ( R # , ◦ ) is a mathematical
system and this mathematical system is a quasigroup but not a semigroup. In fact, it
has no left identity element but 1 is a right identity element in ( R # , ◦ ).

Now, we come to the discussion on the binary compositions which are defined on a
finite set.

A convenient way to define a binary composition on a finite set A, we usually

consider a composition table or multiplication table, which is being discussed as fol-
lows :

Let the elements of A be a 1 , a 2 , · · · , a n and ◦ be a binary compo-

sition defined on A. Now, a table can be constructed by drawing parallel lines
vertically and horizontally. The elements of the set are listed on the topmost row
and leftmost column . To determine the element of A assigned to a i ◦ a j
( 1 ≤ i ≤ n , 1 ≤ j ≤ n ), we look at the intersection of the row labeled
by a i and the column headed by a j . So, we get the following table , which will be
described as the binary composition table for the groupoid ( A , ◦ ).

Note 5. If the composition be commutative then the entries in the table will be sym-
metric with respect to the main diagonal.

Example 24. Let A = { 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 } and a binary composition ◦ on A

is described by for all a , b ε A , a ◦ b = c , where c is the least non −
negative remainder got when a + b is divided by 4 . So, the composition table for
the binary composition ◦ on A is given by
 
◦ 0 1 2 3
 0 0 1 2 3 
 
.  1 1 2 3 0 
 
 2 2 3 0 1 
3 3 0 1 2

Example 25. Let A = { 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 } and a binary composition ◦ on A is

described by for all a , b ε A , a ◦ b = a . So, the composition table for the
binary composition ◦ on A is given by
 
◦ 0 1 2 3
 0 0 0 0 0 
 
.  1 1 1 1 1 
 
 2 2 2 2 2 
3 3 3 3 3
 BINARY OPERATIONS 9

Example 26. A binary composition ◦ is defined on the set A = { a , b , c } by

 
◦ a b c
 a a b c 
the following table :  
 b b c a 
c c a b

At present , we now like to consider a few binary compositions on the set Z n

, the collection of all residue classes of Z ( modulo n ) , that is , Z n =
{ [ 0 ] , [ 1 ] , [ 2 ] , · · · , [ n − 1 ] } , where [ r ] = { x ε Z : n | ( x − r ) } ,
r = 0 , 1 , ··· , (n − 1) .

Let us now define +n on Z n by

. [ a ] +n [ b ] = [ a + b ] ∀ [ a ] , [ b ] ε Zn .

We now show that +n is a mapping from Z n × Z n to Z n . So, let

[ a ] , [ b ] , [ c ] , [ d ] ε Z n such that [ a ] = [ c ] and [ b ] = [ d ]. Then
n | ( a − c ) and n | ( b − d ) , that is , there exist integers s and t such that
n s = a − c and n t = b − d , which implies that n ( s + t ) = ( a − c ) + ( b − d ),
i.e. , n ( s + t ) = ( a + b ) − ( c + d ) , i.e. , n | ( ( a + b ) − ( c + d ) ) , which
implies that [ a + b ] = [ c + d ] . Again let [ a ] , [ b ] ε Z n . Then by division
algorithm , there exist integers q and r such that a + b = q n + r , where
0 ≤ r < n − 1 . This shows that n | ( a + b ) − r , i.e. , [ a + b ] = [ r ] ,
which shows that [ a + b ] ε Z n ∀ [ a ] , [ b ] ε Z n . As a result +n is well
defined and so +n is a binary composition on Z n . In fact , it is easy to see that
this binary composition on Z n is both associative and commutative ( verify ). Here
[ 0 ] is the identity element of the groupoid ( Z n , +n ) . We now find the inverse of
each element of Z n . Let [ r ] ε Z n , where r = 0 , 1 , · · · , ( n − 1 ) . Since
0 ≤ r ≤ n − 1 , we see that 0 ≤ n − r ≤ n − 1 which implies that
[ n − r ] ε Z n . Again , we see that [ r ] + [ n − r ] = [ 0 ] = [ n − r ] + [ r ]
which implies that − [ r ] = [ n − r ] , that is , each element of Z n is invertible in
( Z n , +n ) .

