BELIEFS AND RELIGIOUS

PRACTICES OF THE BEMBA

AND NEIGHBORING TRIBES
BY
Edouard Labrecque

Translated By
Patrick Boyd (White Father)

Edited By
Language Centre
Ilondola
P.O. Box 197
Chinsali

1
Contents

Foreword
Edouard Labrecques published works
5

Chapter 1. Religion In General....6

1. Positive Side
6
1. Theism. Lesa God
6
Theism: African Religion and the Bible
9
2. Imilungu Ngulu: Gods and Higher Spirits
10
A. Imilungu Divinities
10
B. Ingulu Higher Spirits
13
3. The spirits of ancestors and their cult
17
A. Imipashi The Departed
17
B. Bashinganga Diviners/Mediums, Doctors
21
C. Kinds of Shinganga
23
4. Totemism
24
- Some totems
24
- Prerogatives of certain totems
25
- Certain practices
25
5. Dynamism - Fetishism - Magic
26
A. Nature
26
B. Classification (Kinds of Dynamism)
26
C. Objects Used
27
D. Taboos
28
2. Negative side
28
1. Bad Spirits - Ifiwa, Ifibanda
28
2. Evil Dynamism
29
A. Sorcery - Ubuloshi Sorcerers
30
B. Abusive Language - Offences, Insults
35
C. Evil Omen
36
D. Appendix: More Practices and Omens
36
Chapter 2.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Religion In Social Life

To build a new village (ukusokola umushi)
Different medicines
Spirits of the village
Ililamfya - the war fetish

38
38
39
40
40

Chapter 3.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Religion In Economic Life

Agriculture
The hunt and some food gathering
Hunting the duiker antelope (mpombo) with nets
Chickens and pigeons
Fishing
Journeys
Sickness and death

42
42
44
44
45
45
45
47

Chapter 4. Religion In Family Life

1. From Infancy to Betrothal

48
48

2. Ceremonies for Engagement And Marriage

A. Betrothal
B. Initiation of Girls
C. Marriage
- immediate preparation
- marriage (ubwinga)
- amashikulo: presents and instructions
3. Appendix
A. Age of puberty
B. Medicine for Menstruation
C. Taboos
D. Stealing the First Menstruation
E. Medicine to cause Impotency
F. Medicine to cure Impotency
G. Initiation Dance Songs
61
Other Songs at the Occasion of the Initiation
4. Conjugal Life
A. Conjugal Relations
B. The Inlaws
C. Menstruation - Pregnancy
D. Child Birth
E. The Newly Born Child
72
F. Weaning of the Child
G. Ukuingisha : to introduce a man into his mother in - laws house
5. Misfortunes in family life
77
A. Ordinary Misfortunes
1. Childs Sicknesses
2. Death of a Child
3. Dead Child
4. After the Death of the Child
B. Extraordinary Misfortunes
1. Miscarriage
2. Premature baby - baby dead
3. To Give Birth to Children of Evil Omen
C. Misfortunes of married people
1. Abnormal Misfortunes
A. Sterility of Women
B. Sterility of Men
C. Accidents at Birth
D. Adultery
E. Numerous Children Die
F. Divorce
G. Polygamy
2. Normal Misfortunes
A. Ikando - Menopause
B. Mpokeleshi - Substitutes Wife
96
C. Death
- the last moments
- before burial
- burial
- purifications

49
49
50
54
54
55
57
59
59
60
60
60
60
61
62
65
65
67
70
71
74
76
77
77
78
79
81
81
81
82
82
86
86
86
87
87
90
93
94
94
96
96
97
97
97
98
99

ritual hunt
beer of the deceased
widow and widower
to drive away death

Chapter 5. Technical Questions

1. Consanguinity
2. Affinity
3. Marriage Laws
A. Matrilineal Descent
B. Exogamy - Endogamy
C. Substitute Wife
D. Impediments to Marriage
E. Lumbwe: Consort of a Queen
F. Inheritance of a Name
G. Succession Inheritance
H. Validity of African Marriages

100
101
102
103
106
106
111
113
114
114
115
116
117
117
118
119

FOREWORD
Father Edouard Labrecque, a Canadian white father missionary came in
Northern Rhodesia, now Zambia, in 1920. He returned home in 1951 for health
reasons.
The Father is known for his articles in two reviews: Anthropos and Africa, and
for his work on Bemba, Lunda, and Shila history. He contributed to the Lubuto
Series, which was issued by the Rhodesia and Nyasaland Publications Bureau, later
becoming Lusaka Publications Bureau.
He left behind him an amazing number of valuable manuscripts and typescripts
on various topics: history, customs, religion, flora, medicines, poetry, fables, riddles.
He wrote essays in Bemba on hygiene, human anatomy, agriculture and botany, which
were probably intended for the Lubuto Series. He translated a great part of the Bible
and liturgical prayers. He wrote what was then called a catechism. He also tackled
linguistics and wrote a Bemba grammar. All these manuscripts have been dormant up
to now, and even pillaged, as copies of some of his work were circulating in the
country.
This book is the translation of two scripts:
NOTES SUR LA RELIGION DU NOIR INFIDELE and COUTUMES
MATRIMONIALES DES BABEMBA DE LA RHODESIE DU NORD.
Both there scripts were meant to make a whole, this is proved by a general plan found
in one of the scripts: Religion in general, and in social, economic and family life.
The scripts are of unequal value. The first do appear as mere notes. This is
shown by the style, by the Bema texts which were not translated, repetitions, additions
and the shortness of some chapters and appendices. The second part is more
elaborated and complete, although there are some appendices which are unaccounted
for. We publish the work as it stands, adding only notes whenever necessary.
The whole work was refused by the publisher in 1962, because some passages
were too crude. We have either summarized these passages or omitted them without
damaging the text.
For this translation we have used two scripts: one belonged to Father Henry
Wouters, who typed out the original text word by word, the other belonged to Father
Joseph Fayet who transcribed Father Labrecques text, brushing up the French and
summarizing some paragraphs. This last manuscript contains more items than the first.
This is probably due to the fact that the transcriber used a more recent manuscript.
Indeed it was the habit of Father Labrecque to rewrite his texts when he had more
information. We have based the translation on the older text and we indicate the few
additions.
Father Labrecque wrote in the thirties. The first part in 1931, the second in
1934. The work of Father Labrecque must be read in the context of his time, having in
mind the theology and the mentality of the time. Opinions expressed in this book do in

no way represent that of the missionaries of Africa (White Fathers). The value of this
work is in the Fathers approach to African customs, but in the information he gives,
some of them being novelties in the literature about the Bemba.
Unfortunately the Father does not indicate his sources and informants, nor the
place of some particular customs. As he lived mostly in Bembaland, we may say that
his data are predominantly Bemba. Hence the title of the English translation:
BELIEFS AND PRACTICES OF THE BABEMBA AND NEIGHBOURING
TRIBES (ZAMBIA).
Ilondola Language Centre
20th November 1982
Louis Oger
Edourd Labrecques published work:
in Anthropos XXV 1930 Accidents la naissance chez les Babemba.
in Anthropos XXVIII 1933 La tribu des Babemba 1: Les origines des nos Babemba.
in Anthropos XXXI 1936 La tribu des Babemba 2: Coutumes sur le mariage.
in Anthropos XXXII 1938 Le sorcellerie chez les Babemba.
in Africa IV 1931 Le mariage chez le Babemba.
Annale Pontificales 1968 Les origines des Babemba de la Rhodesie du Nord.
Mac-Millan press 1949 History of the Bena Ngoma.
Mac-Millan press 1958 Ifikolwe fyandi na bantu bandi. (History of the Bena Lunda).
Lubuto series: no list of publications is available.

CHAPTER ONE
RELIGION IN GENERAL
1. POSITIVE SIDE
The positive religion of Africans is a collection of beliefs and religious practices
whose end is simply to obtain the protection of certain superior spirits during ones
sojourn on earth. This cult expresses it self chiefly by worship (ukupepa), supplication
(ukupapata), gifts and sacrifices (ukuposela) and intercession (ukulomba).
The superior beings to whom a cult is given fall into quite distinct categories:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Deism, theism and cult rendered to the supreme being.

Cult rendered to a natural phenomena and occult powers.
Manism or cult rendered to the spirits of ancestors.
Totemism, cult rendered to the totem of each individual.
Fetishism, dynamism, symbolism, white magic or cult rendered to objects,
animals, birds and living persons.

The different intermediaries of this religion are:

1. Shinganga or diviners.
2. Shimapepo or priests.
3. Bakasesema or interpreters of the will of the superior beings
The moral law that springs from this is expressed in a series of prescriptions
and interdictions, the base of which is fear. This religion, which we call paganism,
appears to be nothing but a mass of beliefs and practices created by a superstitious fear
of great phenomena and the occult powers which direct them. (** summary of
paragraphs on the nature and origin of this religion.)
Let us study these beliefs and practices concerning the Supreme Being.()
Then will study the various pagan manifestations and superstitions which comes from
fear.
1. 1. THEISM. LESA = GOD
The name Lesa is the name generally given to the Supreme Being. Formerly
the Lungu people gave him the name of Nyambi.
To begin, let us give some proverbs to explain the idea of the Africans
concerning God. These were known before the advent of missionaries.
1. Lesa Mukulu, the great god. Mukulu was the address given only to the
supreme chiefs ie. Chiti Mukulu, Chileshe Mukulu, Mumbi Mukulu. Such a title

expressed the chiefs supremacy over other chiefs. One does not say Mwamba
Mukulu, Munkonge Mukulu etc. When saying Lesa Mukulu one wants to express
the supremacy of God over all other divinities or superior beings. Moreover it is a
title, proper to himself and reserved to him alone. Thus, one does not address
Chishimba (a nature spirit in Mwamba district) as Mukulu. So for the African,
Lesa is the one supreme being.
2. Lesa mufushi tafulila umo, God is the blacksmith. He does not forge just
for individuals but for everyone. God is good to everybody.
3. Lesa mukunku tasalila umo, God the tailor does not make clothes for only
one (but for all). God is good to all.
4. Lesa mukolokolo, God is wise. He is wisdom itself.
5.
Lesa talombwa inama, God is not requested to give us food. He
knows our needs. He gives us what he wishes when he wishes. (** This proverb
usually means that one does not ask game from God, but from the spirits of the forest,
kampinda or namukonda.)
6. Lesa te wakubikila bunga mu muti, God has no need of our offerings of
flour in trees. He is different to other inferior divinities which are always discontent
and to be appeased.
7.
Ubwile ubwapika Lesa tabupikululwa, man cannot comprehend the
mysteries of God. He is all intelligence, all science. (** Riddles woven by God are not
undone.)
8. Icikupa Lesa teti wishibe, we do not know in advance what God will give
us. God is providence.
9. Apatebeta Lesa tapafuka cushi, there is no smoke where God prepares
food. He gives when we least expect it.
10. Lesa ni shimwelenganya, God is the person who thinks. He is thought
itself and his thoughts are incomprehensible.
11. imfwa ya Lesa, the peaceful death of the old whom God takes from the
word.
12. Lesa Mukulu kampamba mwatuleulu, God splits the skies by lightning.
13.
Tata Lesa cipunganya nkonde na kanyenjele na kanyenjele, God our
father makes the banana trees rustle. (** It is he who makes the forest noises. God is
the master who makes the elements.)
14.
Lesa shiwatutaula mibanga, God breaks down hard trees like
mibanga (by lightning). God is all powerful. Who can resist him?
15.

Lesa akupangukile, may God strike you down. It is a terrible curse.

16.
Cumi ca Lesa, it is Gods truth; to swear before God that what one
says is the truth (literally: the great life of God).
17.
Iwe Lesa leka akalonde ka kwa mama kaye no mukuku, God, let my
grandmothers little hoe go with the current; ie in your mercy, do not count my little
faults against me. A prayer addressed to God by the person who has sworn in vain
(kulapulula = remove a curse).
18.

Lesa andye nga nabepa, may God strike me if I lie.

19.
Mupuma limo, Lesa alabansa, God strikes down men in an epidemic.
God is master of man. (** This is a wrong interpretation of this proverb, which
means: He is a tyrant, but God is sparing people as a woman economises food
(ukubansa), using it sparingly. This proverb is said cruel rulers who destroy people.)
20.
Kwimba kati kusansha na Lesa, to seek out a remedy is to work with
God. God is the author of all plants and their diverse properties.
21.
Katwishi Lesa ifyo emba umuti pali apole, I do not know which
medicine God dug, provided it cures; ie God has to will that the sick person may
obtain the remedy for his illness. Then he will recover.
22.

Lesa, ulenyensho mutende, God preserve me in health.

23.
Kumbo kwa mushili wakashika, kwa Lesa, God is my witness as I
swear on the grave of my relative; ie if I lie, then may I die also. (** literally: At the
grave in the red soil, it is Gods place.)
24.
Washuka watwala inkoko yabuta kwa Lesa, you have the happiness of
a person who has offered a white chicken to God. You will have many children.
In conclusion from the above we can say that Bemba believed That there is
only one, supreme God() Other superior beings are demi-dogs, spirits, good and
bad, and hidden powers to whom they render veneration (cult); but this is not
polytheism.
God is the supreme being, but pagans do not adore him. He has no temple, no
priest nor any special observance. Each person recognizes his attributes and thanks
him in his own way. No one doubts his existence. No one blasphemes. God is
goodness. His actions to man are restricted to doing good. He does not mix with
other natural or supernatural causes which act on man for good or bad. All the world
of religious spirits differ from God and are inferior to him, but are nearer to man in his
daily life and act in a Manichean way. (** Manichea: adherent of a religious system
(third to fifth century) that represented Satan as co-eternal with God.)
In his continual struggle for life, the African never ceases to beg for the good
influence of beneficent spirits, while striving to avoid the evil power of the bad spirits.
This is merely paganism, which is a religion(). God is relegated more or less to

another plane. He is considered in practice, but not in theory, as not being interested
in the affairs of man.
Theism: African Religion and the Bible
1. The Fall: legend: The first woman gave birth to a child which was stricken
with a deadly illness. She prayed to God for a cure. God gave her a test. He
prepared two different dishes of food: One dish was a tasty stew (of mush) on
which God put a little bag containing death. The other dish was quite
repugnant looking, covered with flies on which God put a little bag containing
life. The woman was well instructed as to the kind of food God had prepared
and with regard to the consequences of her possible disobedience. One day she
was very hungry and God was away, so she took the tasty dish. She had hardly
tasted it when her child died. So death came into the world.
2. The tower of Babel: legend recalls that the migration of people was caused by
the fall of the great tower the sons of princes had built. When the high tower
collapsed, a great number of people, engaged in constructing it, died.
3. Other references to the Bible:
a) the first born (ibeli) have special names and are endowed with special powers
regarding heredity (Exodus XIII).
b) soldiers going to war; hunters going to the chase; fishermen going to fish;
farmers going to the harvest, etc, all are forbidden marriage relations with their
wives (Exodus XIV).
c) an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth (Exodus XXI, 24).
d) sorcerers are put to death (Exodus XXII, 18).
e) first fruits (Exodus XXXIII, 19).
f) taboos regarding animals (Lev. XI, 7): eg wild pigs for chiefs; a few impure
birds & reptiles (Lev. XI, 13-19; 29-32; 41-44), all these are forbidden to
Africans as well. (Note also the rules regarding impurities, ablutions, fire,
water, in-laws (mako)).
g) (** This paragraph appears only in the second manuscript) Pa mwela akasuba
nga takabalike, pa kwanika amale babula umwana wa libwe uo bapelako
amale, babula no mufito bashilapo umusalaba. (Atemwa: babulo mwiko
bashilapo musalaba) e kulomba akasuba kuli Lesa. (** In the cold season,
when the sun does not shine and the millet spread on the ground does not dry,
people take the small grinding stone with which they grind millet, and
charcoal, and draw a cross (on the stone). Or, they take the wooden spoon
(mwiko) and write a cross on it with the charcoal: this is done to beg for the
sun.)
1. 2. IMILUNGU - NGULU, GODS AND HIGHER SPIRITS
Between Lesa, the supreme and only one God, and man who has to struggle
in his social, economic and family life, there is a world of spirits and semi-divinities,

which are considered independently of God, yet, they influence the destiny of man.
These are the IMILUNGU and the NGULU.
1.2.A. IMILUNGU - DIVINITIES
These are the great phenomena and forces of nature which the African has
divinized. Here are some of them:
a) MULENGA is demi-god of nature who does not have a habitat properly
speaking. His mother is Nakonkola. He is dreaded because of his evil doings,
epidemics and plagues. In 1894 a cattle pest killed many animals in the bush.
Mulenga was its author. Again, in 1927, a plague of smallpox ravaged the
country, and Africans claimed that they had seen Mulenga in the sky holding a
bent bow and arrow in his hand with which to kill men. Again, in the spring
when an epidemic killed many fowl, Mulenga was the cause. To him is
attributed earth tremors and other phenomena (finjelengwe). In this honor
small huts for the spirit worship (mfuba) are erected on high anthills (fyulu).
These mfuba have two doors, one facing the east and the other the west. On
his circuits in the night to the east, Mulenga must pass the lufuba. If he sees a
lufuba to his liking he groans as he passes it, but he does not harm anybody.
No offering of beer or flour is made to him. Women seek to appease him by
throwing their cinders from the house towards the west. Africans sometimes
dream about Mulenga, especially when they are suffering from indigestion.
Then, they assert that Mulenga has appeared to them with a most forbidding
mien. Mulenga is also called Kaino.
b) MUSONDA is a god of nature who resides in a lake at the source of
Kalungwishi river. Mporokoso district. He is called Musonda we tandwa
(lake), Shincinda and Musonda wa mpemba (tree haunted by his spirit). His
wife is Congo Watundusa. Here is the legend:
Once, the ancestors crossed the river Kafubu when they came upon a
huge cloven rock in the middle of which they found elephants tusks and
offerings of cloth inserted. The ancestors said to each other: Here we have a
treasure. Let us pull them out. They put themselves to work until they had
completely split the rock in two and rolled it into the plain (ico tumona na
nomba icilibwe ico bakunkulwishe). Until today we see this rock which they
had rolled out. It is Kabwe. The ancestors then continued their journey until
they came to a pool where riches had been deposited. They now began to bail
out the water (kupasha amenshi) and they carried on work for many days. The
water emptied out soon became a river, now called Kalungwishi. (Amenshi
yapongoloka, yasanguka umumana, e Kalungwishi = The water poured out,
was changed into a river. It is the Kalungwishi.) But, the pool never
completely dried up. One day, they saw Musonda seated on a throne holding
the spirits (ifinshingwa) of the Lunda people in servitude since they had
formerly come to seize the elephants tusks.
The Africans state that even today the bottom of the lake is still white
from the elephants tusks. In the midst of this one sees the black shadows of

the Lunda passing backwards and forwards holding in their hands their doubleedged axes (mpoko) and knives.
The Lungu offer sacrifice and prayers to Musonda. When these rites
are pleasing to Musonda the weeds which cover the lake withdraw to the
north, and the lake appears in all its whiteness. But when Musonda is
displeased, weeds almost completely cover the lake leaving only a little
opening. Its water becomes black. The nearby pagans set up shrines (mfuba)
to Musonda, and make offerings of beer and cloth (imyala). These offerings
are given to Musonda by Mukupa, Chitoshi and sometimes by Mwamba. The
python (ulusato) a son of Musonda (Mwana Musonda), is also venerated there.
c) CHISHIMBA Chamakota, this is the magnificent falls near Chilubula mission
(Kasama district). The falls are considered to be haunted by the spirit (ngulu)
of Chishimba.
The legend: When Chiti came into the Ituna country, there was a man
called Chishimba, a polygamist, who had two daughters born from his two
wives Nakaela and Ntanda. Two suitors presented themselves to Chishimba.
One Kampinda married the older daughter, while the other, Mutumuna,
married the second born. The mother-in-law, Nakaela prepared a rich porridge
(bwali) for the two daughters. Bearing the two dishes, she presented herself at
Kampindas hut which was in complete darkness. Then, she hurried over to the
Mutumuna, which was lit up with a lamp placed in a basket (lusaniko or
lwasho). Kampinda, when told that his mother-in-law had hurried away from
his hut, was angry on account of this slight to his character, and began to
criticize harshly his father-in-law (amuseba). The angry Chishimba threw
herself into the first fall. Nakaela then threw herself into the second fall.
Mutumuna threw himself into the third fall and Ntanda into the fourth fall.
Kampinda however took himself off into flight. The lamp was taken to
Chitimukulu who had wanted to steal it. This lamp is preserved today at
Mwalule (the burial place of the para-mount chiefs of Bemba).
Chishimba has his priest who make offerings to him. There are the
priests (shimapepo) on both sides of the river, Mwishilya lya Kasenga (on the
side of the Kasenga). They are Munshele, Namwaba and Chombo, while on
the side of Kasula (Mwishilya lya mu Kasula) they are Mulanga, Kankobwe
and Chisutula. Chishimba also has his diviners and interpreters (bakasesema).
There are Mutoba-Mpande, Kalonga, Nakatonya, Shimwaba and Chipapa. The
priests either belong to the frog or otter totems (abena luo = frog clan; abena
mbao = other clan).
When a wild animal dies on one bank of the river near the falls, people
on the other side of the river may not cross the Luombe to take it away. The
heirs of Chishimba are the sons of Nshili Mfumu. At the time of writing, they
are Mariko Lobati, Gabrieli Kwimbe and Isako Shimwaba.
d) KAPOPO MUKALI and Cishimweshimwe.

