Literary Sources: Indian Tradition of History Writing

Many foreign scholars opined that Indians had no sense of history writing and whatever was written in the name of history is nothing more than a story without any sense. But this appears to be a very harsh judgment.. Because the knowledge of history was given a very high place in ancient India. It was accorded sanctity equal to a Veda. Atharvaveda Brahmans and !panishads include Itihas"#urana as one of the branches of knowledge. $autilya in his Arthashastra %fourth century B.&.' advises the king to devote a part of his time every day for hearing the narrations of history.

Puranic Literature

(he #uranic literature is very vast )* main #uranas )* subsidiary #uranas and a large number of other books. According to the #uranas following are the subject matters of history+

SARGA evolution of universe' PRATISARGA involution of universe MANVANTANTAR recurring of time VAMSA genealogical list of kings and sages VAMSANUCHARITA life stories of some selected characters ,ater on description of the tirthas %sacred places of pilgrimage' and their mahatmya %religious importance' was also included in it. (hey speak of four ages ). $rita -. (reta .. /vapara 0. $ali 1ach succeeding age is depicted worse than the preceding" show decline in the moral values and social institutions.

(hey speak about several eras+ era starts in Vikrama 2amvat 34B& 2haka 2amvat 4*A/ 5upta era .)6A/ 7arration of #uranas were a part of the annual ritual in every village and town during the rainy season and at the time of festivals. It was treated as a powerful vehicle of awakening of cultural and social consciousness. in all the #uranas royal genealogies are dealt with the reign of #arikshit the grandson of Arjun as a benchmark.

All the earlier dynasties and kings have been mentioned in past tense. 8hile the latter kings and dynasties have been narrated in future tense. (his may be because of the fact that the coronation of #arikshit marks the beginning of $ali Age. Many scholars think that this also points to the fact that perhaps the #uranas were completed during the reign of #arikshit. In the conte9t of the #uranas it may be remembered that in ancient India Itihas was looked upon as a means to illuminate the present and future in the light of the past. (he purpose of history was to understand and inculcate a sense of duty and sacrifice by individuals to their families by the families to their clans by the clans to their villages and by the villages to :anapada and ;ashtra and ultimately to the whole humanity. <istory was not meant to be an e9haustive compendium of the names of the kings and dynasties and their achievements etc. (he two great epics the ;amayana and the Mahabharata may also be used as a source. It is generally held that there have been constant interpolations in these works. (he #uranas may not satisfy the modern definition of historiography or those who wrote it may not have been awe of the =historian>s crafts? but they seem fully aware of the purpose of their work and the purpose of history itself.

Ra ayana! Va" i#i

composition started in 3B&. passed through five stage. fifth stage in )-A/ @AAA versesBC)-AAA verses and finally -0AAA verses. As a whole this te9t seems to have been composed later than Mahabharata.

Ma$a%$arata! Vyas

reflects the state of affairs between 4AB& to 0A/ originally **AA verses collection dealing with victory. ,ater raised to -0AAA verses" came to be known as Bharata after Bharat tribe final compilation+ ) lakh verses and came to be known as Mahabharata or 2atasahasri 2amhita. didactic portion from #ost Maurya 5upta times.

Puranic Literature: Li itations

). Most of the ancient literature is religious in nature and those which are claimed to be history by Indians i.e. puranic and epic literature contain no definite dates for events and kings. -. In the #uranas and epics we find genealogies of kings and sometimes their achievements. But it is difficult to arrange them in chronological order. .. #uranic literature helps tracing ,ord ;am of Ayodhya around -AAAB.&. but the e9tensive e9ploration in Ayodhya donot show any settlement around that date. 2imilarly ,ord $rishna can be traced to -AA B&".AAA/. But e9cavations in Mathura donot attest his presence. &ounter argument+ (he epics ;amayana and Mahabharata have undergone several editions through ages hence difficult to tie up with specific era.

Vedic Literature

(he Dour Vedas+ 8e cannot find much trace of political history in the Vedas but can have reliable glimpses of the culture and civiliEation of the Vedic period. Vedic literature are entirely in a different language which can be called the Vedic language. Its vocabulary contains a wide range of meaning and at times different in grammatical usages. It has a definite mode of pronunciation in which emphasis changes the meaning entirely. (his is the reason why an elaborate means to protect and preserve the mode of pronunciation of the Vedas have been devised. By the means of 5hana :ata and other types of pathas we can not only determine the meaning of the mantras but also can hear the original tone on which these were sung thousands of years ago. Because of these pathas no interpolations in the Vedas are possible.