The composition table for ( Z 4 , +4 ) is given below

 
+4 [ 0 ] [ 1 ] [2] [3]
 [0] [0] [1] [2] [3] 
 
.  [1] [1] [2] [3] [0] 
 
 [2] [2] [3] [0] [1] 
[3] [3] [0] [1] [2]

Let us now define ·n on Z n by

. [ a ] ·n [ b ] = [ a b ] ∀ [ a ] , [ b ] ε Zn .
10 T. K. SAMANTA

We now show that ·n is a binary composition on Z n , that is , ·n is a mapping

Z n × Z n to Z n . To show this we first suppose that [ a ] , [ b ] ε Z n . Then by
division algorithm , there exist integers q and r such that a b = q n + r , where
0 ≤ r < n − 1 . This shows that n | ( a b ) − r , i.e. , [ a b ] = [ r ] , which
shows that [ a b ] ε Z n ∀ [ a ] , [ b ] ε Z n . Next , let [ a ] , [ b ] , [ c ] , [ d ] ε Z n
such that [ a ] = [ c ] and [ b ] = [ d ]. Then n | ( a − c ) and n | ( b − d ) , that
is , there exist integers s and t such that n s = a − c and n t = b − d . Now
, a b = ( n s + c ) ( n t + d ) = n 2 s t + n s d + n c t + c d =⇒ a b − c d =
n ( n s t + s d + c t ) which implies that [ a b ] = [ c d ] . As a result ·n is
well defined and so ·n is a binary composition on Z n . In fact , it is easy to see
that this binary composition on Z n is both associative and commutative ( verify ).
Here [ 1 ] is the identity element of the groupoid ( Z n , ·n ) We now investigate the
existence of inverse of each element of Z n with respect to the binary composition ·n
. Before going to such investigation , we first consider the following composition table :
 
·4 [ 0 ] [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]
 [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] 
 
.  [1] [0] [1] [2] [3] 
 
 [2] [0] [2] [0] [2] 
[3] [0] [3] [2] [1]

Remark 1. From the above composition table , we see that the element [ 2 ] has no
inverse element in Z 4 with respect to ·4

Remark 2. [ 2 ] ·4 [ 2 ] = [ 0 ] , that is , product of two non − zero element of Z 4

with respect to ·4 is equal to zero element .

From the above remark , a natural question aries that which elements of Z n will
be invertible with respect to ·n . To answer this question we now come the following
theorem .
Theorem 5. An element [ a ] ( 6= [ 0 ] ) of Z n will be invertible with respect to
the binary composition ·n if and only if gcd ( a , n ) = 1 .

Proof. Let [ a ] ε Z n and [ a ] 6= [ 0 ] . First we suppose that [ a ] is in-

vertible in Z n with respect to ·n . Then there exists [ b ] ε Z n such that
[ a ] ·n [ b ] = [ 1 ] =⇒ [ a b ] = [ 1 ] =⇒ n | ( a b − 1 ) =⇒ a b − 1 = n k
for some k ε Z. Thus , we see that a b + n k = 1 which implies that
gcd ( a , n ) = 1 .

Conversely , we suppose that gcd ( a , n ) = 1 . Then there exist b , k ε Z

such that a b + n k = 1 =⇒ a b − 1 = n r , where r = − k ε Z this implies
that a b ≡ n 1 ( modulo n ) =⇒ [ a b ] = [ 1 ] =⇒ [ a ] · n [ b ] = [ 1 ] . Since
· n is commutative in Z n , it follows that [ a ] · n [ b ] = [ 1 ] = [ b ] · n [ a ] which
shows that [ a ] is invertible in Z n with respect to · n . ¤
 BINARY OPERATIONS 11

Theorem 6. Every non − zero element of ( Z n , ·n ) is invertible if and only if n

is prime .

Proof. First we suppose that every non − zero elements of ( Z n , ·n ) are invertible
. We will show that n is prime . If possible , let n be not prime , that is , n is
composite . Then we can write n = p q where 0 < p < n and 0 < q < n.
This implies that [ p q ] = [ n ] = [ 0 ] =⇒ [ p ] · n [ q ] = [ 0 ] · · · ( 1 )
Since 0 < p , q < n , the classes [ p ] and [ q ] are non − zero elements of
( Z n , ·n ) and so by our hypothesis there exist [ p 1 ] , [ q 1 ] ε Z n such that
¾
[ p1 ] ·n [ p ] = [ 1 ]
. ··· (2)
[ q ] ·n [ q1 ] = [ 1 ]
Hence ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) implies that [ 1 , ] = [0] which is a contradiction .
This contradiction proves that n is a prime .

Conversely , we suppose that n is a prime . We will prove that every non − zero
elements of ( Z n , ·n ) are invertible . To prove this , let [ a ] ε Z n and [ a ] 6= [ 0 ]
. Since n is prime , gcd ( a , n ) = 1 Now , gcd ( a , n ) = 1 =⇒ ∃ b , r ε Z
such that a b + n r = 1 that is , a b − 1 = n r 1 , where r 1 = − r ε Z which
implies that [ a b ] = [ 1 ] =⇒ [ a ] · n [ b ] = [ 1 ] = [ b ] · n [ a ] . Thus we see that
[ a ] is invertible in ( Z n , ·n ) , this completes the proof. ¤

Exercise 1.