Kapopo is an ngulu in the country of Lubumbu at Nshinga at Mwebe.

The legend:
There was a man-eating dragon (calemina abantu () it eat men called
Shimweshimwe. Kapopo made a huge pot from anthill earth (aimbe culu
abumba icilongo icikalamba). He shut up all the chiefs in it. Kapopo said:
Kantinye ici cintu. Aikala pa culu, aoca, afula mafumo. Ici cintu caisa,
canunsha abantu mu nongo aciti: Panunka untu untu. Caya: Cabwela aciti:
Panunka untu untu. Awe Kapopo acilasa, casuka cafwa. (** Let us make this
thing afraid. He stayed on the anthill. He lit a fire and forged spears. This
thing approaches, it smells the stink of human flesh in the pot, and says: it
stinks very much. He goes away. It returns and says: It stinks much. Then
Kapopo pierces it with his spear, and it dies.)
e) MAKUMBA and NGOSA.
The Ushi people, in Mansa district, has two great protecting spirits
(ngulu) called Makumba (male) and Ngosa (female). They live in a little temple
three meters in diameter at the source of the rivers Mansa and Nambushi. A
priestess resides there to care for the sacred fire. Several priests look after the
temple, the senior of whom is Chilaluka, a marvelous ventriloquist who
consults the spirits from time to time. Makumba and Ngosa are two meteors
weighing only several ounces, and the legend says that they fell from the sky.
Makumba, the male, is enveloped in python skins, crowned with a massive
head of white feathers. There are adorned with shells (mpande), the royal
emblems. Formerly, Makumba was consulted by Msidi, Kanyanta and other
powerful chiefs.
The woman Ngosa, sister of Makumba, stays beside him and is also
covered in python skins. These oracular fetishes are firmly believed to be of a
miraculous origin, and they have procured much wealth and great renown for
their guardians. Formerly, when these fetishes were carried in front of the
army, victory was assured. There was one exception; the Arab chief Chiwale
on one occasion desecrated the temple and took away Makumba and plundered
all his riches.
f)

Other demi-gods: CHANGA and KAPONGOLO (near Kasama).

Changa is a mountain in the heart of which is a wonderful cave: e
canga mwibwe (** this is Changa of the rocks).
There is also Kapembwa near Lake Tanganyika; Mwenya of the
Cishinga people (Kawambwa); Chisha, a mountain divinity by the Lungu whose
priest bears the name of Chisha and who intercedes for the people with the
god.

All the above divinities and others, are natural phenomena divinized by Africans
which have magical influences over human beings through the medium of the spirits
(ngulu) of ancestors. These ancestral spirits have kind of incarnated themselves with
the forces of nature. These are gods properly speaking even although they are

sometimes called ngulu. (** Mulungu - ngulu. The term mulungu, or muungu, is
borrowed from the languages of East Africa, Swahili, Cichewa etc. The term ngulu
is a local word, which the Bemba found when they came in the country.)
1.2.B. INGULU - HIGHER SPIRITS
Ngulu are the spirits of ancient chiefs and kings long since dead. Their spirits
are reputed to reside in the place where their bodies were interred. So, a chiefs spirit
may be found in a tree, pool, mountain and frequently at the source of a river. The
people point out the place by saying : E ku musumba. E mu ngulu sha mfumu. This
is the royal village. It is at the chiefs spirit place. This is a sacred place where sacred
shrines (mfuba) are erected, where presents and offerings of beer and flour are made.
A river where an ngulu resides is sacred to Africans, who point it out saying:
muli or kuli instead of mu or ku. A little grass hut (lufuba) is usually built there.
It is constructed by boys and girls who have not yet reached puberty.
Before going on a hunt, local men call upon their favorite ngulu. They first of
all send a child with a present to the lufuba, then, they themselves pay their respects
(kukunkula) by lying on their backs and clapping hands while saying: We mibenge
wesu, mutwafweko. (You, our mibenge, help us.) etc, etc.
Here are some ngulu:
1. Mpalampasha - ni ngulu ikali. Iyali muntu ni mfumu ya mu calo mwa
Kabanda, nomba apena, apupuka. Aisa ikala muno ishilya lya Chambeshi
mu muti ukalamba: Akulika insalu ku fimuti, ati: E myala. Ne mfwa
yamusanga, afwa mwisamba lya muti. Na bantu abati: mubifishe
nani? Ena ati: Ne mpalampansha, mpalampansha akulye. Akalipe cibi.
Ababisa nabo abati: Tuteme umuti wa bwato, bafwa bonse babili.
(** This is an evil Ngulu. When he was living, he was a chief in the
country of Kabanda. But he become mad and unsociable. He came to live
on this side of the Chambeshi in a big tree. He tied pieces of cloth to big
trees and said: This is myala (special cloth offered to the spirits). Death
caught hold of him and he died under a tree. The people asked each other:
Who wronged him? Mpalampansha answered: I am Mpalampansha. I
will eat you up. He was very angry. Some Bisa people said: We are
going to cut the tree down to make a boat. Two men died. (**
Mpalampansha: Mpansha = grasshopper which has big eyes and sees
nothing; ukupala = to resemble.))
2. Ingulu of rivers: many rivers with a fine grove of trees (mushitu) or a
huge tree at their source are reputed to be haunted by the spirits of
ancestors. For near Lubushi mission (Mporokoso district) the confluence
of the rivers Mfuba, Mikonko, Wilongola and Chili Mumpunu is the home
of ngulu.
3. Ngulu of wild beasts; it happens that the spirit of a chief has entered into a
wild beast, so the animal becomes a sacred beast. Senior chief Nsokolo

of the Mambwe lives in a young lion, as does chief Tanzuka. Bisa and
Beba chiefs are reincarnated in the python (ulusato), and other chiefs in the
crocodile. It is not uncommon for Africans to say in greeting to a lion:
Mwapoleni, mwe mfumu. (Good health to you, chief.)
4. Ministers of cult and their practices.
The ministers of pagan cult to their milungu and ngulu fall into three
classes:
1. Bashimapepo,
2. Bakasesema,
3. Mfumu sha mipashi.
1. Bashimapepo = priests. These belong to three clans: the elephant
clan (abena nsofu), the frog clan (abena luo), and the otter clan (abena
mbao). They are appointed by king or chief to offer gifts to great and
displeased spirits who avenge themselves on man by causing all kinds of
misfortunes. The chief will say: Go and give gifts to the spirits to appease
them for they are angry. The chiefs hate us (bashamfumu batupata). That
is why hunters do not see game (tabamona inama). Lions are troubling us
(inkalamo shabuka). The rains are slow in coming (imfula yakokola). Our
children are not well (tabenda umutende). There is an epidemic
(kwabecikuko). Then the chief stops sleeping with his concubines, and
lives with only his first wife (mukolo). There are things to prepare ()
beer, pieces of cloth (myala); goats and oxen are rounded up. The
Bashimapepo set out to visit the shrines (mfuba) at Chishimba, Musonda,
Changa etc. There, they make offerings of beer, throw beads in the
mfuba and they finish by immolating a beast. A ritual hunt takes place so
as to offer appropriate victims to the spirits. Balonganya amasumbu cila
mushi, cila mushi: Basowela bashamfumu abo bapepele. Nga baipaye
nama batwala ku musumba mu tumishi tonse balaipikila inama mu mfuba.
(Each village collect their nets and they go on a ritual hunt to ascertain the
will of the spirits. If they kill a wild beast they bring it to the chief, and in
each village they cook the meat at the shrines.) Dances to honour the
spirits and prayers are addressed to them. Children dance, saying: Cifupa
nkolokote ko, nasanga balenge balya. (The bone. Let me nibble it. I
have found that the hunters have eaten (the meat). )
2.
Bakasesema = seers or prophets. They are different to
bashimapepo, for the bakasesema are possessed (perhaps only for a time
) by the spirit of a deceased chief.
Here is an instance:
Mu nshita ya malwele, ifikuko, imipamba, ifinkunka, amashamo,
icipowe, etc, kasesema aitwa ku mfumu, abula tusokota, anwa impemba,
atalika ukubiya, alatutuma, ashingauka umushi onse, ati: Mwe
mwalitulufyanya pakuti mulecita ifya misompoli (misalula) nga tamulapile
tamwalemona kandopya. Balafuta ilambo ilikalamba alumbule mfumu ya
mipashi yabacusha, apwa. Abantu bamusakatila, kasesema alanyunkunta
aleka ukunyongotoka, ingulu shaya - imfumu elyo yabile mbila aiti:

Abantu balasosa imisompoli, belalya umusalu no mulembwe, nabinda.

Amenshi kuti bakupika. Abantu bayankula kabili mbila, abati:
Mwalonganya ilambo: baipaya icilume ca ngombe, batwala insalu iyabuta
ne ya mabala pa lufuba. Shimapepo ati: Lelo kucita milangwe ne fya
minteleu (kutekanya). Baya ku lufuba (ilipepo) nabasenda imitembo, ne
ngombe, amata, imifwi, amafumo ne misopelo, shimapepo ena asenda
ngombe, umwala, no bwalwa, alasosa ati: Twalete lambo ku kufuta,
twapapata, mutubeleleko luse. Nomba ifwe basha benu, mututamfishe
ifikuko na malwele yonse, na mashamo. Ifwe tulelilako bumi bwekabweka
no kushuka, na malyo mutushishe mu mpanga, mwifita; ifwetulelilako
amaliilo, no bumi. Elyo alakulikila insalu pa lufuba. Aitila ubwalwa, atota.
Basankaula ngombe, banwa ubwalwa, balya ingombe. Balacimba ku
kabanga na ku tupinda.
(** In the time of much sickness, pestilence, evil omen, misfortune,
plague, famine, etc, the Kasesema is called by the chief. He takes the
regalia of a possessed person (rod etc), drinks some white clay, he belches,
he trembles all over, he goes around the village and says: You people
have injured us by harsh words. If you do not repent, you will have no
security. They begin to make compensation with a big sacrifice. He
names the chief of the spirits which trouble them. When he stops
(speaking) the people seize him and the Kasesema begins to walk snakelike. He stops writhing, the ngulu goes away from him. The chief then
proclaims: People must stop insulting each other. They must not eat
leaves of any kind. I forbid. Water may be covered with a lid. The
people reply to the speaker (announcer): You explained well. They
sacrifice, they kill an ox and bring white cloth to the shrine. The
shimapepo says: Let us speak nicely and act with care. They go to the
shrine carrying poles, drums, bows, arrows, spears and ramrods. The
shimapepo carries the ox, the cloth (special cloth for chiefs) and beer. He
says: We bring a sacrifice in reparation. We beg you, have mercy on us.
We are your slaves. Take away from us all pestilence and sickness and
misfortune. We are longing for a happy life, prosperity and to feast with
plenty of food in the bush. Do not mock us. We want to enjoy feasting
and good life. They then tie the cloth on the lufuba, throw beer on it,
and make obeisance. They cut the ox in very small pieces, drink beer, eat
the beef and bend to show submission towards the east, west, south and
north.)
3.
Mfumu ya mipashi = priestesses. These are women who are the
prophetesses and interpreters of the wishes of dead chiefs. The functions of
these priestesses do not take place at set times, but rather at any particular
moment when the person is possessed by the ancestral spirit. Only then,
will she voice instructions given by the spirit. This is called kuwilwa or
kusesema (to be possessed by a spirit or to prophecy). Here is one
version from an African: Umwanakashi atampa ukwaula umwau alabyola,
atendeka no kungwinta, alaimba no lwimbo panini. Camucita ngo bushilu,
alefulukuta. Elyo atendeka, ukusesema alekana ukulya ifyakaba, alafwaya
fye ifyatalala, ati: Nine Kabwe(atemwa Chishimba), alabasontelela

impanga ya kuyako. Ulucelo, baya ku kumusowela. Bamucindika.

Imfumu sha mipashi nga shaya, cishala cipao.
(** The woman begins to yawn. She is struck with dizziness. She
starts mumbling, sings a little, acting as though mad and goes into
convulsions. Then, she begins prophecy. She refuses all warm food and
eats everything cold. She says: I am Kabwe (or Chishimba). She points
out the place to which they should go. In the morning, they go on a ritual
hunt. They honor the spirit. When the prophetess goes away the regalia
remains behind.)
Here is another version: One form of temporary possession of the
spirits of deceased chiefs is felt or experienced in the body of a man or
woman. When the spirit seizes a person, he or she roars like a lion. All the
villagers surround him (her) beating drums and shouting their Yoo yoos
of joy because a deceased chief has come to visit them. This possessed
person may prophecy about war, the hunt, illnesses or calamities. While in
his possessed state he eats nothing cooked, sprinkles flour over the body
and falls into convulsions while singing songs in words unknown to anyone.
Finally, he falls to the ground utterly exhausted uttering barely audible
words. This is the moment when the spirit makes known its demands.
Interpreters are at hand to hear the words of the spirit. Formerly, this was
the time when sorcerers were denounced by the possessed person for being
responsible for all evils, sicknesses, deaths etc. On some occasions, the
spirits ask only for offerings or sacrifices.
1. 3. THE SPIRITS OF ANCESTORS AND THEIR CULT
()
1.3.A.

IMIPASHI - THE DEPARTED

A cult is rendered to ancestors. The spirits of the dead are named imipashi.
Imipashi differ only slightly from the ngulu and milungu, which are also the spirits
of ancestors. These differ from the imipashi, in that they incarnate themselves in the
forces of nature (milungu) or in the ownership of a beautiful tree or river (ngulu). The
imipashi do not seem to haunt a particular object, they live and wander near their
place of burial (Mwalule, Nshishi = cemeteries), or near huts constructed in their
honour (mfuba). Another difference is this: the imipashi are spirits of people more
recently deceased, while ngulu are spirits of ancestors deceased long ago.
The imipashi fall into different groups. They can be public, private or family
imipashi.
1. Public imipashi.
a) Place of worship: These imipashi are the spirits of deceased chiefs.
Cult is rendered to them in their place of burial and also where they
lived. For example: Mwalule, the burial place of the great Bemba

chiefs; the huge grove near the river Mupando in the Ngwema where
Bemba queens are buried; Mwelekumbi where the great Lungu chiefs
are interred.
Mwalule (** in the Chinsali district) is of great importance. It
appears that, in the grove (umushitu) which has huge milemba and
misepa trees, where the corpses of chiefs are deposited before burial,
there is a big circular hut built by Luchele Nganga (** a legendary
white man who followed the Bemba in their migrations). This hut is
called kabotwe we tumba, is encircled with elephant tusks and
antelope horns which are offered to the deceased chiefs in order to
obtain good luck in the hunt. There, the bodies remain two days. In
former times, the dead chiefs bodies were laid on the corpses of human
victims immolated in their honour. One was Kambilambila the herald
of the chief, also called Katekwe or Cilangisha. He was immolated
at the gates of the village so as to announce the death of the chief to
Lesa. Cilangisha, mwinemushi, e utotela imfumu, bamwipaya pa
mpongolo pakuti abile kwa Lesa. Kabili balemuoca, ekabuka ciwa. (**
Cilangisha, headman, is he who pays homage to the chief. They kill him
at the entrance in order to announce the chiefs death to God. Then
they burn his body, that he might not rise again as a bad spirit (ciwa). )
This was only the first victim. There now followed a succession of
victims after the death of Chiti Mukulu, the king:
1) two porters of the king (bakasunsa),
2) a messenger (kamwita),
3) Chitis first wife (wa ku mubea - mukolo - nantalasha),
4) the young woman who gave the king his beer (itanda lya
mfumu),
5) two young girls who looked after the kings fire,
6) two young men who presented the king with his pipe (cinkuli).
They are called Citefwa and Cilangisha, and
7) a woman from the court (umusano) whose office had been to
anoint Chiti with oil when he took possession of the kingdom,
and who took the name of Chitimukulu wa kunse
(Chitimukulu living outside) because Chiti said to her:
Tukafwa fye nobe. (We shall die together).
All the above victims were the ordinary victims destined to honour
the spirit of the king in the other world, and also to perform these same
functions for the king after death. Note that umukolo, Chitis first
wife, was killed at the grave (ku luando): the umusano, courtier, at
Cinangama, near the grove of kampamba at the Chambeshi not far
from the plain of Nkakula.
Kabili, pa kushike mfumu efyo paleba. Umusango umo uo imfumu
yaletemwisha, bamukoma, bamwipaya abati: E paki, bamushka pamo
ne mfumu, ku mutwe, kalume walesumike mfumu cinkuli, nao
namukoma abati: E kupakishe mfumu. Nao bamushika pamo ne
mfumu ku molu. (** This is what was done at the burial of the king:
One courtier whom the chief loved very much had his head cut off.