Vedanga
2i9 vedangas %limbs of Vedas' were evolved for the proper understanding of the Vedas. ). 2iksha %phonetics' -. $alpa %rituals' .. Vyakarna %grammar' 0. 7irukta %etymology' 3. &hhanda %metrics' @. :yotisha %astronomy'

Sutra

1ach vedanga has developed a credible literature around it which are in the sutra form i.e. precepts. (his is a very precise and e9act form of e9pression in prose which was developed by the ancient Indians. #anini>s Ashtadhyayi book on grammar in eight chapters is the final culmination of this e9cellent art of writing in sutra %precepts' in which every chapter is precisely interwoven.

Later Vedic Literature

Brahmanas elaborate on vedic rituals Aranyakas give discourses on different spiritual and philosophical problems. !panishads prescribe measurements for sacrificial altars. Mark the beginning of study of 2ulvasutra geometry and maths. 2rautasutra account of royal coronation ceremonies 5rihyasutra domestic rituals with birth naming marriage funeral etc.

&ain and 'udd$ist Literature

written in :ain #rakrit Buddhist #ali literature notes was a form of 2anskrit language as the form of #rakrit language which was in vogue in MagadhaF2outh

Bihar.

Most of the early Buddhist literature is written in this language. 8ith the Buddhist monks it reached 2ri ,anka where it is a living language. provides details of contempary kings in Magadha 7.Bihar and 1ast !#. Ashokan edicts are also in this language.

2ince the modern historians have discarded most of the dynasties mentioned in the #uranas and Mahavira and Buddha are considered historical personalities only those portions of the puranic dynastic lists have been accepted which are supplemented and supported by the Buddhist and :aina literature.

&ata#a Stories

(hese are Buddhist books Before he was born as 5autama the Buhddha passed through more than 33A births in many cases in animal"form. 1ach birth story is called :ataka. (here are more than 33A such stories. throw light on socio"economic conditions between 3B& to -B&.

($a asutras and t$e S ritis

these are rules and regulations for the general public and the rulers It can be termed in the modern concept as the constitution and the law books for the ancient Indian polity and society. (hese are also called /harmashastras. (hese were compiled between @AA and -AA B.&. Manusmriti and Arthashastra are prominent among them.

)auti"ya*s Art$as$astra

a book on statecraft was written in the Maurya period. (he te9t is divided into )3 chapters known as books. /ifferent books deal with different subject matter concerning polity economy and society.

even before the final version of Arthashastra was written in the fourth century B.&. by $autilya there appeared a tradition of writing on and teaching of statecrafts because $autilya acknowledges his debt to his predecessors in the field. Mudrara#s$us$a a play written by Vishakhadatta also gives a glimpse of society and culture.

Nota%"e +riters
$alidasa Bhasa and 2udraka Banabhatta Vakpati Bilhana $alhana Malavikagnimitram is based on some events of the reign of #usyamitra 2unga dynasty which followed the Mauryas. Abhgyanshakuntalam+ glimpse of 5uptas. written plays based on historical events. <arshacharita throws light on many historical facts wrote 5audauaho based on the e9ploits of Gasovarman of $anauj Vikramankadevachnrita describes the victories of the later &halukya king Vikramaditya. <is book ;ajatarangini.

'iogra,$ica" Writings

4th A/ /escribes the early career of <arshavardhana" courtlife and social life in his age. ;amacharita. )-th A/ conflict between $aivarta peasants and #ala prince ;amapala. #rince wins.

Banabhatta>s <arshacharita

2andhyakara 7andi

Bilhana>s Vikramadity the si9th. Vikramanakadevacharita Mushika Vamsha" this dynasty ruled in 7orthern $erala. Atula $umarapalacharita of :ayasimha

$umarapatacharita or /uayashraya Mahakauya of <emachandra <arnmirakavya of 7ayachandra 7avasahasankacharita of #admagupta Bhojaprabandha of Billal #rithuirajacharit of &handbardai.

Li itations: (hese writers made lot of e9aggerations to please their patron kings.

LIMITATI-NS -. IN(IAN LIT/RAR0 S-URC/S

). #rinting was not known. 1verything was written on soft materials like birch bark palm leaf paper etc. -. 2ince the old manuscripts become fragile in course of time they had to be manually copied. But At the time of copying some errors tend to creep in or sometimes even additions are made. .. Ale9ander>s Invasion finds no mention in Indian sources. 8e>ve to reconstruct his e9ploits entirely on basis of 5reek sources. 0. Many of them religious in nature" while they give some idea on prevailing social conditions but hard to put it in conte9t of time and place.