They said: This is the sacrifice. They buried him together with the
chief, at his head. The page, who put the pipe of the chief in his mouth
was also put to death. They said: This is to placate the spirit of the
chief. He was buried at the feet of the chief. This account appears
only in the second manuscript.)
In the chiefs grave were placed offerings of beer, flour, beads and
medicines (luseketi wakashika, kabokopakanwa, etc). In the mouth or
hand of the chief an mpande a semi-circular piece of ivory, called
ilinso (the eye) was placed. (** This is not the polished half shell
women wear as pendant, but a piece of an elephant tusk. It be an ivory
bracelet cut in half. It is called the eye because it enables the chief to
travel safely.) Finally, at his side they deposited a calabash containing
the chiefs finger and toes nails together with his teeth and hair.
Shimwalule interred the chief, and then he had to go away, for it is not
permitted for him to bury two consecutive kings. Other victims who
were put to death, were buried elsewhere. Once the chief was buried,
people came to venerate him (kutota). There were priestesses called
Bamukabenye, who were given the hereditary office of living at, and
looking after, the grave and to preserve the property. The senior of
these is Chimbala. These Bamuka benye (relics wives) still hold
office today at the capital of the dead chief, mainly to guard the relics
(chairs, bows, arrows, walking sticks etc) of deceased chiefs. In these
relics it is thought that the magical powers of the dead chiefs reside, and
it is to them that the pagans come to pay respect, clapping hands in
veneration of them.
b) Ministers of cult: Just as in the case of imilungu and ngulu, the
ministers of cult are also Bashimapepo, Bakasesema and
Banamfumu ba mipashi (ministers, seers and chieftainesses of the
spirits). One must also add to these officials, the Bashinganga (about
these, we will speak in the section on family imipashi, see chapter
four). All these ministers have the common function of communicating
with the spirits. This is a social profession reserved to certain
individuals who hand down their power from father to son.
c) Practices: Their chiefs duty is kupepe mipashi (to honour the spirits,
and this is the public, official cult of the spirits of dead chiefs, a cult
which scarcely differs from that rendered to the imilungu and ngulu.
There is also the kupale mipashi (to invoke the spirits), and the
ukusunmata and ukuposela.
Ukusumata is the offering of first fruits to the spirits of the
ancestors. This refers especially to three crops: The mwangwe, the
male yakulu and the masaka (early millet, white big millet and
sorghum). It is forbidden for people to taste these foods until the chief
through his intermediary, the priest, has offered them to the imipashi.
Once this ceremony has been completed, messengers are sent to all
villages by the chief, to inform the people that they may now harvest

their crops and eat their produce. Here is a resum of the ukusumata
ceremony:
Bakasowa basowe mpombo, bateya mu fyelu: babula utulungu e
lupao, batunga po akacani pa tupande. Baimba abati: Kampindaconde-cesanga, tulangilile kuntanshi no mukashi obe Namukonda,
mutukunkwile mu shamfumu shonse, ifipondo (ifiswango) fibi
filelambalala. Cibinda apepa, kampanga asenda ulupao: bakupa,
bafulumuna inama, baipaya, batantula masumbu. Cibinda abula ubunga
asuba inama pa mpumi. Basenda mu mushi. Elyo kuli mwangwe
(atemwa male atemwa masaka) balonga ubwalwa bwa kusumata.
Balanwa, balacinda, balatebeta inama, baitila ubwalwa ubu mu tufuba
na muchinshi bapepa abati: Natusumata ifilyo fipya ifi mutusenamine,
tulekwendo mutende. Ku male yakulu na ku masaka ififine, tabaya mu
mpanga kano batala balapepa.
(** Hunters go to hunt duiker. They prepare their nets. They
take small beads as an offering to the spirits, they thread them in groups
on small blades of grass, and they sing: Kampinda, conde ce sanga.
Show us ahead, where to go. With your wife Namukonda, give the
royal salute for us where all the chiefs live. May wild animals lie flat on
the ground. The chief hunter prays. His helper takes away the
offerings. Beaters drive the game and make it run into the nets. They
kill them. They take down their nets. The chief hunter takes flour and
sprinkles it on the brow of the animal. They carry the animal to the
village. Then with the first millet (or other millet or sorghum) they
brew the beer of ukusumata. They drink it and dance and eat the
meat. They pour beer on the shrines and in cemeteries. They worship
saying: Let us make the offering of the new crops. May you bless us
and may we have health. The same is done for big millet and white
sorghum. They do not drink before they have worshipped.)
Ukuposela is slightly different to Ukusumata. In the
icifwani (old millet or groundnut field ) when the pumpkin start to
grow, the people take two of them (tupushi tubili), small ones. They
empty out the grains (mpupu) and clean the inside and so make
calabashes. They put the grains back inside together with other kinds
of grain (sorghum, maize) and yam. They then take them to the
ulufuba lwa mipashi (the shrine of the spirit) and offer them, while,
saying: Mulenga, give us and our children good health, keep all evil
away from us. Then they add: Imipashi yesu isumate, muletwenshyo
mutende, etc. (** Our spirits take our first fruits. Make us healthy,
etc.) Now they offer their beer, and say: Drink this good beer now.
Stop drinking sour beer. (Lekeni ukunwo bwalwa ubwasasa.)
Regarding ceremonies on the subject of the cult of the spirits which is
public, these matters will come up in the chapter notes concerning the social
life of the people, chapter two.
2.

Private or familial imipashi.

This is the cult rendered to deceased relatives or to the spirit of each

dead individual. The ancestors and also lately deceased relatives continue to
influence the living members of the family. It is they who are responsible for
success in hunting, fishing, health and good harvests. Failure to honour these
spirits results in sickness, misfortunes and trouble in the home. So, people
appease them by offerings of chickens, beads, goats, together with venerating
them (ukupala amate). It is the head of the family or an old woman relative
who does this. There are no accredited priests nor shrines. In very serious
troubles, witches, sorcerers and evil spirits (ifiwa) are held responsible for the
misfortunes.
Each individual has his or her special spirit (umupashi) ie a spirit of the
dead is reincarnated in each newly-born child through the divination performed
by the shinganga. The shinganga is a medicine man, a diviner. Through
divination he has more contact than other with the imipashi, spirits of the
family. He too is the enemy of the sorcerers (abaloshi). So it is most important
not to confuse these two, the shinganga and the umuloshi.
1.3.B. BASHINGANGA - DIVINERS / MEDIUMS, DOCTORS
They belong to a small elite with an office which is hereditary. Their main
function is the public good. So, they are mediators between the spirits and the people.
Through remedies known to them alone, whose efficacy is enhanced by prayers and
magical formulas, they cure illness, take scourges away, and ensure prosperity and
health to all. It is their work to seek out and find sorcerers (abaloshi), thieves, those
who cast spells, those who cause illness and death. So the bashinganga are held in
very great respect, and on account of their power, are much feared.
Divination (ukubuka), the strength of the shinganga is in divination which he
uses for all kinds of situations:
- the name to be given to children
- the cause of illnesses befalling people
- the cause of death
- the ritual hunt; but most important:
- he uses it for finding sorcerers and evil spirits (ifiwa).
Divination is a feat of skill and pure conjury on the part of the shinganga in
order to accuse a suspected person. Here are the different kinds of divination:
1. Imisaba - the shinganga comes with a bag (icisoka) filled with
bones. He shakes (ukusanshanya). He mixes them. He counts them
two by two, blowing on them each time. If there remains a single
unmatched bone after several attempts, this is taken to be a sign that the
suspected person is really guilty. Nga lifupa limo lyabulila asosa ati:
Akantu aka, e cilwele umwana, e cililila umwana , e wishile lwalika
mwana. (** If a single bone remains he says: This thing is the
childs sickness. It makes the child cry. It came and made the child
sick.)

2. Insengo sha kutinta (horns) - the shinganga takes two horns; he

sniffs them and walks through the village calling: Tata, ee. (Father).
People answer: Imba, (Speak, literally sing) or Shikulu
(Grandfather). He names several suspected persons, but when the
name of the true suspect is pronounced, he falls on his stomach as if in
hysteria: Aipuma fye alafulukuta. He falls heavily on the ground and
begins to writhe and goes into convulsions.
3. Impimpi - amulets, talismans, roots from trees containing remedies
with twine, sealed with wax and daubed with flour and red powder,
same procedure as with nsengo sha kutinta.
4. Ulukusu - a large stone fruit. It is shaken in a little calabash
(akanweno) turned upside down. The shinganga repeats unceasingly
the word kolokoto, kolokoto. When he pause at the name of the
suspect, he says: Kantu aka (this thing).
5. Isembe pa mpapa - an axe on a skin. Asengesha pa mpapa, na
cakana ati: alikwikula. He rubs it on the skin. If it refuses he says:
He is caught (ie guilty).
6. Ulupe - basket. The magician puts amulets or talismans (mpimpi) on
it. The basket has a string tied to it cross-wise. The shinganga swings
it back and forth in front of the persons suspected of evil. When the
basket capsizes before one of these people, that person is guilty.
7. Ulupeta - a hard fruit. The shinganga rubs the fruit with his hands
and puts it in a vessel filled with water, cold or hot. All suspected
persons must try to take the lupeta out. The one who fails, is suspect.
It goes into his fingers (lwaingila mu minwe). (** The first
manuscript adds: or he throws the lupeta in the crowd. The person
who is hit is guilty. It disappears in the body of the suspect. (lwalubila
mu mubili).
8. Fulwe - tortoise. The shinganga ties a plum to the hindquarters of
the tortoise and utters a spell. The tortoise zigzags (ashunda) towards
a person who is suspected and this is the guilty one.
9. Umwafi (a tree) - poison ordeal. The sginganga puts some bark of
the mwafi tree into a huge pot full of boiling water. They draw up the
rules for the ordeal (aumantembo), if the boiling water overflows
(ukufulukila) to the right, then the person on that side is guilty.
10. Amabula - leaves are pulled (ukupulula) and thrown on the grave of
a deceased person suspected of witchcraft. If the leaves dry up, the
person is guilty.
There are many other types of divination. Note however that both living and
dead may be found guilty. Those guilty of grave crimes are the sorcerers (abaloshi) or

the evil ancestral spirits (ifiwa or ifibanda). Less gave crimes come from an
umupashi who is displeased with an individual of the family who has behaved badly.
1.3.C. KINDS OF SHINGANGA
All bashinganga practice divination (ukubuka, ulubuko, mbuko = to convoke
the spirits, divination, evocation). They fall into two classes:
1. Bashinganga ba miti ie those who work with medicines.
2. Bashinganga abakushula ifinda ie those who dig up evil spirits.
1. Bashinganga ba miti, these are medicine men properly speaking, to
whom people turn to in all illnesses. The pretended relations which these
medicine men have with the spirits, together with their considerable knowledge
of plants, their prayers and the magical processes which accompany their
consultations and medical cares make them medicine men and magicians whose
skill and competence is unquestionable.
2. Bashinganga abakushula ifibanda, these are truly magicians. Their
work is chiefly to search out sorcerers and to dig up ifibanda.
The ifibanda are deceased people who are found guilty of crimes after
their death, for example, deaths of children in the villages, epidemics, etc. All
these evils are ascribed to these deceased people after divination. These are
not imipashi, good spirits. They are bad spirits (ifibanda). So, it is necessary
to unearth and to burn them, and this is the work of the shinganga wa kushula
ifibanda. The incriminated deceased having been determined, he is thrown on
a huge lighted pyre and consumed. And this burning is witnessed (ukuleluka)
by a huge crowd of people.
But it happens sometimes that the evils continue even after this
cremation. The shinganga says there is nothing that he can do now. The
icibanda is a mpula mulilo ie his evil spirit has not been overtaken by the
fire. According to others, the mpula mulilo is a frontal bone of the deceased
placed with an amulet or a piece of the deceaseds flesh which through the
action of the fire has burst away from the body and has been thrown some
distance (** and been picked up).
1.

4. TOTEMISM

Totemism is a special identification of a clan (umukowa) with an animal or a

mineral, a natural phenomena, a plant or a manufactured object. This identification
indicates a tie of blood between individuals having the same totem. The Bemba trace
these ties through the women (ie, they are matrilineal) (** this means that only the
totem of mothers is passed on). Origin of the totems is unknown. It may be due to a
mysterious superstitious association with the forces and characteristics of families with
a particular animal or object, or a rallying sign of migrating families (cipanduko). On

each individual, totemism imposes prescriptions to be observed or interdictions

(taboos) to be followed.
Here is an incomplete list of totems (singular umwina = a person of ; plural
abena).
1. Animals:
ngandu =
nsofu
=
nkalamo =
ngo
=
mbwa =
mbushi =
ngulube =
isabi
=
mpende =
inshimu =
nguni
=

crocodile
elephant
lion
leopard
dog
goat
wild boar
fish
a kind of fish
bee
honey bird

mpuku
nkamba
fyula
mbao, luo
milongo
mboo
nsengo
kaongwa
inama
nsoka
nshimba

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

field rat
tortoise
toad
otter
white ant
buffalo
antelope
elephant
wild beast
snake
civet cat

lungu

iron forge

2. Minerals:
mbulo

cast iron

3. Utensils and instruments:

nongo = pot
mumba = pot

nsupa
ngoma

=
=

calabash
drum

4. Phenomena:
mfula = rain
5. Plants and food:
bwali = food (sorghum)
masuku = fruit (kind of plum)
male = millet
nkonde
= banana
kaleshi = millet
mitinsengo = a tree
besa
= millet
cani
= grass
mono = castor oil
kani
= grass
bowa = mushroom
citondo
= mushroom
pumbwa, ngona, samfwe = species of mushroom.
6. People:
nkashi =

sister

Prerogatives of certain totems:

bena ngandu = royal clan of the Bemba
bena male, kaleshi, besa = grave diggers of chiefs
bena nsofu, luo, mbao = hierarchy of priests
bena membe (genitalia femina) = office of royal succession (kapasa)
bena mfula = belong to the aristocracy
bena ngo = royal clan of Lungu chiefs

Certain practices:
a) in war, people of the same totem are spared.
b) people pretend to respect or venerate the animal whose totem they have.
c) among the Lungu the totem is often invoked at death as follows (** the
following expressions are in fact pass-words which members of the same totem
use to make themselves known when on a journey, so as to helped with food
and shelter. This custom exists also among the Bemba. The following
expressions have been translated with the help of Stephen Chipalo.)
Umwina mbao: nafwa cibao = I am dying for (= I want to eat) a big otter
Umwina nshimba: nafwa munshimba na mala = I am dying for a civet cat in
my stomach
Umwina ngulube: nafwa ngulube = I am dying for a wild pig
Umwina ngandu: nafwa ne mwina ngandu yasuminkanya imipiko = I am
dying, I the crocodile which gnashes his teeth
Umwina nsofu: nafwa kaongwa akalupota kabuuta = I am dying I the
elephant with a white tusk
Umwina citondo: nafwa citondo shimwina bowa = I am dying for a
mushroom of the red kind
Umwina isabi: nafwa ne kubwata (ne mwina kubwata; ne mwina kukosa
kubwata) = I am dying, I the fish
Umwina nkashi: nafwa ne mwinankashi uwatemwikwa kubantu bonse = I am
dying, I the sister who is loved by everybody
Umwina mfula: nafwa kasambi ne mwina pa ngamo = I am dying for rain
(water), I who live in a grove
Umwina mbushi: nafwa ne mwina mbushi ne ukulwa ku mwando = I am
dying, I the goat who is drawn with a rope.
1.

5. DYNAMISM, FETISHISM, MAGIC

1.5.A. NATURE

The question of a name is of little importance, but perhaps dynamism would

cover the idea. The African has discovered in all domains of both the animate and the
inanimate world hidden forces which are capable of influencing his life and destiny.
These mysterious forces are mastered, interpreted and applied by prophets, medicine
men, diviners, etc., thus building up, through countless ages, a religious heritage of
great importance.
1.5.B. CLASSIFICATION (KINDS OF DYNAMISM)

In order to see clearly (** the first manuscript adds: in all the existing
superstitions.) Let us divide DYNAMISM into five categories: ANTHROPODYNAMISM, ZOO-DYNAMISM, OBNITHO-DYNAMISM, VEGETODYNAMISM and MINERO-DYNAMISM. The details of superstitions practices will
be studied in the chapter on social, economic and family life.
ANTHROPO-DYNAMISM or occult forces in people. Here are a few
instances:
Children, both boys and girls, who have not yet reached puberty are
given certain ritual offices: the building of huts for the spirits (mfuba);
preparation of mwafi (medicine from the mwafi tree); making foundation pole
of a new village; certain preparations for the foundation of a new village.
There is also the little pot (kanweno) of a child; the childs new fire; the taking
away by a child of a curse by means of the coni (universal remedy).
Sexual relations pollute things and people, for example fish (ukulamfye
sabi), beer (ukulamfyo bwalwa) and fire. In a home the fire is always polluted,
so much so that a new fire is necessary whenever food is prepared for the baby.
Sexual relations are forbidden at the time of epidemics. Before the baby is
initiated (ukukusho mwana) married people must abstain, otherwise the baby
would sneeze and die. This is the capu or kwapula umwana to bewitch a
child. (** This paragraph has been reworded by us, so as to add explanations
to a mere list of taboos.)
ZOO-DYNAMISM or occult forces in animals. Here are some of the
properties of animals:
Umutima wa lusato the heart of python is a medicine against madness;
Umucila wa munjili the tail of warthog to acquire male semen;
Isako lya musula wa mbwa hair from anus of a dog, and amakala ya
sawe the long hair of the male goat give fertility
and procreative power to men.
Amala ya nsofu the intestines of the elephant are against constipation.
Amenso ya mbwili the eyes of a leopard make one see better or are
against eye trouble.
Amafupa ya kapale the bones of a grey squirrel make one grow fat.
Ndusha ya ngwena gall bladder of a crocodile makes one vomit out
the poison of a sorcerer (mpasha).
Icitoki ca nsamba droppings of a water lizard for vigour in men, etc.
ORNITHO-DYNAMISM or occult forces in birds. Here are only a
few examples of the qualities of birds:
Kansolonkonto the waxbill; this little bird is put into a bundle of wood
in order to protect the cultivation from harm.
Amafupa ya makubi bones of a hawk make one grow fat.
Umutima wa kakoshi musa heart of a small hawk is used against
epilepsy or madness

Katyetye wagtail is the friend of man (** sign of good omen.)

Nguni honeybird, directs people to a bee hive.
Katiti indicates the presence of a snake.
Kapeswi loqui franklin is a guide in the bush.
Bulumbelumbe means good food in view.
VEGETO-DYNAMISM or secret virtues believed to be in minerals, eg
in clay pots (utulongo, utupalwilo) used for ritual ablutions; in clay figurines
(imbusa) for girls initiation rites; beads (ubulungu) worn by women and used in
the succession ritual; polished shell pendant worn by women and used in burial
rituals. (** To these must be added all the medicines (imiti) which are worn on
the body and are believed to cure or to communicate their properties by mere
contact with a person or an animal.)
1.5.C. OBJECTS USED
a) (** Certain things are manufactured and put in containers.)
- In horns: impimpi (amulets); ichishimba (activating charm);
icimupunga (fly chaser); icibyalilo (charm for the blessing of
the seeds): amanga ya nama (witchcraft against animals);
ililamfya (the war fetish).
- In calabashes eg coni (the magic gourd); umusashi wa nsakilwa (a small
gourd containing medicine for fecundity); icitontolo
(medicine in the narrow end a gourd).
- In eastern pots. These are very numerous.
b) (** Other things are used as they are) eg impanga (other word for impimpi,
amulet); nshishi (firebrand); amapula (honeycombs); impapa (skins);
imicila (tails of animals); ingala (claws); imipiko (dogs foam); ulusombo
(a fruit of the lusombo tree); kamukwa (spider).
c) (** A nganga has his own bundles) ntangala or icisoko (diviners bag),
amapingo (two horns tied together used in fertility rites), inkombo sha
lukunta or inkombo sha kabosha (witchs gourds).
1.5.D. TABOOS
Taboos, interdictions imposed are numerous. Here are only a few examples:
a) Africans do not eat birds hearts through fear of becoming timid. The
breaking of a small branch (ulusansu) would make them jump.
b) Africans do not eat birds entrails because there are grasshoppers in them.
c) They do not eat porcupines entrails (ngoya, cinungi) because these animals
are supposed to eat aloes, which cause abortions in women.
d) Sick people must not die in the village.
e) The marriage act must not be performed in the bush except in the huts in
the gardens (imitanda). Etc, etc.

2. THE NEGATIVE SIDE

Under this title, one refers to the complete collection of religious beliefs and
practices observed in the peoples struggle with various enemies unleashed against his
life, whether his individual or social life, or his life in a family or in a tribe (or clan).
These enemies are of two different kinds:
bad spirits (ifibanda or ifiwa), and
occult forces with an evil dynamism.
2. 1. BAD SPIRITS - IFIBANDA, IFIWA
a) Ifibanda and Ifiwa are the spirits of evil people (evil doers) namely
sorcerers, people who hanged themselves, and murderers, all of whom possess
power after death to bring harm upon the living (see mpula mulilo above).
These ifibanda are not just wandering spirits. They can also take possession
of a living person, for example, a person whose babies have died may be
accused of possession by an iciwa. Among Africans death is not attributed to
natural causes. Rather, they consider that causes above nature which enter into
play are brought about by sorcerers (living persons) or by evil spirits. The
matter of finding the ifibanda or the ifiwa belongs to the shinganga wa
kushule fibanda the medicine man who disinters ifibanda. He digs up and
burns ifibanda.
b) Bacisanguka are people who are thought to be able to change themselves into
lions whether death or still alive, in order to seek revenge. Here is an example:
Bapandila impimpi mu mupunga. Aimba mishila yakalalo ne ya
cibangalume isha salulwa; abika amalaya nkalamo. Nga pali ukuli mulandu
atumako impimpi, nga wa mulandu impimpi yamwikata, impimpi shaya no
kuya. Esha kuposa e sho batila: Nabatuposela inkalamo, shiikata abo
shituminweko.
(** They prepare witchcraft medicine in a horn. A charm is dug out
from the roots of the kalala and cibangalume shrubs which are roasted;
lions claws are put in it. If there is a case somewhere, that person is *guilty,
she is caught by the amulet, which does its work and goes away. This is the
mpimpi which casts the spell and about which people say: They have cast
out the lion on us. It caught the persons to whom they have sent it.) (*
sent a charm (mpimpi). If the person is )
Another instance:
Pa Chilubula, Chaluka. Bamukomawile na masembe, alisangwike
nkalamo pa culu, apene ikata umubiye, umucila no mutwe ni nkalamo, lubali
muntu. Bamukoma ne sembe, abutuka, atentemuka pa culu elyo abo muntu;
umubiye abutuka, aya shimika na ku mushi; nao chaluka abwelela ku mushi ne
filonda. E kalala mpanga.