Sanga

Literature

earliest (amil te9t $ings and chiefs patroniEed poets. (hese poets assembled in collages and compiled poems over a period of . to 0 centuries. (his is 2angam literature. /escribes many kings and dynasties of 2outh India. (his literature generally describes events upto the fourth century A./. (otal .A AAA lines of poetry arranged in eight Anthologies called 1ttuttokai two main groups #atinenkilkanakku %)* lower collections' and the #attupattu %ten songs'. (he former is older than the latter. 2ome kings and events are supported by inscriptions also. "iterature different fro Vedic Literature1

Ho+ is Sanga

). (hus secular in nature. #oems written in praise of numerous heroes and heroines. (hey represent a heroic age of warriors and battles. -. (alk about military e9ploits in detail. .. 2ongs are not primitive show high quality of grammar.

0. (hey talk about how Yavans came in their own vessels purchased pepper with gold supplied wine and women to Indian rulers. (hus 2angam te9ts are not merely artistic poems they also provide a source of social"economic" political life of people living in the /eltaic (amilnadu in the early &hristian centuries.

.oreign Accounts Gree# Writers

A %assadors:

Ambassadors were sent to #ataliputra by 5reek kings. 7otable+ Megasthenese /eimachus and /ionysios. (hey mention 2androkottas %&handragupta Maurya'" help fi9ing his date of accession at .--B&. (his helps as sheet"anchor in Ancient Indian &hronology.

Historians:

7otable+ <erodotus Megasthenese 7earchus #lutarch Arrian 2trabo #liny the 1lder and #tolemy %5eography'. (hey were concerned mostly with the north western part of India and primarily the areas which were either part of the #ersian and 5reek 2atrapies or Ale9ander>s campaign.

Megast$enese

(he 5reek ambassador %in the court of &handragupta Maurya c. .-0".AA B.&.' Megasthenese wrote e9tensively in a book called Indika which is no longer available to us. 8e know about Megasthenese>s 8ritings through various e9tracts of the writings of /iodorous 2trabo and Arrian. Good
o

(hese fragments of Indika provide valuable information on Maurya Administration social classes and economic activities. (he e9istence of a list of )3. kings whose reigns had covered a period of about @A3. years uptill then.

'ad

o o

Indika is not free from credulity and e9aggerations. Megasthenese had little understanding of Indian society and social systems. Dor e9ample he mentions that Indian society comprised of seven castes %jatis'. /iscrepancies because he did not know any Indian language was not a part of Indian society and psyche.

/arius India figures in his foreign inscriptions &tesian got Info of India from through the #ersian sources. <erodotus in his =<istories? gives us much information about Indo"#ersian relations detailed account of the invasion of India by Ale9ander on the basis of information Arrian from those who accompanied the campaign. Book+ =#eriplus of the 1rythrean 2ea? anonymous by an anonymous author who was a 5reek settled in 1gypt on the basis of his personal voyage of Indian coast in about A./.*A. <e gives valuable information about the Indian coasts. wrote a geographical treatise on India in the second century A./.

#tolemy

Gree# Li itations
). Most of the 5reek writing about India are based on secondary sources resulting in numerous errors and contradictions. -. 19cept for Megasthenese all others have touched Indian history in the true sense very marginally. .. (hey were ignorant of the language and the customs of the country and their information is full of unbelievable facts and fancies. 0. (he works of Megasthenese and other 5reeks of those who accompanied Ale9ander have been lost and are available only in fragments as quoted in later works.

C$inese Tra2e"ers

visited India from time to time" as Buddhist pilgrims and therefore their accounts are somewhat tilted towards Buddhism. (hree important pilgrims were visited India in fifth century A./ /escribes social"religious and economic conditions of India" in the time of 5uptas. 4th &ent. In the age of <arshavardhana and some other contemporary kings of 7orthern India.

Da"<ien <iuen" (sang

I"tsing

4th &ent.

C$inese Tra2e"ers: Li itations

). Da"<ien and <iuen"(sang have given somewhat e9aggerated account of Buddhism during the period of their visit. -. Dor e9ample <iuen"(sang depicts <arsha as a follower of Buddhism but in his epigraphic records <arsha mentions himself as a devotee of 2iva. .. Counterargu ent+ Indian rulers always have like their subjects been multi"religious people it is not difficult for a foreigner to be confused.