(** At Chilubula, Chaluka. They slash him repeatedly with axes and he
turns into a lion on an anthill. He nearly caught his friend. He has tail and head
of a lion, but the rest of the body is a man. They strike him with an axe and he
runs away. He comes off the anthill. He becomes a man again. His friend runs
away and goes to tell the escapade to the village. Chaluka returns to the village
with wounds. Henceforth he is called he who sleeps in the bush.)
2. 2. EVIL DYNAMISM
The evil dynamism consists of evil powers, emanating from habitually evil men
such as sorcerers, or accidentally evil men, such as sorcerers, or accidentally evil men,
eg those who curse or insult others. I call these occult forces in order to signify the
secret, magical powers which result from a true or pretended pact with evil spirits. By
their nature, these evil powers (occult forces) are active. It is this fact which makes
the distinction between true and pretending evil doers, eg a man who kills his wife is an
icipondo (murderer). Of such a man, Africans say: Bamwikata bwanga.
(Witchcraft has caught him). To do such a thing, one must be bewitched. Such a
person is not as blameworthy as one who is an active agent in evil doings, ie the
sorcerer, who bewitched him.
2.2.A. SORCERY - Ubuloshi - Sorcerers
Here is a local version:
Bamusontola: Kampanda alifina muno; aleti uo baumana nankwe alwala; nabo
baleumana nankwe alebape mishindikila. Mu mbali bamupendula, bamubukishe mbuko
bamwipaila inama - e makolo. Bushiku bushilile kantu balaumana na nyanta-muitabataba umunakwe aya mutununuka ati: Ni we muloshi. Umubiye ati: Nine
waikata bwanga. Nakalya; ni we shiciloshi, niwe wapwa, wapwisha abantu.
Shiciloshi alaumensanso, ati: Ndi wa kaele. Baya kwisano ku kwebelwa. Abaice
bamwela ne nsanga, baimbilila. Kwisano bamumina ne ntembo: Nkabwesha amatonge
pa mwase. Shiciloshi nao alasosa, alatamantama fye, tasosa bwino bwino, ati:
Cisuma, nkanwa umwafi. Ulucelocelo, baya mubula talile, bamutwala mu nyika.
Bafwaya ulunweno lwa bunga, babikamo amafi ya mbwa, na malulu ya mumbo,
amatotoli ya nkoko, batwa umwafi, babika, fyalaandukila. Bamumina ne ntembo na
kabili: Nga naibulunga fye, nakubalabala fye utuke umwafi. Nakana fye, ni we
kafimata, we wafita minwe, etc. Bamufula icifwalo cakwe, bamufwika amabula;
umwaice wa kumunwesho mwafi, afula, amina akapandwa ka mwafi, umwaice elyo
amunwesha. Shiciloshi alatabanta, talufile. Asala ati: Nkomeni. Pati papite
akashita kanono awa panshi. Umwaice amutobekesha ulukombo ku mutwe; babula
isembe, bapela bacilumendo, bamuna umutwe, bamuputula ifishimba ninshi matole
atemwa bukala, batumbikisha mu kanwa; balamwimbilila amalaila: Muloshi sompa,
sompa. Bumutanta bamuela.
(** They find fault with someone and say: Kampanda is a cause of worry here,
whenever he quarrels with someone, that person becomes ill, and he threatens those
with whom he quarrels. Secretly, they cast lots to discover if he is guilty, consult the

spirits and organize a ritual hunt in order to prove that he is a great sorcerer. One day
they begin to quarrel with this trouble maker. One dares to go to him and tell him:
You are a witch. The other replies: I, a witch, not at all. It is you Shiciloshi (the
great witch), you who have wiped out people. Shiciloshi (the accused) begins to deny
saying: I am a good man. They go to the chiefs court to settle the matter. The
children shout at him in ridicule and they sing. At the court they make arrangements
for the trial and swear: If we do not do it, let Mwase come back to life and settle the
case. Shiciloshi begins to say something in a nonsensical way, he does not speak very
well. He says: Good. I shall drink the poison. (ie undergo the poison ordeal). Very
early in the morning they go to fetch him before he has eaten anything. They take him
to the marsh. They look for a small pot used for flour. They put in it dog droppings,
the bitter skin of yams, hen droppings, they pound the poison. The mixture is diluted
in water. Again they draw up the rules for the ordeal: If I act on my own, if I accuse
you unreasonably () vomit out the poison (). But if I refuse you are guilty (a
muloshi), you have filthy hands, etc, etc. They take off his clothes and clothe him
with leaves. The child, who administers the poison, undresses, swallows a little of the
poison, and then gives it to him. Shiciloshi wanders about, he does not vomit. He
confesses: Kill me. After a short time, he falls to the ground. The child breaks the
gourd on his head. They take an axe, they give it to a young man. He strikes
Shiciloshi on the head. They cut off his genitals, which are a strong medicine, and
push them into his mouth. People sing victory songs: Witch, peck, peck. They cut
up the body and burn it.
Notes on witches and sorcerers. (** The following section appears only in the
second manuscript. It is a summary of what was published in 1938 in Anthropos
XXXII: La sorcellerie chez les Babemba.)
One must not confuse sorcerers with diviners, medicine men, or those who
invoke the spirits. According to Africans, evils, sicknesses and above all, death, are
caused by the evil spell of a sorcerer. Sorcerers are criminals. These sorcerers are
believed to live in secret societies. They are called Baloshi or Bashiciloshi. In
former times they were well known in villages or at least under suspicion of being
sorcerers. Their very names were feared, and people did not dare to accuse them of
evil-doing for fear of incurring their terrible vengeance. Sorcerers employ ordinary,
natural means like poison to kill certain individuals. But, did they employ preternatural
or diabolic powers? Certain deeds performed by them are most difficult to explain
away in a natural way.
1. Initiation: usually, the initiated are true sons or relatives of the sorcerer.
But for any other person, a heavy fee is demanded in order to be instructed.
The postulant is called on a fixed date to the masters house. First, the
sorcerer has the novice tread on his own footsteps (inkatu) then removing
his clothes from him, he makes him kneel around pots of soot. He then
tattoos him. Afterwards, in the middle of the night, stark naked, the novice
goes to the cross-roads. There he dances the witch dance. On his return to
the masters house, he receives from his master, his sorcerers outfit. These
consist of horns filled with different medicines (imiti): Mpandwa Lesa
long white even teeth, stripped from a tree struck by lightning;
Mumfwilila the venom of a viper. A belt plaited from a snakes skin; a
headpiece made from the skin of a wild cat (nshimba); small packets of

dried flesh taken from the navel of a baby in childbirth; a bag (cikoko)
containing powder gathered from a tomb in a cemetary; a small gourd filled
with poisoned oil, the object of which is to protect him from the evil
suspicions of the family of those whom he has killed. As soon as a person
dies from his evil-doings, he hangs this tail in the bush near the tomb. This
is called the 'mulaliko' (the medicine which saves a person from
contamination). From the moment that a novice is initiated, he will remain
a witch for the rest of his life. Should he stop practicing, he would become
ill. When suspected of sorcerery by members of his clan, he would not
hesitate to throw the blame on his own children in such a way that they may
fall ill and die provided that it dispels the suspicions. Members of the clan
will then say to him: You are not a sorcerer since your own children
died. This is a ubuloshi bwa mpupeni ie witchcraft inherited by children
of a sorcerer.
2. Different forms of witchcraft - ubwanga, amanga.
a) The horn of ulupekeso or ulupembe (a spell cast from afar). This is
a horn filled with remedies which is suspended from a tree. This horn is
capable of killing those whom he wishes to take vengeance upon during
the night. Africans claim that they see it during the night as a shooting
star crossing the sky, falling upon the roof of the hut which the
sorcerers have designated. In the course of two weeks, they can claim
ten victims living in different places but belonging to the same family.
A catechist has affirmed that he has seen such a horn hanging from a
tree. He said that was horrible to see. From this horn there flowed oil
red like blood making a pool on the ground, and for quite a distance
around the vegetation appeared to be burnt.
b) Smoke. One other occasions, the sorcerer uses remedies which he has
burnt far in the bush with the use of a little grass. Soon the smoke rises
fine and straight to fall on the roof of the hut of the victim who has
been designated by the sorcerer.
c) Usually a small horn with witchcraft is tied to the door of the victim by
the sorcerer during the night. Before casting a spell, the sorcerer first
seeks a point of contact with the person he wishes to bewitch eg the tail
of his goat, dust fallen from his feet, a hair, a little pap fallen from his
lips etc. He mixes these things with his remedies, rubs his body with
black soot, ties his girdle of snake skin around his lions, covers his head
with a headpiece made from the skin of a civet cat, and dances round
the village. He makes imprecations fit to make the hair stand on ones
head, and his lips are filled with malice against those whom he wishes to
injure. He finishes by putting his remedies at the door of those whom
he wishes to bewitch. At daybreak, the remedies deposited at the door
have an immediate effect. How can one explain this in a natural way ?
One can only suppose that on the evening before, the sorcerer, who is
not yet suspected of evil-doing, placed his poison in the food (sumu =
poison), or, that he put some fine powder taken from the root of the
mutobo tree, in the reed (munwena = a poisoned reed), which the

victim uses to drink beer. The individual aimed at, whilst wishing to eat
his mush or drink his beer, swallows the poison. One must however
clearly state that there are acts of sorcery which are very difficult to
explain in a natural way.
3. Investigation of sorcerers: a person dies, and the death is attributed to
sorcery, so it is imperative to find the guilty sorcerer.
a) The ritual hunt: all persons belonging to the family take part in this
hunt with hunting nets used for duikers. They draw up the following
rules (ntembo). If the person under suspicion is a sorcerer may our
nets trap male beasts only. From time to time, they go over the list of
suspected sorcerers, repeating the above formula, until the moment
when they kill only male beasts. This is the evidence that they have just
pointed out the true sorcerer. The matter in now brought to the chief
and explained to him, and the heads of the male beasts (amakolo) are
shown to him. The chief or king does not believe all the accusations
now made to him, for he does not wish to condemn an innocent man.
Proof is necessary. The chief therefore gives the poison ordeal to one
of his hens. Should it die, then this is proof that he must not reject the
accusation. The poison dose given is ordinarily so strong that the
chicken should die. The villagers themselves give the poison ordeal to
three other hens. If they die, then these also are clear signs of guilt.
The chief now bids the individual to come to the court telling him that
he is under grave suspicion of sorcery and that he must submit to the
poison ordeal (mwafi) in order to prove his innocence. The chief goes
on to say: If you vomit out the poison, then you will be saved and
your accusers will be obliged to compensate you greatly. But, if, on the
contrary, you do not vomit out the poison (mwafi), then this is proof
that you are a sorcerer and you will be killed and your body burnt.
b) The poison ordeal:
Collecting the poison (bark from the mwafi tree). There is always a
ceremony attached to the gathering of the mwafi. The chief sends his
priest, the kasesema (oracle) together with some of the elders of the
court, and a naked child, to collect it. Having arrived at the foot of the
tree called mwikalampungu, they pray to the spirit which lives in it,
and make an offering of white beads. They then beat the bark with a
stick, already immunized with remedies. Under the blows a number of
small fragments soon fall to the ground. They are collected in a bunch
of grass and given to the child in a small packet. The child is now
carried on the shoulders of one of the old men, for the child may not
walk on water or mud. And the old man himself must avoid crossing a
river, meeting an anthill or a dead tree on the way. In the village, the
mwafi is deposited in a place already prepared and is kept under guard
by a minor chief and a priest.
The accused may not sleep in the village, but under guard, on a large
anthill outside the village. During the whole night villagers sing about

sorcery. At daybreak, the accused is stripped of his clothes and clothed

with a waistband of leaves, and led out to a plain (nika). A naked child
gives him the poison (umwafi) which is contained in a gourd, of the
bitter kind, for drinking (ulukombo lwa lunda) in which has been put
the droppings of a chicken and the excrement of a dog. The howling
mob now pronounce the ntembo (accusations made according to
arrangement in order to find out if the person accused is guilty or not).
They shout: If you are innocent vomit the poison (tuka mwafi). If
you are a witch may the poison poison you. Shortly after having taken
the poison, the victim begins to swell out and to stagger about while
trying to vomit out the poison. He starts to struggle like a demon or a
wounded animal. The screaming mob of people seeing that the poison
is gradually killing its victim and that he is unable to vomit the poison,
lavish upon him the greatest insults and vile curses while they intone the
final chant: Cibengele camutema kantwa. (So and so, the white ant
cuts you down.) Soon the victim falls to the ground, groveling. He is
struck several blows and death strikes fast. Each person then pierces
him with a spear. The person holding the calabash containing the
poison strikes the victim on the head with it.
The funeral pyre: Although the sorcerer is dead it is still necessary to
burn him, for even in death, he can still carry on his evil practices by
avenging himself on the chief, his accusers, and on all those who have
done him harm. The pyre is made with hard wood (nkuni sha mibanga,
sticks from the mubanga tree). This work is the task of a priest
attached to the court, who is called ngangantulwa or kaulu. Around
the pyre, he makes a circles with rope on which are hung charms
(manga). The body is cut up into little pieces and thrown on the pyre.
The people take to playing the drums (imitumba) and singing: The
sorcerer has been put to death. The pyre is lit and soon the sorcerers
flesh is consumed in the flames.
Mpula mulilo: certain parts of the intestine swell up due to the heat of
the fire, and burst and so are scattered afar. The priest carefully gathers
up these fragments and returns them to the fire, for the sorcerer would
continue to survive if these fragments of his body were not destroyed in
the fire. Under the action of the fire, soon cinders only remain, together
with ashes. The priest now pours a remedy on the burning cinders in
order to completely destroy the sorcerers power. This remedy is called
the lunkunta.
The evil spirit of the sorcerer: Even after his death, the sorcerer often
manages to survive. Misfortunes and numerous deaths befall the
village. After the ritual hunt, the deceased sorcerer is still accused of
sorcery (alibuka ciwa = the bad spirit has risen). People go in
procession to the sorcerers cemetery (Mpyandoshi), and special priest
together with several ministers go to the suspected sorcerer. There,
they make a circle of horns (mansa) tied with a cord in order to prevent
the spirit of the deceased from escaping. The crowd beats the drum.
The remains of the sorcerer are exhumed and burnt once again until

they are reduced to cinders. The lunkunta remedy is once again

poured on the cinders. Thus, the evil spirit of the deceased sorcerer is
destroyed for ever (ukulalike ciwa = to burn the evil spirit).
2.2.B. ABUSIVE LANGUAGE - Offences, Insults
To the witchcraft practices one must add insults, curses, words of vengeance
and hatred. Nsele = insults; ukulapisha = to curse; ukutipwila = to call a curse
upon; ukukonkomwena = to curse, to do sorcery, and all the evils caused by insults,
imprecations, maledictions and words of vengeance.
Insults (insele, ukutukana insele). Africans have a great number of these
insults. Most of them refer to parts of the human body, especially sexual parts (cikala,
men; cinyo, women), to defecating (ndekunyela) or copulating (ndekuponona). Words
designating animals, or parts of their body are hurled at people (imbwa = dog, kapoli =
wild pig, etc). References to bestiality are also used (walaala ne mbwa = you sleep
with dogs, etc). Proverbs can also be used.
Curses (ukulapisha = to curse; ukukonkomwena ifilai = prophecy of a calamity
to come by a possessed person).
Lesa akulye; Mulenga akulye; Nkalamo ikulye = God, Mulenga (great
spirit), Lion () will eat you, ie kill you.
Nkuba ikuponene = may lightning strike you.
Ngoshe ikupole = may the green mamba bite you.
Uli nkulungwe, walyo mwaka umo = you are a male reed buck, and will eat it
this year, ie you will die soon.
Shimpa minwe panshi, umone nga nailingana = put your finger on the ground
once. See if you are equal, ie offer sympathy to a
bereaved person, see if you are not bereaved yourself.
Kuti waenda mu mupya, mu mulemfwe tawakendemo = you may walk in a
burned patch of bush, ie you will get into trouble.
You will not walk again on the fresh green grass.
Ukutipwila = to put a curse on one.
Kanshi nga nafwa. Nelyo nkalamo shindye mu mpanga. Lesa andye.
Mulenga andye. = Even if I die. Even if Lions eat me in the bush. Let God
eat (kill) me. Let Mulenga (the great spirit) eat me.

2.2.C. EVIL OMEN

1. People who bring bad luck (Ishamo):
Bampundu = twins
Bacinkula = children whose upper teeth appear first.

Bacimpu = children born before their mothers first menstruation.

Amatetesha = children too weak to live through precipitous marriage
of young parents.
Ifitumbi fya bantu = corpses of people.
For all these confer chapters on marriage for further explanations
2. Things which bring bad luck (umupamba).
Ifibashi = leprosy. A person suffering from leprosy dies. He may
not be buried in a pit or a hole. He is interred on the
ground (ie covered with leaves and stones). Thus no
one touches the corpse.
Amenso yaletika, nga panshi ya fikumbi ninshi kulosha, kulila muntu
ufwile. Nga ni pa mulu; kumona fintu fisuma. If your
eye is twitching, harm will befall someone. If it is
downwards it means mourning and weeping for the
dead. If it is upwards, then it is a good sign.
Amasombwe (large praying mantis) akutola mupamba = to meet
with evil omen; umupamba = evil omen.
Fukefuke (mpesa) = ant-lion, ant-eater. Nga wamona fukefuke pali
ulefwa = if you meet an ant-eater, you will die.
Fulwe (tortoise): Nga wamona fulwe ulusuba pali nga ulefwa = If
you meet a tortoise in the dry season, you will die.
Citula mfwa (a caterpillar), if seen during the dry season it is a presage
of death.
Ukushiko muntu (to bury a man). Nga uli mulumendo, wasanga
baleshika umuntu, ninshi mupamba, no lwendo lwafuba,
kano waya nabo ku mushi, walala. Bakupela na kantu
aka kumubutusha pa mubili. = If you are a young man
and you meet with a burial, then it is a bad omen,
postpone the trip. First you must go with them to the
village, rest, and they give you something to daub on the
body.
2.2.D. APPENDIX: More Practices and Omens
Amawa. Umuntu nga talimisha filyo, ninshi afwaya tususu, e mawa = if a
man does not cultivate much food, then he will hire small bats. These are mawa,
which he sends to everybodys garden, to take their food, and carry it to his own
garden. People say: He is a sorcerer. (Abantu abati: Muloshi.)
Ukukumanya nsoka ne fiswango mu nshila: mupamba. = To meet a snake
and a wild beast on the road is a bad omen.
The birds, kankolekole (plover), a sign of mortality; Cikwekwe (roller
bird) a bird which curses passers-by.

CHAPTER TWO
RELIGION IN SOCIAL LIFE
1. TO BUILD A NEW VILLAGE (UKUSOKOLA UMUSHI)
a) Imfumu aiti: Kuno mwafula muno icifwafwa bapendula. Apala ulupao:
Inkota bumi umulume wa nama, te bumi. Ulucelo baya ku kusowa. Cibinda
alalisha mutole wa kucebula abamasumbu. Bateya amasumbu, bakupa. Bati
bamone imisowele ifyo basowele ne mipaile ifyo baipaya. Basumina.
Bashimpa icishipa pa mpongolo, babula ipindo bapindika pa bwingililo pa
mwinshi wa mpongolo. Impongolo bashila ku kabanga, baleti ku ncenje.
Mwinemushi e wabangilila ukushimpa icishipa. Balalya, balanwa. Batulika
mwisamba lya mpongolo baitila amashi. Mwinemushi akule nganda yakwe,
elyo batetela imfumu ifilu, bamukulile nganda. Abantu bonse basakatuka mu
kukule nganda shabo. Tamuli cupo iyoo. Mwinemushi e watampa ukutomba
umukashi. Tabasokola mu mweshi wa kutumpu pantu kutumpu mweshi ubi wa
malwele, wa fikuko, wa finkunka. Mumweshi wa malwele tababeya,
abanakashi bapyanga icito (mito) bashimyo mulilo, baposa icito ku masamba,
baitilila pamo, bapoma na kasanga abati: Ho, ho.
(** The chief says: there are very many deaths. They cast lots to
discover the cause as he makes a small offering to the spirits in order to have a
successful hunt saying: To kill a female is life. To kill a male is not life.
Early in the morning they go to hunt. The person in charge blows the reed
whistle to announce the signal to fetch the hunting nets. They set the nets,
make a battue. When they have seen what they hunted and what they killed
they agree to the verdict. They bury (literally: fix in the ground) the protecting
charm at the entrance of the village. They take a horn (ipindo) and put it
crosswise at the entrance of the foundation place. (A naked child must prepare
this ceremony. He must cut a water melon with an axe using only one arm. He
then fixes the first stake in the ground, and this must be used as the site of the
chiefs house. ** a note in the French text not in the Bemba text). The place
of the foundation is drawn up in a line facing east, on the east side of the
village. It is the headman who must begin to fix in foundations. Then they eat
and drink. They pour the dregs of the beer at the side of the foundations. The
headman begins to build his own house and people cut poles for him and help
him build his house. All the people hasten to build their houses. The marriage
act may not be performed at this time. The headman is the person who will
begin sexual relations with his wife. Villages are not founded in the mweshi
wa kutumpu (March / April) because this month is the time of illness,
pestilence and plagues. In this moth people do not cut their hair, women
extinguish fires, sweep up ashes in all houses, throw the ashes to the west,
altogether, shouting derisively: Ho, ho.)
b) Icishipa (ukushilika umushi) to set a taboo against a wild beast. (** This is
not the foundation charm mentioned above, but a special one to protect the
village against wild beast.)

Small holes resembling a hut are dug in the ground. They put in
remedies and horn then they put a small anthill (ifwasa) on top. The horn has
been used to mark out (ukukoma, ukushinga) all the trees around the village to
indicate that this is a sacred enclosure. It is to preserve the village from lions,
leopards, hyenas (ukushilika umushi ku nkalamo, imbwili, cimbwi). Taboos: It
is forbidden to bring firewood to the village which is tied with bark strips (kano
ku mwando wapyata) but only with plaited rope. This would destroy the
efficiency of the remedies (ukushilula) placed in the village at its foundation.
This interdiction does not apply to strangers (umweni tona mushikulo).
c) Icifumbo: These are trees planted in the village in order that it may develop
through numerous births. These trees are: kushimpa kaumbu (to plant
kaumbu), kubyala imbuto sha matete (to sow seeds of reeds).
d) Coni: This is a gourd prepared by the senior shinganga into which is put the
remedy liba (a charm to remove effects of a rash oath).
1. When a person makes an oath in the village eg nshakese kuno, cumi ca
Lesa (I shall not come here, in truth). But if later on he repents, then a
child must present him with the coni filled with water. The guilty one
must wash his face and disclaim his oath (ukulapulula).
2. When a person becomes epileptic his face is washed with the water from
the coni.
3. When a hunter removes the skin of a lion or a leopard, he must purify
himself with his coni.
2. DIFFERENT MEDICINES
For the defense of a case (ukulubulula) before the chief Africans chew the
leaves of the muntufita tree.
Kabembele-kanimika plants are used by chiefs to make them fat, for a chief
should be corpulent.
Mulwalwalwa (safe guard): People should not put a joist of this magnificent
tree in their huts, otherwise there would be quarrels in the household.
Mupapa (wa ngulu shalwilwa). A prophetess possessed by a chiefs spirit
must chew the roots and bark of this tree.
Mululu is a sacred tree.
Mukunyu is a sacred tree.
Mutanda-mpashi is a plant which keeps the red ants away from peoples
houses.
Mwemwe; ukupanda mwemwe kuti abula nkatu sha bantu, na po basose
milandu, no mushishi wa mfumu, na lwena mulila ngwena: abilila mu
kasalu lunshi talaima, alefwala pa kuboko. Nelyo mulandu wakwe
wakosa, kuti wanaka. Baleti bamulolesha balamuseka e kupanda
mwemwe (nkatusha kulubulula). (** The medicine mwemwe

(cheerfulness) is prepared by taking dust from the footmarks of people,

a hair of the chiefs head, and the sweet plant called lwena mulila
ngwena, they sew these in a cloth in early morning (lunshi talaima =
before flies rise), and wear it on the arm. Even if the case is serious it
will become less grave. Whenever they look at him they begin to
laugh. This is to prepare the charm mwemwe (I shall relax in the
settling of the case).
3. SPIRITS OF THE VILLAGE
Mulenga (he who causes) see above: Religion in general .
Namukonda (wife of the spirit kampinda, the hunters spirit).
Musole wa mpanga (messenger of the bush).
Lusakula masonde (he who rids the bush of dangerous animals).
4. ILILAMFYA (The War Fetish)
This is a horn prepared by a society called the Bacamanga we lamfya (** the
bearers of the ilamfya in an expedition). It was plunged into the first victim killed in
war. Each chief had his own horn (lilamfya). On the occasion of the feasts of the first
moon, the amalamfya were displayed in the public place.
Here is a version: When sons of a king went to war (ukubuta) the bacamanga
made war fetishes (amalamfya) for them. Facing the enemy camp, the first enemy
arrow is picked up and immediately marked by the bacamanga. The first enemy to be
captured is taken to the chief, and his eye is pierced with this arrow (bamutunga
umufwi mu linso). Then the bacamanga take a duikers horn and turn it in the socket
of the eye. The bacamanga blow the bloody horn in the direction of the enemys
camp and then put it on a reed (basamika pa lwela). At one end of the horn a small
bell is hung, and at the thick side a civet cats skin (nshimba). In the direction towards
which the horn points (ukushininda) a large number of the enemy will die. The horn is
carefully guarded. At sunset, it is brought near the river. A young undeveloped girl
must lie near it, and then jump over it. The reason for this practice is to give courage
to the soldiers (ukukana fwa mutombo = to refuse to become faint).
Another version: The true lilamfya would be the big horn of the impelembe
(Roan antelope). A small basket is fixed onto its big end. The basket is full with a
large number of small duiker horns, which have been plunged into the blood of the first
victim of the war. They contain remedies and charms (ifishimba) and different parts of
animals used in sorcery. Such ifishimba could be the brain of an enemy chief. In war
each chief carries his lilamfya on his shoulder.

CHAPTER THREE
RELIGION IN ECONOMIC LIFE
1. AGRICULTURE
The sowing: A charm called icibyalilo is used for the blessing of seeds. This
icibyalilo is a horn containing a stone, a dung-rolling beetle, a bone from a honey
badger, dust from a rubbish heap (icishala), millet and earth from a mole hill (ntumbi ya

mfuko). This horn is put in the gardens to ensure a good crop. Here is a version given
by Africans:
Imiti ni ngombeyanina no mufuba. Batwa fyonse, babulunganya, bashika mu
cipe ca male, bateeka na pakati ka bukula. Imiti imbi ni cinkofwa no mupila ne mishila.
Batwa, basankanya no mufuba. Ulucelo pa kutanda ubukula bateka amafwasa yatatu
pakati ka bukula, bafikina amale, batanda, bakikina amale ku cibyalilo, bashika
icibyalilo pa mafwasa, bashimpa. Bateeka no wandalama: mulungi, mulombwa, pa
bwingililo bwa bukula. E kushilika ubukula. Bafwaya akape ka kuposela amale.
Akape ka kuposelamo teti baliilemo, kano ilyo amale yamena. Batendeka no kutanda.
Baimba no lwimbo lwa kutanda. Amale ayashala teti balye.
(** The medicines are ground ivy, pig-iron and uncooked gruel. The pound
everything and make it into a round ball, and bury it in a small basket of millet. Then
they put it in the middle of their field. Other medicines are a kind of grass (a weed), a
piece of the rubber tree and roots. They pound these and mix them with a cold gruel
(** a medicine for purification). At the time of sowing millet in the field they fix three
small anthills into the ground early in the morning. They put some medicines at the
entrance of the field, namely mulungi and mulombwa. This is to drive away thieves
of all kinds. They take a small basket with which to sow millet. They may not eat out
of this basket until the millet has germinated. They begin to sow the millet and as they
do so they sing the song for sowing. Whatever millet remains, they may not eat, since
this is the icibyalilo. In the cavity made by the horn in the ground, they put the
medicine and the cold gruel mentioned above.)
The icibyalilo of the paramount chief is different. It is called cilimbulu (**
Cilimbulu was the wife of a Ngoni chief, who was killed by the Bemba during their
migration. Her skin is kept at Chitimukulus and is considered as the most powerful
charm (icishimba). This charm is added to the ordinary icibyalilo.) Another powerful
icibyalilo is lye ngombe (eat cow meat) (** or, ica walye ngombe.) It is a
powerful fetish (icilubi), which is used to draw food from other peoples gardens.
When used with the icibyalilo, anyone who steals food from the field dies. Here
Father Labrecque adds: lya kupaka mfumu nga yafwa. The right expression is ca
kupakishe mfumu nga yafwa = a thing used to honour the chief when he is dead. This
has nothing to do with the icibyalilo, but rather concerns the burial of Chitimukulu,
where cilimbulu is used. To all these icibyalilo people add a piece of
umungolomya tree in order to have plenty of ubwali (mush).
The harvest: Amale nga yapya, umwine cibyalilo kuti e waisa shilula ayo
basepa, e kukoma ubukula. Ku wa kushilula kuti batobela kuli malemba: e pa
kusumata bwali bupya (kabwali mu cinga). Pa kulyo bwali bwa kushilula baimba
ulwimbo. Kabili babula ututoshi twa kabwali, balashinga amale, baposa tumbi, elyo
balasepa.
(** When the millet is ripe the owner of the icibyalilo comes to open the field
for the harvest. He takes a bit of millet (they prepare a small mush), which he may eat
with beans. That is the tasting of the new bwali (a small much in a potsherd). While
he eats people sing a song. They make small balls of mush and smear them with millet.
They then throw them in all directions. Now they begin to reap the harvest.)

Storage (ukututila): When a basket is full it is emptied into the grain bin
(ubutala). On the floor of ubutala they had previously put the horn with the
icibyalilo, into which had been put a little bit of millet, mixed with leaves from the
mumpulumpumbi. On each occasion when a basketful is emptied in, the horn is put
on top of the heap. At the end the horn is put on the ceiling (pa masa, pa lucencemba).
Besides the icibyalilo there are other means of ensuring good crops and of
protecting them from predators.
Plants are used as medicines for good crops. A plant called mwilikano is put
in fields of sweet potato, so that a good crop will result. Some husks of the sausage
tree (umufungufungu) are put in pumpkin gardens in order to protect them against
children of evil omen. If young girls were to touch the pumpkins, the whole crop
would fail. If a plant called umusangati is put in a field of groundnuts, these will
multiply greatly. This is the ukulobolola imbalala.
Plants are also used as preventive medicines. A plant called kaluka-ndoshi
(he vomits sorcerers) protects gardens against wild pigs (ukushilika kapoli). Another
tree, impumba-mukona safeguards gardens against birds (ukushilika amalimino ku
fyuni). The leaves of this tree and a waxbill bird (kansolo-koto) are tied together in
one bundle and put in the garden. Another plant, nshinda-njili (I out do the warthog)
keeps away warthogs. Among other medicines used to keep away wild pigs are the
muntufya, munsokansoka, umupapi and mulukansoshi trees. Stalks of these
magical plants surround the garden, each stuck into the ground some distance apart.
To these are tied charms from the lion (ifishimba fya nkalamo). Remedies make of
roots from the umulebe and kabumba trees are crushed and mixed with bones from
a lion, leopard, wild pig etc. These remedies are put into small pieces of duiker-skin
(mpombo) and tied to pegs all around the garden in order to prevent any wild animal
to enter (ukushilika amakula). Should anyone tread on these remedies, the garden
would lose its immunity (ukushilula) from the wild beasts.
A charm called ulwambu is used to protect crops against thieves (ukwambila
abapupu). (** would anyone steal from the field he would become sick (ukulwala
icambu).)
At harvest time, if it is found that the ears of millet are empty, the shinganga
is called in to evoke the spirits (ukubuka ulubuko), so as to discover the sorcerer who
has emptied the ears of grain. This is called ukusomonona amale.
2. THE HUNT AND SOME FOOD GATHERING
(** In the following paragraphs, medicines which were merely listed in the
original have been grouped.)
Plants are also used for success in hunting.
For snaring animals, the snares are rubbed with leaves from the mulundenya
and mulelema trees, and also with a small rat (nsonto).

The teeth of dogs are rubbed with a plant called cifwangulube (death of wild
pigs), so that they may catch wild animals. They are also smeared with the citungulu
bulb (** to make them fierce). Their noses are rubbed with the kaombo-nyika so that
they may scent out animals better (ukusumbe nama).
In game pits (ubucinga) people put a plant called mwine kasanda (mosho wa
bwinga?). It is taboo for a hunter who has quarreled with his wife to catch animals in a
trap. When this plant is put at the bottom of the game pit, it will ward off any evil
consequences of violating this taboo. Other plants are also put into the game pit, in
order to attract animals. They are umusengele, lubuta and umulama tree.
A tree called icitapatapa brings good luck in hunting moles, and the lombela
tuber attracts them.
In order to force ifibengele or inswa (winged white ants) to come out, a
plant called kanteunteu is pulverized and put in a hole made at the bottom of the
anthill.
3. HUNTING THE DUIKER ANTELOPE (MPOMBO) WITH NETS
The medicines used are: umukololo plant, which is burned together with a
mouse and hung on one of the poles holding the net; umusokolobe wabuta which is
tied to the net together with an nkulumushi, a kind of lizard. They also rub the net
with closed eyes (ubushibete). The perfect medicine for catching duikers is the
mumpulumpumpi wa panshi, which is also rubbed on the nets, the bark cloth people
wear and between their toes.
4. CHICKENS AND PIGEONS
A thorny tree kananangwa cungankobwe safeguards chickens from birds of
prey. People take some of this plant and a piece of cloth which has fallen on the road,
and put them into the water trough. Any chicken which drinks this magical water will
be protected against kites and hawks.
Pieces of the umusangati tree are put into the chickens nest in order to
prevent hens from laying their eggs in the bush.
There are preparations to make the pigeons prolific. They become prolific
when umutanga is put into the pigeon house. Three other plants, akaselelele ka mu
ciborya (castor oil plant), akamyanshinge (a thorny creeper) and umushila wa
lunda (root from the sour pumpkin) are tied up together. A father of twins must build
the pigeon house. Having constructed the dovecot, he puts these three plants in it.
Then he throws grains of mulungi and kanteunteu plants into it. Finally a little
water trough is put into the dovecot, inside which they also put the following plants:
umupulampako and mpumbamukowa (parasitic plants) and umulunguti tree.

5. FISHING (IMITI YE SABI = FISH MEDICINES)

In order to attract fish, pieces from kananangwa, umufutu, umoobole trees
and fruits from the ulutanga and ulubombo are put in the water.
To ward off crocodiles, Africans put into their mouths some grains from the
wild banana tree (citoki) or a black seed called isolo.
6. JOURNEYS (INYENDO)
To protect themselves against lions, people carry a fly chaser made from the
tails of grazers like cows, buffalos, zebras, etc. (umupunga = fly chaser). It makes the
lion powerless (wa kupandilamo nkalamo). They also carry the horn of a big antelope,
containing umutamfumu (umulama), umulebe and mpulamupako plants mixed
with an icishimba. This icishimba is a piece of lion skin (icishimba ni nkalamo). All
these are sealed in the horn with wax.
To ward off the danger of being bewitched, on carries a shell containing a
charm (ubwanga bwa mubela). In the shell are umusokolobe, ilinkolobwe lya
mpanga, umulebe and a beetle called kafwabufi (** because of its habit of feigning
death when it is disturbed).
To prevent rain (ukushilike mfula) one also prepares a charm made of leaves of
mpasa, cibangalume, ubule bwa mulemfwe (blades of millet), katumbi and
kashilashila. These leaves are laid on top of ones luggage, then an axe is thrust into
the ground. Would these same leaves be thrown into the river, it would rain. Other
plants are tied to the end of the spear, but the bearer of the spear may not wash his
hands. To do so would cause rain.
Other measures of preventing rain are: buukolo bwa mfula charm;
umulombwa roots bound together with a swallows feather, which has been passed
through a flame and daubed in inkula (a red powder from the mukula tree); stalks of
the blondebonde tied to a spear; a centipede (ciyongoli).
When it thunders it is forbidden to gather the mukolwe plant. To do so
would attract lightning.
7. SICKNESS AND DEATH
(**Here is a short list of magical medicines (imiti).)
Chibangalume a plant used to rub on the breasts of women who lose all their
children.

Kafunde a plant used to prevent bad dreams.

Kafula mume a plant used to cure children from fear.
Namilimo unono a plant used to preserve children from accidents.
Kampalapala a plant to safeguard against any illness.
Kaponda bakashana to preserve childbirth from illness.
Mukolobondo used to prevent grudges.
Umukusao which is used in time of epidemics.
Mulalusha remedy against bad dreams.
Umulebe a plant mixed with muti and smeared on huts in time of epidemics.
Mulila ngwena prevents children from weeping.
Mupetwa dupe and Musokolobe wafita are remedies against dizziness.
Musongwa a person going abroad makes an amulet with this plant and it will
protect him from syphilis and elephantiasis.
In time of epidemics other plants than those mentioned above are used:
mushimunwanongo, umutebetebe, umusafwa, mulungi, mulunguti wa mutima
wa culu, mulemfya and mufito. All these plants are used in the form of aspersion.
The nashinganga (a women nganga) together with all the villagers goes to the
crossroads on the east side of the village. There she sprinkles all the people with this
magical water. The people, who have brought all the ashes from their fireplaces,
scatter these, while altogether, they shout: Ho ho ho. On their return to the village,
they make a new fire. The aim is to chase away illness and death.
Mumpombwe wa panshi is also used to drive away death (wa mafwa =
swelling of body).
Musamba-mfwa (a tree with red sap) is used in all ceremonies regarding
death, etc, etc.