Ara% Historian: A"3'eruni

Abu ;ihan better known as Al"Beruni. born in central Asia in A./. 64. and died in 5haEni %present"day Afghanistan' in A./.)A0* &ontemporary of Mahmud of 5haEni. 8hen Mahmud conquered part of central Asia he took Al"Beruni with him. (hough Al"Beruni deplored his loss of freedom he appreciated the favourable circumstances for his work. !nlike Megasthenese Al"Beruni studied 2anskrit language and tried to gain a precise knowledge of Indian sources. (he list of works consulted by him is long and impressive. <is observations range from philosophy religion culture society to science literature art and medicine. Al"Beruni>s work can be termed as fairly objective and wherever he has faltered" is not because of any other reason but his lack of proper understanding. does not give any political information of his times. comparatively free from religious or racial biases 8hile Al"Beruni also possess a well defined religious and hermeneutics awareness he was essentially a scholar and not driven to preach his faith. <e was essentially a scholar and not driven to preach his faith. <owever sometime Al"Beruni does show his annoyance when he says sarcastically =H the Hindus believe that there is no country but theirs, no nation like theirs, no kings like theirs, no religion like theirs, no science like theirs.

45: Arc$aeo"ogica" Sources

MoundB elevated portion of land covering remains of old habitations. Mound can be e9cavated in two ways+

vertical e9cavation helps uncover periodwise sequence of cultures digging the mound as a whole. helps getting complete data of a site. horiEontal very e9pensive done only at few places. Impact of climate on Mounds /ry"arid climate 8estern !# ;ajasthan. Better preserved 5angetic basin and deltas.

humid"moist climate Iron tools suffer corrosion and mud structure become difficult to detect. only burnt brick structureFstone structures can be detected. Mega"it$s:

2ome people in 2outh India buried their dead with tools weapons potteries etc. 2uch graves were encircled by a big piece of stone. (hese structures are called Megaliths.

Car%on3(ating ,rinci,"e

<alf lifeBperiod during which half of the material decays out. <alf"life of &)0 is 33@* years. &arbon is associated with all living beings. 8hen an object ceases to live it stops receiving fresh supply of &arbon &)0 And its e9isting undergoes decacy into an isotope &)-. 8e can measure the decaying of &)0 to &)- and identify the number of years elapsed. (he object with less &)0Bolder than object with more &)0.

Inscri,tions

Ine of the most important and reliable sources of history writing are inscriptions. An inscription being a contemporary document is free from later interpolations.

It comes in the form it was composed in and engraved for the first time. It is almost impossible to add something to it at a later stage. (he earliest system of writings is found in the <arappan seals. %-3AAB&' <owever there has been no success in deciphering it. (hey are pictographic script" ideasFobjects e9pressed in form of picture. (hus the writing system of the Ashokan inscriptions %in Brahmi script' are considered to be the earliest %.rd A/'. Ashoka>s views on dhamma and conquests of 2amudragupta and several others would have remained unknown without their epigraphs. ,imitation of inscription+ they never speak of defeatsF weaknesses

As$o#an Inscri,tion

(hese were recorded in different years of his reign and are called edicts because they are in the form of the king>s order or desire. (hey also give a glimpse of Ashoka>s image and personality as a benevolent king concerned with the welfare of not only his subjects but also of the whole humanity. (hese are found written in four scripts.

empire Afghanistan #akistan

script used in Ashokan 1dicts ). Aramaic -. 5reek scripts .' $haroshthi. $haroshthi evolved on the Varnantata system of the Indian languages is written from right to left. 0' Brahmi. written from left to right. its individual letters were modified century after century and through this process all the scripts of India including (amil (elugu $annada and Malayalam in the south and 7agari 5ujarati Bangla. etc. in the north have developed from it.

$alsi in the north in !ttaranchal upto Mysore in the south.

(his modification in the form of individual letters gave another advantage. It has made it roughly possible to ascertain the time or the century in which the inscription was written

.iro6 S$a$ Tug$"a7

<e found an Ashokan #ilar inscription from (opra <aryana brought it to /elhi and asked #andits to decipher it. (hey failed. ,ater British started epigraphic studies in the late eighteenth century and deciphered it.

&a es Prinse,:

Made a complete chart of Ashokan Alphabets in )*.4. After this the study of epigraphs became a subject in itself. India is particularly rich in epigraphic material. Inscriptions of the Indo"5reeks 2aka"kshatrapas and $ushanas adopt Indian names within two or three generations. (hese inscriptions show them engaged in social and religious welfare activities like any other Indian.