CHAPTER FOUR
RELIGION IN FAMILY LIFE
1. FROM INFANCY TO BETHROTHAL
Amasansa or imitundu: these are little huts built by children outside the
village, near a river, usually in a nyika (open marshy place along rivers). Little boys
and girls gather together there. They play husband and wife, imitating the various
roles of the village. (** Here follows a list of expressions which we omit.)
Ukukusha mubili (to enlarge the body): Young girls from the age of ten
onwards (amabele nga yali yanono = when breasts are small) practice ukukusha
mubili. This consists in enlarging the labia majora. Its aim is to enable girls (** who
formerly were married very young) to have normal sexual relations (** here follows a
description of the practice, which we omit). This practice of enlarging the genital
organs continues until the day of marriage.
Umucinshi (politeness): This practice of ukukusha mubili is an honour
among Bemba girls and women. Any young girl who has not followed it would be an
object of mockery to her companions. She might even be deserted by them. The
terms of mockery are: icipumbu a fool; ashala mushili she remains virgin soil;
ashala kwipo she remains untaught (not initiated); ashala munkama ya babiye she
remains a secret for her friends; ashala mu mulombo she remains (is) like a tree
growing alone on an anthill; ni cipelelo (ukupelela = to reach the end = no future).
Indeed, a suitor will first make sure that his future bride has enlarged her body
(nga mubili wakwe wakula). If he is satisfied, he says of his fiance: She is very
respectful. She honors me very much. (Aba no mucinshi sana, ancindika nganshi). If
she has not done it, the young man will reject her, saying: She has no respect, she is a
cipelelo. (Taba na mucinshi. Ni cipelelo.) Normally the practice of ukukusho

mubili will cease with marriage, but certain young widows carry on the practice in
order to attract a husband.
The authority for this custom is steeped into the customs of the people.
Parents, maternal uncles, grandmothers, suitors, all insist that a young girl must do the
ukukusha mubili. Without it, she would be condemned to a life of celibacy.
As for boys there is no such custom.
Capu (kwapula umwana): Every girl around 12 years of age who is near to
beginning her first period must carefully avoid all dangerous relationships with young
men. Should she have carnal relations with a young man (and this is not infrequent),
she would oppose the ancient ancestral law of capu. She would become
contaminated in such a way that all children put under her care would become sick
(ukwapula umwana). To purify herself, such a young girl would take a concoction
from the roots of mutumbwisha or kampande and rub it on her body with leaves
from the same plants.
Ubwanga bwa mubela (an anti-spell charm): This remedy is given to any
young man who wishes to become engaged to a girl. Its aim is to prevent him from
becoming bewitched by any other young man who also seeks the hand of the young
woman in marriage (e maka ya kwishisha pa kuti bamuloa). Such remedies are:
Umusokolobewafita (a root), Ilinkolobwe lya mu mpansa (a root), Umubela (a
tree), and Mafwa-bufi (a beetle).
Ukufwaya umwaume (She who wants a husband): The young woman who
wants to find a husband who is to her liking wears a girdle of amulets (mpimpi) and
beads (ubulungu) round her waist.
2. CEREMONIES FOR ENGAGEMENT AND MARRIAGE
2.A. BETROTHAL (UKUKOBEKWA, UKUKOBEKELWA, UKUKOBEKA)
The betrothal usually takes place before the girl has reached puberty around the
age of ten to twelve. (Amabele tayakula = the breasts have not yet grown fully) The
young man will normally seek engagement when he is seventeen or eighteen years old.
The consent: The young mans relatives appoint an intermediary Shibukombe
(a man) (** or nabukombe, a woman), who does not belong to the clan of those who
wish to be betrothed. The young man (to be betrothed) stays with his relatives, while
the young girl remains with her mother. The fianc purchases his bride with a present
(ukuumana impango, insalamu), which consists of a bracelet of copper or ivory
(insambo, ikosa) or of beads (ubulungu). The parents tell the intermediary that their
son is now grown up and that he wants to marry such and such a girl. They add that
they are known to each other (ukwishibana). The intermediary now goes to the
relatives of the girl and explains to them the reason for his errand. They in turn call all
the relatives together to seek their advice. The reason for getting them involved in the
consent is that later on if trouble arises, they will not say: We were not present at the

consent to the engagement. For we would have refused to have anything to do with
that young man. (Pakuti babafweko ukusumina uyu mwaume, bekasosa limbi,
ifikansa nga fyaisa, abati: Ifwe tatwaliko, nga twalikene umwaume.) When the
matter of betrothal has been explained to everyone, and their consent given, they tell
the intermediary: Good, let him come and marry. We agree. (Cisuma, naese ope,
natutemwa.) Note that the young girl in question is not consulted at all with regard to
her betrothal. The intermediary now returns to the young mans relatives and conveys
the decision to them. (abeba nomo ele umfwila umulandu.) These relatives now tell
the young man to take some bark cloth and offer it as a gift.
Ifilundu = bark cloth: The young mans father has previously made two cloths
from the bark of trees. These he gives to the intermediary with the object of sealing
the contract of engagement. He puts these cloths in a basket together with beads and
other gifts and brings them to the fiancs relatives. This concludes the engagement
arrangements. The relatives of the girls father receives one bark-cloth and the
maternal uncle (nalume) the other.
Bethrothal meal at the bridegrooms house ukutebeta: A chicken is killed by
the relatives of the young man and a huge quantity of food (icibwali) is prepared. This
is ukushikula, ie the occasion when other gifts are presented. Those invited place
their gifts on the ubwali, a bracelet, beads, ornaments or even a chicken. All food is
always covered with a basket as a mark of respect (bakupikapo = they cover it). Little
baskets of food are gathered together in the hut. The fiancs parents, according to
protocol, invite the intermediary to choose his basket well. To his great surprise and
satisfaction, he finds there some little presents, his reward for services rendered (no
tuntu tonse tulya bashikwile pa bwali, fyakwe).
Period between betrothal and marriage ukukuba: The fianc often visits the
hut of her future husband to sweep the floor, light the fire, carry water there, to
whitewash the walls, etc, etc. By this means the future husband gets to know the
devotedness and savoir-faire (kupetama = to be docile, ukucincila = to be active) of his
future wife. Occasionally she spends the night with her fianc. Her parents say: Let
us give our daughter to him lest he throws his eyes on another girl. When the girl is
near her first menstruation, the young man takes up residence in the village of his inlaws (shifyala). There, he works for his father-in-law besides rendering him various
services. His mush (ubwali) and food is always covered when given to him. This is
required by custom. One would never give him ubwali which was not covered with a
little basket until the day on which the Shibukombe (intermediary) is invited to
uncover the ubwali of the wedding and to wash the hands (ukusambikisha) of the
fianc. Only then will shame cease (elyo nsoni shapwa).
On the other hand, when the girls parents notice that their daughters
menstruations are near, they no longer allow her to stay with her fianc. They say:
She may no longer have marital relations, because should she happen to become
pregnant before her first menstruation, great misfortune would befall her (see cimpu
in chapter 4, illnesses in the family).
2.B. INITIATION OF GIRLS UKUWA CISUNGU

a) In the bush as soon as the girl notices her first menstruation, she runs into
the bush to hide. Female relatives, on being informed, gather around her
(bamukunsha). Breaking branches of trees to signify their happiness, they
begin to dance and sing: We went to announce the lions in the gardens so
the craftsman does not get lost. (Twaile sobela inkalamo ya mabala,
cibinda taluba.) Now, they all proceed to the fiancs house, throwing their
branches on the roof while singing: Nshimba, nshimba etc (civet cat).
This action informs the young man that his future wife is now nubile. From
this moment onwards, he is called Shicisungu (husband of the nubile girl)
while she is called Nacisungu (the nubile bride). The women return to the
Nacisungu who is still in the bush. They make her undergo various tests:
they make her jump over a faggot of wood; make her drink from a jug of
water which is filled with tadpoles, etc. This done, the girl is carried back
to the village on the shoulders of a woman. The girls father is now obliged
to go and live in another village as the taboo of in-laws (ameko) comes
between him and his daughter. The young girl now goes to live with her
mother in complete seclusion for a whole month (ukusolwesha). This is the
ukwingisha icisungu (strictly speaking, it is the protection of her
menstruation, or nobility). From now on, the mother may no longer was or
bathe, while the young girl may not cut her hair (ukubea).
b) Menstruation dances ukucinda cisungu: This ceremony is also called
ukufumye cisungu (take away cisungu). It is a form of public honour
given to the girl. Normally, it takes place in June or July when there is
plenty of food and beer. The first step for the parents of the girl is to invite
Macimbusa (the lady who directs the ceremonies) to perform these duties.
They give her a present (ulusomo = the fees). From the moment that
people start the dance to honour the girl, the hut is no longer swept, and
the ashes (imito) from the fire are thrown on the mpunda (the space
between the door and the fireside to the left of the entrance). The
Nakalamba (assistant to the Nacimbusa) is now called in, and her duties
consist in calling together other women to dance, sing and beat the drums.
She is unshaven and she sprinkles herself all over with white dust (abuta
tutu = completely white). In calling her companions together, she says:
Mothers, help me with the work. (Bamayo ngafweniko umulimo.) They
now assemble together in the hut. The Nacimbusa gives the signal for the
singing and dancing to begin. This begins to the accompaniment of drums.
Dressed in the skin of a civet cat and wearing a headdress of feathers, the
Nacimbusa stands, sings and dances in the middle of the group. She
sings: Cimbusa, cikulu cenda ne ngala. (Midwife you are great, you
walk about in feathers.) There is a variety of songs to this dance, some
innocent and praiseworthy, others ambiguous or course. Such dancing
continues throughout an entire month, and food is brought daily to all those
who participate in the dancing.
c) Beer ubwalwa bwa cisungu beer for the initiation ceremonies. When
the month of the initiation ceremonies has come to an end, huge quantities
of beer which have previously been brewed are brought to the mother of
the fianc. Early in the morning, the women gather together in the girls
hut in order to perform the imbusa ceremonies. (These imbusa are clay

models used to illustrate the instructions given by the Nacimbusa.) The

women fall into two groups: those who have to go and find impemba
(white clay), and those who have to collect fire-wood (inkuni).
d) The Imbusa ceremonies:
Preparations in the bush: Women go and cut mienga (flexible
branches from trees). They fashion an anthill with clay concealing within it
a handful of masuku leaves. This anthill is supported by a pedestal, and is
carried to the village by two women, who sing: In our journey we make a
special faggot of firewood for the Nacisungu. (Mu lwendo lulya lwine
batebela nacisungu icifinga ca nkuni.) Some children who have been
anointed with nkula by the Nakalamba carry the faggots of wood. As
they enter the village, they sing in unison: Nshimba mulya ya ngombe.
Ngombe isho we ulele, ngombe isho kafula koca. Civet, civet, you who
eats cow meat, see these cows, you are lying down, see these cows, you
blacksmith, the burner.
At the village: Having arrived at the village, all put their white clay and
faggots of wood in the house. With the clay a new hearth for the marriage
feast will be made. It is on this hearth lit with a new fire, that the wellknown nuptial dish is prepared, the namushinwa, which is made up of
beans, sorghum, chick peas, lentils, peanuts, peas, pumpkins and castor oil.
At this time all sing: Natukalaba Babisa, baleko kukalaba. (We have
smeared the Bisa, they have stopped smearing.)
Imbusa: These are the symbols of marriage. Women crush the clay,
mix it with charcoal and red nkula die. The mixture is them left near the
hearth to dry a little. The imbusa are made with this mixture of clay. The
Nacimbusa brings two baskets filled with mbusa especially made with
baked earth. These mbusa were made earlier and are used only for the
initiation ceremonies. It should be noted here that the Nacimbusa is a
kind of priestess who has hereditary functions to perform, those of
officiating at the marriage ceremonies. The mbusa are used as
matrimonial symbols, each one has a different pattern or shape. Some are
dolls where the different sexes are made evident; others are little pots
whose sides are covered with grooves or mounds; others are likeness of the
snake, other animals etc. When she has completed the ceremonies, the
Nacimbusa gathers her mbusa together. She always hides her mbusa
with care, either in the bush, or in a river bed covered with stones. When
she dies, her mbusa are buried with her. Here are the names of some
mbusa: cilwe, cimundu, ciminge-posamasamba, cilyobea-noma, mwansacipepe, mulume wa ngala, cilombo, mangalawila, mwikala-cishasha,
wingemininoutepauka.
The mbusa ceremonies: The Nacimbusa brings in a huge imbusa
which has tow paws shaped in the form of a funnel at the top. This is the
cimundu. On the top of this mbusa she fixes flexible branches of the
mwenge tree. Then, with the clay mentioned above, she fashions the
likeness of an animal eg a lion: with tufts of grass she makes a likeness of
the mane, with pumpkin seeds the eyes, with beans the teeth. When she has

finished these preparations two women approach roaring like a lion and
blowing into the resonant mbusa. The significance of these actions is to
instruct the future husband in his duties. Iwe nga wakalalekesha.
Mukashi, waya kwifwe, ukasumwa ne nkalamo (if you abandon your wife,
when you go to the river, you will be attacked by a lion).
N.B. These matrimonial symbols are not immoral, rather the aim is to
instruct the future couple in their duties, to encourage them to face up to
the dangers they will meet in the bush, and to prompt them to accept the
hardships, trouble and heavy work to which they will be subjected.
Inkuni (firewood): During the day, women have told the future
husband to go into the bush to collect firewood. In his bundle of firewood
(icifinga) he ties a packet (icifunda) in which there is a living rat (kapanga
mutuntulu). This is taken as a sign to everyone that the young girl has
uttered no evil with regard to her future husband. While the above is being
done, the imbusa ceremonies come to an end.
The bridegroom is invited to the house. Once again, singing, dancing
and beating the drums begin. The women now call the bridegroom in this
manner: Kalombo, musha, uko wile teba, taulabwela (young man, you
slave, where did you go to gather firewood. You have not returned yet).
The bridegroom now presents himself at the hut carrying his bundle of
firewood on his back, accompanied by his sister. The bundle of wood is
put down and untied while they dance to honour his sister. The
Nakalamba now takes two chickens, giving one to the Nacimbusa and
the other to the bride. The each sit down on their chicken to smother it
(the chickens are already dead). They then pluck and cook them.
The bow and arrows: The fianc leaves the house in order to invite his
relatives to come and witness the ceremony which he has to perform. They
come, bringing a bow and arrows. Arriving at the porch, those in front
intone the following song: Mushe inama yandi: taibula mwine uwa lasa
(do not take my game meat. It is not without an owner who has wounded
it). All enter. The fianc stands in the middle of the hut with outstretched
arrow. He must strike a special imbusa fixed on the wall, above the place
where his future wife is seated. Should he be successful in striking the
imbusa, shouts of joy result: Here is a true husband. The young girl will
have a worthy husband etc. But, should he fail to pierce the imbusa, the
unfortunate young man will be subjected to a storm of abuse. Cimbi
cikesa (there will be discord in their marriage). The young man will now
be subjected to other tests in order to show that his lack of success was due
to an evil spell.
Mwansa-cembe a feather headdress: Should the young man succeed in
piercing the imbusa, the women now take another imbusa on which
feathers (ngala) are fixed. They begin to do up the fiances hair while
singing: Wamona Mwansa-cembe, mulume wa ngala aisa (you have seen
the fish eagle Mwansa, he is a husband with a feather headdress). This is

intended to signify to the young man that if he makes his wife suffer, he will
suffer also.
Cinungi (porcupine): This is an imbusa covered with thorns. It is a
facsimile of the porcupine. This imbusa is hung from the young girls
neck. Stooping down she must make it balance from right to left while
singing: Cinungi, posa matamba. Twaililwa kwi sano (Porcupine, throw
away the thorns. We are kept overnight at the chiefs palace). The aim of
this instruction is to find out if the young woman will have respect for her
Nacimbusa. (** posa matamba also means: get rid of your bad habits.)
Nsensengwe: a river tree whose fruit causes itching. The women
knead this fruit and rub it on the fiances arms with a little bush. From this
moment the girl ceases to be a young girl (umukashana) and is now a
woman (umukalamba).
Icitenge (the big roof): This is a transversal pole fixed to the roof inside
the hut. The young man is hung up on it, and there he remains (alapelela =
swinging) while the women sing: Lelo, atema pa mutenge (Today, he
cuts down trees on the roof).
Imipeto (hoops): Women carrying hoops surround the fianc. He
takes some of these hoops which he revolves round his fiance while the
women sing: Mulangile alole (show her so that she sees). The fianc
now returns to his hut. The fiance remains in her home to undergo further
instructions. Last of all, she jumps over the imbusa to the accompaniment
of shouts of encouragement from the onlookers.
2.C. MARRIAGE
1. The immediate preparations for marriage.
Instructions: The young girl is instructed on things regarding marriage
(ukufunda cisungu). Some women gather within the house while others
remain outside beating the drums. This is done to prevent prying ears from
hearing the instructions. Both Nacimbusa and Nakalamba interrogate
the girl regarding certain matters concerning menstruation etc. Her replies
to the questions must be honest and confessed without dissimulation. To
lie on such an occasion would be fatal for the young girl. Then the women
give the fiance all the advice which she will need.
Ubwalwa (beer): At the conclusion of this secret meeting everyone is
invited to drink beer, relatives, neighbors and friends. Drinking and
dancing continues throughout the whole night.
Ukoowa (bathing): The women take the fiance to the river early in the
morning. They carry some imbusa in their hands and sing: Naya ku
kwabika inkwa, mailo kusala kuli ko (I am going to put the bark in the
water. Tomorrow will be the day for choosing). On arrival at the river,
they put the fiance in the middle of the current. There she stays shivering

with cold until the moment the sun begins to rise. She is then taken from
the river by the women and made to do her ablutions. They plait bracelets
of grass around her wrists and ankles while singing: Your husband will
give you bracelets like this. Then they make a tuft of grass shaped like the
roof top of a house (insonshi). They put it on her head pouring water on
the top saying Euma (may she not become dry).
Imito (ashes): On their return to the house they find it swept and
decorated. The Nakalamba has swept away all the ashes which had
accumulated during the menstruation ceremonies. They were thrown down
at the base of a mufungo tree, a tree which bears tasty fruit, in hope that the
marriage of this young couple may turn out to be successful (ukunakilila).
Two baskets full of bark cloth (ifilundu) are now brought, the present of
the fianc. They anoint the fiance from head to foot with castor oil until it
is streaming down her body, and finish by dressing her in all the bark cloths
given to her as presents. A little girl, sister or cousin of the bride, is also
anointed with oil and dressed in ifilundu. She is the page for the wedding
ceremony (nshindishi).
Amashikulo (gifts): The bride, decked out in all her finery, emerges
from the hut accompanied with her escort of singing women: Waleleka
mayo, waemba, waemba mune (friend, you are beautiful, you are elegant).
The women put her on a mat already laid in the middle of the square. The
fianc together with his friends comes to present their gifts. After this
ceremony the bride returns to her hut. The Nacimbusa receives the
recompense from all her instructions (ifimale = a great quantity of food).
She also claims all the ifilundu which the fiance has laid aside. One of
these she will give to the Nakalamba. The fianc will be obliged to give
two other bark cloths to his bride. The fiance now returns to her mothers
house where she will stay till the wedding day (ubwinga).
2. The marriage (ubwinga).
Impango (ulupango (sing.) = bride wealth): From the marriage
ceremony itself other gifts have to be made. The Shibukombe (the
intermediary) is called by the bridegrooms relatives who tell him: Take
these presents in our name and offer them to the parents of the bride. This
commission is put into execution immediately. The girls father says:
From this moment, the contract is completed. My daughter can now be
the spouse of this young man. Beer, ubwali and chickens are brought.
When all preparations are made (ukupekanya), the father of the girl tells the
Shibukombe: Tell my son-in-law (shifyala) to tell his mother that the
marriage contract is now completed. On the same evening the Nasenge
(paternal aunt) of the girl is invited to the house.
At the home of the fianc: In the evening the Nasenge takes her
niece, the fiance, carries her on her back (amupapa), and brings her to the
hut of her future husband saying to him: Kakula umushingo, usendame
nankwe (untie her girdle, sleep with her) etc. She leaves the hut, but
remains nearby.

Instructions: The bridegroom emerges from the house to receive some

last minute instructions from some of his relatives. After this short
instructions the fianc is given two ivory ornaments with which to rub
himself throughout the night. He is warned not to scratch with his nails
(ukuifwena), but rather with the two ornaments (tupande), otherwise the
nails will grow out of all proportion and will fall off. At the same time his
whole body will wither away. He is also warned not to blow on the fire in
order to stir it up, otherwise his body will waste away. A woman will come
from time to time to tend the fire throughout the night.
Marital relations: Having been instructed, the bridegroom returns to
the house where his bride awaits him. They have sexual relations
(ukutombana). When success meets their efforts, the young man tosses
some hot embers from the fire outside. Since there are many people to
witness this yoo-yoos and cries of joy vent forth from the crowd when this
conventional sign is given. Abantu abengi baisa, bayaula kapundu,
balakakasha, balasempula, abati: Mulenaisha, muletemesha. (Many
people come together, shouting out their cries of joy in high-pitched voices,
jumping about and spinning around saying: Henceforth cook many
ubwali. Henceforth cut many trees in the forest. The marriage alliance
is now publicly known. But, if it should happen that they were
unsuccessful in their marriage relations, they young girl would rush out of
the hut. The marriage is then broken. The Nasenge would take the
young girl to her mother. The chickens collected for the feast are freed.
The crowd disperses and the young man is subjected to the mockery and
scorn of everyone. (** The ritual might be repeated weeks later elsewhere.)
Ukowa (to bathe): Marital relations having been performed with
success the young couple go to the river to wash in the early morning. The
young man goes upstream and the girl downstream. They return home
together to find the house swept, without a fire and whitewashed on the
place where they have slept.
Akanweno (nuptial pot): The Nasenge enters the hut bearing in her
hands a little clay pot. She make a new fire near the foot of the bed
(ntambalilo). Three little anthills (utumafwasa) are put there, round the fire
and the little pot will be placed on top of these. All three, husband, wife
and the aunt (nasenge) take the little pot filled with water, holding it with
two fingers on the brim and put it on the fire. When the water is warm, the
aunt puts a little in a basin and pours it on the fingers of the husband and
the wife (e kusambikisha = this is to wash the hands). This ceremony is the
ukuteka kanweno. Where this custom is not performed, the spouses will
die of consumption (ku koela, kukoesha).
Akabwali (breakfast): When the above actions are completed, the
Nasenge prepares breakfast. When the ubwali is cooked, she takes
small balls of mush (ulutoshi) and throws them into the mouths of the
husband and wife. They then finish the meal. During this time the little pot
remains on the hearth until the fire goes out. To have the little pot taken
away, the husband and wife have to give a piece of bark cloth (icilundu) to

the aunt who put it there. This done, she puts another pot in its place. This
is the akalongo (nuptial pot) of the young couple.
Akalongo or kapalwilo: When the aunt brings this little pot she says:
Eko muleuminako (it is with this that you will become fertile). On each
occasion when the young couple perform the marriage act, they put the
little pot with water together on the fire. Together they take it off when the
water is warm, then they wash each others hands.
Ukubea (to shave): After the breakfast ceremonies the Shibukombe
(intermediary) shaves the husbands hair while the Nacimbusa performs
the same act on the wife. After this they are anointed with oil before
proceeding to the important ceremony of amashikulo.
3. Amashikulo (presents and instructions):
During the ubwinga the parents lay a mat in a public place, put a stool
(icipuna) on it, and a nicely forged axe (isembe lya mbafi). Close to the
stool a little boy and a little girl sit down, touching the stool with their
hands. These are the nshindishi (children of honor, pages). Women
escort the bride (nabwinga) from her hut. Dressed in all her finery she sits
down. At the same time the bridegroom (shibwinga) comes out of his
house escorted by young men who hold him by the arms. He sits down on
a stool close to his bride between the two children. He takes and holds the
ceremonial axe in his hand. The Nacimbusa takes a bow which she puts
on the bridegrooms shoulders. Immediately cries of joy resound from all
present: Bashicisungu bafuma (the husband of the nubile girl has come
out). All the people gather together.
Recommendations: The brides father approaches bearing an arrow in
his hand. He speaks in a serious tone to his daughter: Daughter, I have
given you to this young man whom you know, and who is coming to you
this evening (ku-ilwa). It is bad to loiter this evening with others (kuililwa). Never cast your eyes on others. He then addresses his son-in-law:
Son-in-law, I know you. You have taken my daughters hand in
marriage. Then thrusting the arrow a little into his stomach, he cries:
You will kill anyone who sins with your wife. Such a person cannot
excuse himself. Chiefs hearing of such a matter will say that the man was a
wild pig who has died in wishing to steal others fields (tatusamba nweno
shibili). One does not wash ones hands in two nuptial pots (ie marriage is
one and indivisible).
The brides mother now addresses her daughter: Daughter, work
faithfully for your husband and obey him. And she says to her son-in-law:
Be careful with me and with your wife. Do not cast your eyes on other
women. A husband must watch the road where his wife has walked. If she
is slow in returning, he goes to meet her. That is a true sign of conjugal
love.
Other members of the family come to give their advice. Then, gifts are
presented by each one to the young couple. These little gifts are to

mashikulo. This done, the couple re-enters the house in order to partake
of the nuptial meal (ukusonsha).
Ukusonsha (feast): Within the hut a big feast is celebrated. A piece of
chicken gizzard (kanonde) is taken and applied (kushinshika) to the lips of
both spouses, and then thrown away. Another piece of the gizzard is taken
and dipped in a sauce. It is given to the bridegroom who tastes it, then
eats. The same ritual is followed by the bride. Two ubwali (dishes of
mush) have already been prepared by the mothers for the bride and
bridegroom. The mother of the bride puts her bwali in front of the
bridegroom while his mother puts her bwali in front of the bride as signs of
mutual affection. All present now begin to feast on the food with the
exception of the bride and bridegroom.
Throughout the day the young couple remain within their hut with their
heads covered with a cloth. This is done to honor their marriage. People
say: Bali mu mfundwe (they are under instruction).
Once the food is eaten the whole gathering of people begin to dance
and sing to the accompaniment of the drums. It continues all day as a sign
of respect for the parents of the young couple. Heaps of beans with their
pods are put on the ground. Those dancing pick them up and shell them
while dancing and singing. The whole day long the singing and dancing
continues. Here are a couple of songs:
Wankusha mutwe we cibanda,
Tamba amabele kuli nabwinga.
Cipande ca mwombo
Twaliololwele capota
Kwati litete lya pa bemba.
(You shame me, you devil
Look at the brides breasts:
A piece of mwombo tree (used to make bark cloth)
We had put the horn straight up
Like a reed in the lake.)
Musolwe kalomo kasobonta, shibwinga
Bwalwa bwa balondo pakuti bafwambile umono
Ninshi bwasasa
Ne nkoko shandi yateteele pa kwimita
Iline fumo
(Spouse, be quick to take possession of her (broad translation)
The beer of fishermen gets sour,
While they set their fishtraps.
And my hen cackles
On getting pregnant,
Indeed she is pregnant.)

That is how the nuptial feast of the Bemba come to an end.

3. APPENDIX
3.

A. AGE OF PUBERTY

At about the age of 13 or 14 the young Bemba girl reaches her first
mentruation.
Nuntundyo: Girls who have their first menstruations earlier, when they are
about 12 years old are called ntuntundyo. The saying has it
that such girls will not live a long life, that they will grow old
quickly, and that the children born of them will be sickly and
infirm (bafwiluluka = they hop about, ie are lame).
Cisofu: On the other hand, girls who only reach puberty around the age of 17
are called cisofu (long banana).
Cikwala: Those women who only reach puberty around 20 are considered to
be more or less sterile. They are called cikwala cabula mabele (a
woman whose breasts are unusually small). Such women
sometimes marry imbeciles (bapumbu).
3.B. MEDICINE FOR MENSTRUATION. IMITI YA CISUNGU.
When a young girl has experienced her first menstruation (awa cisungu) her
relatives prepare a remedy for her called muti wa kumukunsha (a charm given to a
girl who has just undergone her first period). This remedy may come from the bark of
the musuku or mubwilili tree or the nut from the mosho lubalala. On the very
spot where the girl had her first mentruation people take a potsherd, roast the above
plants in it, crush them, and rub a mixture over the whole body of the girl.
3.C. TABOOS
The young girl is subject to numerous taboos.
Kulamfye sabi (to spoil the fish): She may not go with others to fish. To do
so would cause the fish to avoid being caught in
eel baskets, nets and fishing baskets. Her going to
catch fish would cause the fish to keep their heads
downwards (ukukome sabi, lyatwala mutwe
panshi).
Ukutaba (to menstruate), ukufukama (to squat), ukukana ipika (not to
cook): During her period, the young girl may not approach
the fire, touch the fire or cook food. Should she dare break
this taboo, she would become lean and scraggy (ukulwala
mpembelela).

Imfu: She may not eat any food until the Nacimbusa (mistress of rites) has
given her the imfu remedy.
3.D. STEALING THE FIRST MENSTRUATION (UKWIBA ICISUNGU)
Unlawful intercourse before marriage: the young man guilty of sleeping with
an unmarried girl would incur the taboo londo. His body would wasteaway. The
remedy would be to soak the roots of the kaseketi and mubwilili plants in a small
pot (nongo) and then go and wash his whole body with it in the place where women
throw their rubbish (cishala).
3.E. MEDICINE TO CAUSE IMPOTENCY (UKUSHILIKA UMULUMENDO)
There is a remedy to make a young man who wishes to violate a woman
impotent. The young girls relatives crush mukolobondo roots, attach to the roots a
little piece of metal and two amulets (mpimpi), then hide the remedy in the hut. They
stick a needle through a cipumpu (a long pole attached to the bed to stop people
from falling out). So the young man becomes impotent. (E pa kufilwa ukulye cisungu
= so he is unable to eat cisungu.)
3.F. MEDICINE TO CURE IMPOTENCY (UKUSHILULA MULUMENDO)
The bitter roots of the kancete are crushed and put into the food (ubwali =
mush) and beer (ubwalwa). Amulete (impimpi) are also worn. Through eating this
remedy the young man again becomes potent. (Kuti alye cisungu = he eats the
cisungu).
3.G. INITIATION DANCE SONGS
1. Kalombo we musha, uko wile teba taulabwela,
Cipelelo walisansamuka, winyendela na mwana,
Cipelelo, waleele na kuli wiso, Citongo.
(Kalombo you slave, you are not yet back from fetching firewood,
Cipelelo, retarded girl, you are happy, do not walk with my child,
Cipelelo, retarded girl, you slept at your fathers place,
Citongo, stupid girl.)
2. Mwamumona muka Cipelelo,
E ulya eminine mu butala,
Fibolo filesela,
Mwamumona muka Cipelelo.
(Have you seen him, the husband of the Cipelelo,
He is the one over there in the grainbin,
He is impotent,
Have you seen him, Cipelelos husband?)
3. Yalila ku mitopoto,

Pali uko mundu asumine nama.

Nama ilabile ileele mu milando,
Wacenjeshe nyo.
(The lion roars in the green beans,
It appears it has caught some game.
The animal it has forgotten is between logs,
You have cheated.)
4. Leteni kafwi, mwise mumone lengwe,
Lengwe tamonwa libili.
(Bring the small arrow,
Come and see the mbusa lengwe.
Lengwe is not often visible.
5. Leteni akamwenge,
Twise tusanike akalobalo linso,
Cintu ku mushitu, yangu elele.
Kanga nkalamo kanonshe,
Nama yandi taibula mwine uwalasa.
(Bring a small torch,
Let us lighten the Akalobala-linso
It is a thing from the grove, Gosh it is lying down.
Let the lion-like thing suck,
My game is not in need of an owner who has wounded it.
6. Pa kana kebeli ndeya mu kuciluka,
Nelyo ndwele,
Cipapa ca mbale mulila.
(Over my firstborn I am going to jump,
Even if I am ill,
The skin of a wild cat, that is what you eat.)
7. Twakulakula twaleta, (umukashana bamuletela ku mulumendo)
Mwamona mwansa-cembe,
Mulume wa ngala aisa.
(We drag and drag, we bring her.
You see the fish eagle with feathers,
The husband with feathers is coming.)
Other songs, at the occasion of the initiation.
1. Mbula obe, nkukonka panuma, mayo,
Ndi obe ee, ee.

(Had I not been your child,

Had I not followed you behind,
Mother, I am yours, e e e
2. Njisansamwine na kapolyo (kanshisishi)
Ndi koni mulongwe e e e
(I had a good time with Kapolyo (the maid of honour)
I am a singing bird e e e)
3. Bushiku bwaca shimungomba,
Shinshimune lomo (umukashi alesunka wiba).
(It is dawn, hornbill (trumpeter)
Strike with your beak (the wife shakes her husband).)
4. Bena buko bwandi ni ba Nsamba (bakalipila shifyala)
Bali no tulimi tubili.
(My father-in-law is a water iguana,
He has a forked tongue.)
5. Mwifusha twebo (ie, mwibepesha amuti te mwaume, te mwanakashi)
Nshilalenga mu mutima-nsato.
(Do not speak too much (saying: they are impotent, sterile)
I have not yet used the heart of a python.)
6. Bakulu balile balecito tunshongongo (cupo)
lokoto nefwe.
(The elders went along copulating,
Let us do it also.)
7. Kuno tulelola (twaice), tulenya mu nkolo shabo amafi,
(Here the little children are awake,
they relieve themselves on the verandas.)
8. Kapele kasanya mapindo, ya I ya ee, yai ya ee.
(The small turtle is very prolific yaiee yaiee.)
9. Kwa Mwamba balendaisha bati:
Mufula cobobo nga ese. (Kufula bwino).
(From Mwamba I got the message:
Come here only if you are well dressed.)
10.

Yangu, akatoto kandi, bamayo,

Balakatasha, ee, bamayo.

(O my small navel, mummy,
They praise it, ee, mummy.)
11.

Mucitwale uko bacibashile

We cinkololobondo.
(Take that thing where it was carved,
You big long mortar.)

12.

Kayanda we ngoma ulalila,

Na luntuntwe ya-I-ya-ee.
(Small house, you drum, you make noise,
With the fertile woman.)

13. Ni mbusa na mbusa mushimwa,

Somone, waino ni mbusa na mbusa.
(Mushimwa is the emblem of emblems,
Come and see waino the emblem of emblems.)
14. Naya kutambe Ciluwe (cipumbu)
E ciluwe, e ciluwe, e ciluwe.
(I am going to watch the idiot,
the idiot, the idiot, the idiot.)
15. Bana kalya-mpemba, mayo,
fumo balambule (mbusa)
(Lady Kaolin-eater, my mother,
is the mbusa reward the womb.)
16. Mwana musengele mbusa fumo balambule,
Bana kalya-mpemba kuno natalika.
(My child, receive with pleasure the mbusa fumo balambule.
The lady Kaolin-eater has begun.)
17. Cinyongolo bwandabwanda (taishile ukucinda).
Cinyongolo, e cinyongolo bwandabwanda.
(How awkward is the big millipede
Big millipede, millipede, you do not know how to dance.)
18. Nafwa comba, ne mululu (mupumbu)
Few balaala pa mpapa sha mbale.

(O poor me, I am dead and stuck,

We, women, we sleep on wild cats skin.)
19. Nine mwine mwana Kasombo,
Ciwamishe, ciwamishe ne mwine.
(I am the owner of the child Kasombo,
Let it be my great luck and happiness.)
20.

Kancindemo, bane,
Ne mwine mwana nacisangile e.
(Let me join the dance, friends,
I the owner of the child. I found it e.)

21. Bamayo njisemo mo, wa kwisa uli munensu, e.

(Let me join, let me join, mother,
He who is coming is one of ours, ee.)
22. Wacindacinda fye (bamusuula)
Abene bakashi bali peshilya.
(How badly you dance!
The womens owners are on the other side of the river.)
23.

Wingeminino utepauka (kucinda, taba na maka)

Wingeminino utepauka.
(Do not remain standing as one who has no strength,
Do not remain standing as one who has no strength.)

24.

Naya, taata, tambala muceba,

Mutulangu, ee, muceba, mutulangu, ee, nabwela.
(I am going, father, creeping and looking around,
Small bells ringing, I look back, ee,
Small bells ringing, I come back.)

4. CONJUGAL LIFE
4. A. CONJUGAL RELATIONS
The matrimonial pot (akanweno, akanongo, akapalwilo, mampumfyanya)
We have already above mentioned the akanweno which is brought by the
paternal aunt (nasenge) to the hut of the young married couple. On each occasion

when the husband performs the marriage act with his true wife (kapundu = first wife,
umukashi wakwe = his wife) this little pot filled with water is placed on the fire in the
early morning. When the water is warm, husband and wife take the pot in their hands
together, withdraw it from the fire (ukwipula) and put it on the floor. Then they wash
each others hands. This action is called the ukuteka kalongo. Not to perform this
ritual washing would result in the couple dying of consumption (ukuondoloka,
ukukowela), and their children would also die (ukukowesha abana). After this
ceremony, the little pot is carefully hidden away to preserve it from prying eyes. To
break it would be to destroy the marriage. Should it be seen by another woman, this
person would become mad unless immunized by medicine (kano ayundapa), or else she
would become afflicted with dizziness (ulunshingwa lwamuola). A polygamist chief
performs this ceremony of the nongo ya kapalwilo only with his first wife (mukolo).
A woman in concubinage must not touch the kalongo of another woman or she
would become mad (kuti apena). (** A chief-to-be does not perform this ritual
washing with his wife until he is officially appointed.) The ukuteka kalongo is the
sign among chiefs of a complete royal succession. If a chief has not been succeeded
yet, they say: The country has become cold. If he has succeeded they say: They
have brought life to the country when they again put the small pot (nongo) on the
fire. (Imfumu tailapyana, bati: Icalo nacitalalila, nga yapyana, bati: Bakafye
calo, ninshi batekapo nongo.) If this small pot (nongo) is accidentally broken, it can
be refashioned with the broken pieces.
Icipingo = ukulyo mubili = oath of conjugal fidelity:
. Bafulana . Ninshi bapingana. Balalyana imibili. E bafina mumbwe amala. E
kutemwana mu cupo. Umwanakashi ati: E kopa kumbi. Umwaume nao ati: E
kapwa kumbi. Umwanakashi nga afwa, no mwaume kuti afwa, atemwa aikulika, e
citemwiko icikalamba, e kufwa bonse pamo. Limbi, e pali bakana ukukonkana mu
cilindi; ukene, kuti bamusuba umubili, babula umushishi, ngala na maso, bafiposa mu
cilindi; e kukana konkana Husband and wife undress, kiss one another. Then
hook their little fingers together, and begin to promise the exclusive mutual use of their
bodies. This is called: They squeeze the jackals guts (ie it is a strong binding oath
love one another truly in their marriage.) The woman says: Let him not marry
another. The man says: Let her not marry another. If the woman should die, then
her husband must die, or hang himself. This indeed is true love, to die together.
Sometimes it happens that they refuse to follow each other to the grave. But he or she
who refuses to do so must anoint his whole body. He takes a hair, a finger nail and a
pubic hair and throws it in the grave. This is to refuse to follow the cipingo oath.
Taboos for married people.
At the time of the marriage act it is forbidden to keep the following things in
the hut: Spear, bow, arrows, axe or hoe, otherwise they would become contaminated.
It is forbidden to fish: it would cause the fish to be polluted (ukulamfye isabi).
It is also forbidden to hunt, for then, all the animals would flee away.
Women are forbidden to prepare beer (ukulamfya ubwalwa = the beer would
be polluted). Umwanakashi nga ashimpula umusunga wa bwalwa te kuti bacite cupo
imilungu yonse ibili apo balelongela ubwalwa kano bekele ntemba, e kukana cita

cupo. If a woman makes beer ferment (first stage of brewing) they may not have
intercourse for the full two weeks that the beer is fermenting. They must stay ntemba
that is they must not perform the marriage act.
If is forbidden to the blacksmith to forge for his metal would become soft.
There are many other taboos.
Prohibition of the marriage act.
This may be a general interdict affecting all marriage acts. A messenger from
the chief goes through the whole village calling Mwilaikata pa lusani or Mwilateka
malongo. Both these terms mean Mwilacita cupo (do not do the marriage act).
The reasons for such an order may be:
An eclipse of the moon: Umwenshi waba ngo mulopa, basosa abati: Lesa e
uleta cinjelengwe. The moon is like blood, and they say: God has brought this
wonderful phenomenon.
It may be an epidemic (icikuko) or a resting day.
Other occasions for abstaining are:
When any great common work is being undertaken. When important
community work is being done ie choosing site for a new village or a common fishing
expedition or hunt, funeral rites for a chief etc.
Nshiku sha kutusha: The first day of new moon, which is a sacred day.
Capu: A married woman may not take or hold the child of another woman in
her arms. To do so would cause the child to waste away and die. This is Kwapulo
mwana, to cast a spell on the child. (The word capu is derived from the death cough
of a child, as well as the verb ukwapula.)
4. B. THE IN-LAWS (UBUKO, SINGULAR; AMAKO, PLURAL)
The rule concerning in-laws is nothing else but rules of respect and fear. Such
marks of respect and fear are expressed in all kinds of restrictions on the part of both
parties. It is forbidden to speak to each other, to pass each other on the road, to warm
themselves at the same fire etc, etc. This exists between:
the son-in-law and his parents-in-law and their brothers and sisters,
the daughter-in-law and her parents-in-law as well as their brothers and sisters.
This amako custom begins when the engagement of the couple is agreed
upon, and is terminated with the ceremony of ukwingisha (introduction of the young
man into his mother-in-laws house some years after marriage).
It has different degrees and rules. These consist mainly in the respect shown by
the son-in-law towards the father and mother-in-law, and the maternal uncle, and to a