Sans#rit

Most of the 5upta epigraphs give genealogy. (his became the practice of the subsequent dynasties. (hey took the opportunity to give an account of their conquests and achievements of their predecessor including mythology of their origins. 2anskrit came to occupy a prune place since the 5upta period.

of ;udradaman is considered as an early e9ample of chaste 2anskrit :unagarh ;ock inscription written in mid second century A./. Allahabad #illar enumerates the achievements of 2amudragupta Aihole inscription.&halukya king #ulkeshin II gives a dynastic genealogy 5walior of Bhoja gives full account of his predecessors and their achievements.

inscription

Drom the inscriptions we also came to know that ,earned Brahmans %called Agraharas' were given grant of land free from all ta9es.

Coins8nu is atics

8e could not have known about most of the Ind"5reek 2aka"#arthian and $ushana kings without numismatic sources. (his is considered as the second most important source for reconstructing the history of India the first being inscriptions. Ancient India did not have banking system. #eople kept money in earthen posts as precious hoards. ,ater they>re found while digging field or e9cavating foundation for the construction of a building making road etc. 2ome coins were issued by merchants and guilds with permission of rulersBprove that commerce had became important in later history of Ancient India. ,argest number of coins found in post"Maurya periodBCtrade had increased. Dew coins from #ost"5upta periodBCtrade had declined. &oins found in systematic e9cavations are less in number but are very valuable because their chronology and cultural conte9t can be fi9ed precisely.

1arliest coins coins are the earliest coins of India and they bear only symbols on them. 1ach symbol is punched separately which sometimes overlap the another. (hey do not bear and inscription or legend on them (hese have been found throughout the country. from (a9ila to Magadha to Mysore or even further south. Made from silver and copper. 2ome gold punch"marked coins are also reported to have been found but they are very rare and their authenticity is doubtful. silver and copper and rarely in gold. (he Indo"5reek coins show beautiful artistic features on them. (he portrait or bust of the king on the observe side appear to be real portraits. In the reverse some deity is depicted. Drom these coins we know that than forty indo"5reek rulers who ruled in a

#unch" Marked

Indo"5reek

small north"western region of India.

8e know about several 2aka"#arthians kings about whom we would have no information from any other sources. $ushanas issued mostly gold coins and numerous copper coins which are found in most parts of north India up to Bihar. Indian influence can be seen on them from the very beginning. (he coins of Vima $adphises bear the figure of 2iva standing beside a bull. In the legend on these coins the king calls himself Maheshwara i.e. devotee of 2iva. $anishka <uvishka and Vasudeva etc. all have this depiction on their coins. 8e find many Indian gods and goddesses depicted on $ushana coins besides many #ersian and 5reek deities. issued largest number of 5old coins. 5uptas appear to have succeeded $ushanas in the tradition of minting coins. (hey completely Indianised their coinage kings are depicted engaged in activities like hunting a lion or rhinoceros holding a bow or battle"a9es playing musical instrument or performing Ashwamedh yajna.

$ushanas

5uptas

/9ca2ations
In addition to epigraphic and numismatic sources there are many other antiquarian remains which speak much about our past. (emples and sculptures are found all over the country right from the 5upta period upto recent times. (hese show architectural and artistic history of the Indians. (hey e9cavated large caves in the hills in 8estern India which are mostly &haitya and viharas. Te ,"es car2ed out of roc#s $ailusa temple 1llora ;athas Mamallapuram

/9ca2ation: W$at did +e find1

). up to the )6-As it was believed that Indian civiliEation was considered to have begun about si9th century B.&. -. But with the e9cavations at Mohenjodaro $alibangan and <arappa the antiquity of Indian civiliEation has gone back to about 3AAA B.&. (he finds of prehistoric artifacts has shown that human activities had started here as early as about two million years ago. .. (he subsequent discovery of sites of $alibangan. ,othal /holavira ;akhigarhi etc. show the e9tent of this civiliEation upto 5ujarat Maharashtra <aryana #unjab ;ajasthan and !ttar #radesh. 0. (he period between )3AA and @AA B.&. was known as the dark period of Indian history because not much was known about this period. But the archaeological discoveries of such cultures as Black"and";ed 8are #ainted 5rey 8are Malwa and :orwe cultures since )63As have filled these chronological gap 3. It is through archaeological discoveries that we know now that Indians domesticated sheep and goat and started agriculture about *AAA years ago. Also iron came in regular use about )@AA B.&. @. Archaeological e9cavations also brought to light the townships of (a9ila. $ausambi $asi %;ajghat' Ayodhya Vaisali Bodhigaya etc. belonging to Buddha>s time. All of these places e9cept (a9ita are said to have been visited by Buddha in the @th &ent.B& 4. human activities started in the subcontinent as early as two million years ago. %from $ashmir and 7armada valleys' *. ;ock painting was started more than twelve thousands years ago.