lesser degree by the daughter-in-law to the father and mother-in-law, and lastly by the
young man and woman towards the brothers and sisters of both the parents-in-law.
Relations between son-in-law (shifyala) and father-in-law (shifyala) are as
follows:
During the period of engagement, the son-in-law undertakes to work without
payment for his father-in-law. He works in the fields (ukutema = to cut trees, and
ukupindila = to make fences). While doing this work, the young man keeps his
distance from the father-in-law while avoiding looking at him or speaking with him.
They will neither go to work together or return from work together. Should the sonin-law wish to speak with his father-in-law, and graver still, should he eat with him in a
case of necessity, he must first of all offer him a present (ukushikula).
As regards the son-in-law (shifyala) and his mother-in-law (nafyala) the rules
are much more severe. It is she who prepares the food (ubwali) for him. But, it is
strictly forbidden for them to speak to each other, or even meet each other on the road.
The daughter, to whom he is engaged, brings the food (bwali) and water to him, lights
the fire and sweeps the hut. But according to an African proverb the mother-in-law
may enter the hut and perform these jobs. You have married the dauther, so you have
married the mother (Waupa umwana, ninshi waupa nyina). The mother and the
daughter are one moral person. N.B. As a sign of respect the food (ubwali) is always
covered with a little basket.
As regards the son-in-law (shifyala) and the maternal uncle (nalume) of his
fiance, the maternal uncle of the future bride plays an important role both in matters
regarding marriage and in the amako. But the young mans maternal uncle has only a
secondary role to play in matters dealing with amako. The hub of this amako
custom is the young intended bride who is the wealth of her maternal uncle. By
virtue of birth and succession, he is the true brother of the brides mother. To him
belongs special rights of protection of bride-to-be. (Ndi bukota bwakwe, ndi kasunga
wakwe = I am her upholder and helper.) He exacts from the young bridegroom the
same privileges as the parents-in-law. And so, he claims and reserves special gifts for
himself. Should the father-in-law die, the maternal uncle would take on himself all the
obligations and especially the rights of the deceased. The ukwingisha ceremony
would be enacted at his home and the young married woman and her widowed mother
would take up residence and come under the protection and care of the Nalume. The
saying goes: Ulupili lukawa lubali, lubali lukashala nalwiminina. (The hill is falling
down on one side. It is standing on the other.) The young man has no other course
but to set up home near his mother-in-law and near the home of his future brides
maternal uncle.
Apart from the maternal uncle of the bride, the amako custom demands only
exterior marks of respect between bride, bridegroom and brothers and sisters of
parents-in-law namely that it is forbidden to speak to each other or to meet each other.
As for brothers and sisters-in-law (bukwe) the only restrictions resulting from
this amako custom exists between an older sister-in-law and a younger male-in-law.
Otherwise, there is a no problem. Two brothers (from same parents) may marry two
real sisters. E bopila inganda imo. (They marry in the same household). Likewise, a

brother and sister from one home may marry a brother and sister from the same house:
E bopila inganda imo. In these two cases the people involved are not called simply
Ba bukwe but Ba cufi (equivalent to brother-in-law, but referring to those who
have married two sisters).
Strictly speaking there is no amako between brothers and sisters-in-law.
Should a young man prove to be impotent, he will ask his brother to take his place
with his wife. Clandestine marriage relations often take place between a married
brother-in-law and an unmarried young sister-in-law. But when the roles are reversed,
ie an older sister-in-law and a younger brother-in-law, then the amako custom
intervenes. They may not come together. After the death of her husband, a young
widow who is looked after by her maternal uncle will inevitably be handed over in
marriage to a brother of her late husband, as is due to him, as we shall see further on.
The amako custom comes to an end (ie between in-laws) when the ceremony
of ukwingisha (introducing the husband into the mother-in-laws house) is
completed.
TERMS OF ADRESS FOR IN-LAWS AMAKO:
Parents:
M = F
7 | 8

-----------------------------------M = F
M
F
9 | 10
11

12
|
|
--------------------------------------------------------------------M
F
M = F
M
F
6
5
1
2
3
4
children
1 calls 9 taatafyala (my father-in-law) (shifyala)
9 calls 1 taatafyala (my son-in-law) (shifyala)
2 calls 7 taatafyala (my father-in-law) (shifyala)
7 calls 2 maamafyala (my daughter-in-law) (nafyala)
1 calls 10 maamafyala (my mother-in-law) (nafyala)
10 calls 1 taatafyala (my son-in-law) (shifyala)
1 calls 3 and 4 bukwe (brother and sister-in-law)
3 and 4 calls 1 bukwe (brother-in-law)
2 calls 5 and 6 bukwe (brother and sister-in-law)
6 and 5 calls 2 bukwe (sister-in-law)
1 calls 11 nalume wa mukashi (maternal uncle of his wife)
1 calls 12 no amako (relationship or taboos)
1 and 6 they marry 2 and 4 are cufi (bacufi).
2 and 4 if they marry 1 and 6 are cufi (bacufi).
1 and 5 if they marry 2 and 3 are cufi and vice versa.
4. C. MENSTRUATION - PREGNANCY

The menstrual flow (ukutaba, ukufukama). The young couple eat together
until the womans period begins. Then, she will stop cooking food (tepika, tatebeta,
ukukana ipika). She may not touch the fire (ukutino mulilo). She may not close the
door of the house (ukukana isala). She may not touch a basket used as a dish
belonging to her husband (ukukana ikata ku cipe ca mwaume).
Another woman has to prepare the food which she takes separately to the man
and wife. The belief is this: Should a woman violate the ukutaba she would die, and
her husband if he carries a load would vomit blood (nga asenda icipe icikalamba
akaluka no mulopa). The true reason behind the ukutaba custom seems to be that of
defilement. Menstruation is called mbusa ya bufyashi (the pot of procreation) and
generation is called mbusa ya mwana (the pot of the child). While in her period the
woman may not go to harvest, nor go with her companions to fish with fish-poison
(ububa) or with baskets (ukwela) in the river, nor may she prepare beer.
Gestation (ukuimita): When the monthly period ceases, the woman is now
evidently pregnant so there are no special things to be done, but the same taboos as
above remain in force.
She is forbidden to fish: uli na kafumo kakuibilila, ulelamfye sabi. = You
who are in the first stages of pregnancy you will prevent the fish from being caught.
Kano isabi nga lyafwa talilebuka, elyo kuti watola, mateba. = Except if a fish is
dead, then you may pick it up.
She is forbidden to brew beer: Teti engile mu musunga, ali ne mbusa ateula.
Kafumo, elasasha ubwalwa. = She may not brew. She has a small child, if she
brews she will cause abortion. So she must not let the beer go sour.
Pregnancy (ukuba ne mimba = to be with a fetus, ukuba no bukulu = to be the
family way, ubukulu = big). The pregnant woman will say: Cila mweshi wapita, uyu
mwenshi nauncila, natalika ukwimita, nomba akafumo kale ikulika. = Each month
passes, and this month has gone (literally: it missed me). I have become pregnant,
now the womb is getting tied up.
The woman leaves the village since giving birth within the village would pollute
it (ukusanguluka umushi = to pollute the village). She calls her mother (nacifyashi)
and the mid-wife (nacimbusa), the one who gives her remedies. The main remedies
are:
Umuti wa nkombe medicine for the breasts ie mwine bala: umulolo (a cooling
drink from its bark): icikololo ca panshi: umupase. The roots are crushed on a
stone, incisions are made on the breasts, then she rubs these with the medicine with her
eyes closed (ubushibete).
Umuti we fumo medicine for the womb, lubungano (a belt) mupabi (roots
made into a brew): busule, munamba.
Umuti wa kusampika medicine to prevent an infection: musolombwa.

4. D. CHILDBIRTH
As we have said the Bemba woman may not give birth in the village where she
lives. This privilege is reserved only to the wives of great chiefs. The reason: the
woman might deliver twins; she might have an abortion (bakapopo), she might have
monsters, etc. In any such case the whole village would be polluted. So, the result is
that the mother-to-be in the company of the midwife (nacimbusa) and some helpers
must go into the bush or huts in the garden (imitanda) and have her child there.
The midwife have the following medicines for a successful birth (ukupaapa).
- Medicine for the womb itself (umuti wa canganda. Katungulu munono,
nacitumbi, namatako, mufundo-we-landa, mukolobondo, mungolomya.)
- Medicine for the delivery (umuti wa cikonka. Kabange-ka-lupili, cikololo-capanshi, mwansa-munanga, namuteketa.)
- Medicine to prevent puerperal fever (umuti wa mufwi-buta. Mulebe
kabangasheshe, mulyansefu, mutumbwisha.)
Placenta, navel cord. When the child is born the umbilical cord is cut about ten
centimeters from the navel. The mother in then massaged with hot water and oil while
the child is bathed.
The chief complication which can occur in childbirth is called nshindanshinda,
the little spongy cord which secures the fetus to the womb refuses to become
detached. If it is not quickly removed, it could cause the mothers death, it would kill
her like an arrow. Hence the name nshindanshinda is also called ubuta or umfwi
(bow or arrow). The mother who is troubled with puerperal fever must adhere strictly
to the code of practices prescribed by the midwife. Here is a course of instructions: A
remedy, concocted from the roots of the kalanangwa is poured on the patients head,
but this water must first of all pass through the nsonshi (the bundle of grass which
forms the top of a round roofed hut). It must fall drop by on the sick womans head.
While the water is falling on her head, she must continually scratch the wall of the hut
with thorns without turning around.
The placenta (icisa, cimufungulo), the umbilical cord (ubula) and other matters
which accompany the childbirth are buried together under a little ant-hill in the bush, or
which happens more frequently, under a stone in the hut. The bag (icisa) which
contained the fetus is buried with the hollow part downwards (ukukupika), otherwise
the mother would become sterile (ngumba). Should it happen that the woman become
sterile, she would hoe the small cemetery over and over again, claiming that:
Umuloshi akupukwile mbusa. (A sorcerer has turned the mbusa over).
Suckling, nursing: The Bemba mothers feed their own children. Should the
mother die, the child would be cared for by another woman, usually a sister or a
cousin. It is claimed by some people, that there are old women who possess a remedy
(a tree root like the libungano) which can restore milk to breasts which have more or
less dried up.
The duration of breastfeeding is more or less 12 to 18 months. Cases exist
where children have been weaned at four or five years of age.

When the mothers breasts (amabele) are painful there are some remedies
prescribed by the midwife: musamba-mfwa (a root for bathing ); mukome,
kafulamume, mwenge, kafutu bututa, munamba, libungano mukalamba,
bubele, ndale (mwitete = from a reed) muntufita. These remedies are usually
deposited in calabashes or little baskets. The mother is given a little gourd (umusashi)
with which to rub herself with oil.
4. E. THE NEWLY BORN CHILD
Cradle: The newly born is laid on an antelope skin or on a piece of bark cloth.
No one may walk over this cradle, for to do so would bring madness on the child. In
order to avoid this misfortune, the mother fastens some roots from the mukolobondo
and linkolobwe together and binds them to the end of the skin in which she carries
the child.
Ukusansamuka (rejoicings): Two days after the birth (ukufyala, ukupapa) the
mother returns to the village with her child. She is anointed with oil and face is daubed
with red powder from the mukula tree (nkula). Relatives and friends congratulate the
happy mother. Her parents will say to her: Twatota, wa mwana wesu, wa pusuka,
waika ku muti. (Welcome, child you are saved, you have climbed down from the
tree). Friends would say: Samalale, mayo, mwapusukeni. (You have just given
birth. (A special greeting for woman just out of confinement.) Mother, you have
recovered.)) The husband will look at his child and say: Kanshi, e mwana wandi.
(So that is my child ). The answer given to people who inquire as to the sex of the
child is: Twafyala ca kampelo (we have given birth to a grindstone = a girl) or:
Twafyala ca kanondo (we have given birth to a little hammer = a boy). Or they may
say: Twafyala ca kapemulo, ca kanondo cashala munda (we have given birth to a
child for the grindstone, the hammer is still in the womb; in the case of a daughter) or:
Twafyala ca kanondo, ca kampelo cashala munda we have given birth to a child for
the hammer, the grindstone is still in the womb; in the case of a son).
Mothers prefer the first born to be a girl, because a girl will always be wealth to
her maternal uncle (nalume). Young marriageable women fear breast illnesses. It is a
sign that their first born will be a boy. Some even say that this male child will kill all
succeeding children of this mother. To avoid this misfortune young women take the
roots of kafutubututa and munamba and they trace out a line from the breasts to
the sexual organs (bamupula ne bele ku ceni, ku kamfwalo).
Umutoto (umutoto ukuponenwa ngombe = the navel cord falls on the babys
private parts): The small piece of cord which adheres to the navel after childbirth is an
object of great concern on the part of the mother. The cord must loosen unaided after
a lapse of several days. At all costs this little cord must not be allowed to fall between
the childs legs. If it does that the child would later become impotent (icibola). When
it happens the mother takes a concoction made from the musongwa-mushitu and
makes incisions on the childs organs into which a powder obtained from grinding the
testicles of a he-goat (sawe) is rubbed.
The cord falls off (umutoto ukupona): As long as the umbilical cord has not
fallen off, nor fallen sideways (nor between the legs), the child remains completely

naked. Nothing special occurs in the hut. The parents use the fire as usual to warm
themselves and to cook. But as soon as the cord falls a whole series of customs must
be strictly followed.
The cord is buried with the placenta. It is said that sorcerers like very much to
dig up the imitoto ya bana (the after-birth) in order to use them for their evil
practices. They put the after-birth in a small kind of gourd called ifitontola.
From the moment the umbilical cord falls until the ceremony of ukupoka
umwana or ukukusha umwana (the growing up ceremony), a period of 12 to 18
months, it is strictly forbidden for the husband to commit adultery. To do so would be
to kill the mother or child. (Lilume lyacila umwana = the husband expels the child.)
The same prohibition applies forbidding adultery when his wife is pregnant (lilume
lyacila ifumo = the husband is greater than the womb). As a result of these
prohibitions, husbands give themselves up to frequent incomplete marital relations.
Umulilo wa mwana (the fire of the child): Once the umbilical cord has fallen
off, the fire in the hut is extinguished and both embers and ashes are thrown into a pit
to the west, far from the village (ku masamba = to the west). Once again the hut is
whitewashed, and a new fire, the sacred fire of the child is kindled. This new fire must
last until the ceremony called ukupoka umwana (to receive the child) or ukutwala ku
mpasa. Women who are a marriageable age, pregnant women, and women suckling
their babies at the breast may not use this fire. (Mwingilila mu mulilo wa mwana.)
People warn the husband that he is strictly forbidden to commit adultery. (Elacila
umwana = he should not overstep the child.) The wife takes good care by throwing
some medicines into the fire so that she will be sure that her husband will behave. Any
husband guilty of violating this custom of umulilo wa mwana would fall prey to dire
evils, ie ututema (uncleanliness) and amasho (a spell resulting from failure to
perform the ritual purifications). Once the man has confessed his guilt, and made the
necessary compensation, he must take a medicine made from the root of the
citapatapa tree.
Ishina lya mwana (the name of the child): Here ancestor worship comes into
play. The child must be given a name, but not any name. It must be that of an
ancestor, either of a relative or someone else. By means of divination this ancestor will
reincarnate himself in a newly born. In this particular circumstance the office of a
diviner (shinganga) is obligatory. The diviner appears decked in all his finery:
witchdoctors bag (ntangala), medicines (ifisoko), charms (ifishimba) and nkomba.
He is given his fee (nsomo) by the parents of the newly born child, then he
starts to work. Several possible names are suggested, but the ancestral spirit working
through the diviner refuses to accept them. Finally, a name is pronounced and
repeated by the diviner at the same time as it produces magical effects in the diviners
tools of trade. The spirit has spoken. It is this spirit which wishes to reincarnate itself
in the child, to live again in him. This name, the true name of the child, is the lishina
lya mutoto (the navel name). It is the name of the ancestral spirit. This name will be
his spirit (umupashi) name, his protectors name (mboswa) and his namesake
(umuteshina).

Ifipe fya mwana (childs things). The newly-born child possesses certain
objects which are forbidden to others. These are:
- utupe twakulilamo a little basket used as a plate.
- akanweno ka kumukumbilamo musunga a little pot in which the childs gruel is
cooked.
- akasupa ka kumusakilamo nsashika a little gourd for the childs broth.
- inkuni sha mpandulo (te sha mbulumina) split firewood, not round logs.
4. F. WEANING OF THE CHILD. UKUPOKA UMWANA, LUNSE,
UKWINGISHA
Ukupoka umwana = ukukusha mwana ukutwala ku mpasa the aim of this
ceremony is the weaning of the child so that marital relations may be resumed.
Akanweno ka musunga: Twelve to eighteen months after the umbilical cord
has fallen off, the childs naming ceremony, the childs fire lit, which put a ban sexual
relations between husband and wife, the child has grown and is ready for more
substantial food. He is weaned gradually by giving him a light porridge (umusunga).
It is the function of the midwife (nacimbusa) to bring the child its 'kanweno ka
musunga' (the little pot for the gruel). The husband and wife perform the marriage act
during the night. Early in the morning (ku macaca) they fill the little pot with water
and then begin the rites. The woman gives her child her right breast if it is a girl
(kuwonsha ku kulyo nga kanakashi), but she gives the baby the left breast if it is a boy
(ukwonsha ku kuso nga kaume). While the baby is feeding the couple are holding the
little pot over the fire together. When the water is boiling, the woman gives the baby
the other breast, then together they remove (ukwipula) the pot from the fire. In the
hot water they soak two little pieces of wood (the tips of roots from the mulunguti
and bungano trees) which have been pierced through the middle. Then they put a
piece of cord made the fibers of the mupapi tree into the water. The little pot is now
put at the foot of the bed (ntambalilo) where it must remain till the water becomes
cold. Once the water is cold the two pieces of wood and the string are taken out and
water is now poured over the fire. Thus the sacred fire of the child, enkindled more
than a year ago is allowed to go out by itself. The ashes are thrown away in a
westwards direction (ku masamba). Finally, the little pot is returned to the midwife
(nacimbusa).
Ukulinda ubushiku bumo (a day of rest): This is a day of absolute rest.
Neither husband nor wife may leave the hut. They remain seated. In the hut, there is
no fire, no water, no firewood. The man may not touch his axe or other tool, while the
woman is forbidden to touch any cooking utensil. Food already prepared is brought to
them by villagers. Since the baby may not be given the breast on that day, the midwife
(nacimbusa) feeds it with porridge. It is forbidden to perform the marriage act the
same night.
Ukufwika umwana (clothing the child): Early in the morning the ceremony
of clothing the child takes place. When the child is a boy, its father dresses it. He
stands the child on an axe while he fixes a little waist-band (made up of amulets
(mpimpi) on a string). He picks up the child with his left arm and gives it to the
mother who also receives it with her left arm. When the child is a girl, it is the mother

who dresses it. She then takes the baby in her right arm passing it to the father who
also receives it with the right arm. So ends the ceremony. All restrictions are lifted.
An ordinary fire is lit and the mother can now begin to prepare food. Regarding the
cord bound round the childs waist, it is left to break and fall off on its own.
Umwenshi nga wacila (after the new moon): After the completion of the
ukupoka umwana ceremonies, the parents do not start immediately to perform the
marriage act. They must delay till after the new moon, a sacred day, before beginning.
Should adultery have been committed by one of the partners then this would not bring
evil consequences neither to the parents nor the child. (Umwana alubula nyina = the
child redeems the mother/parent).
Lunse: On the morning following the first day of the new moon (ie after the
completion of the ukupoka umwana ceremonies), conjugal relations are once again
resumed. These will continue until the next pregnancy occurs. If the child has not
been completely weaned before the next pregnancy, as sometimes happens, this can
have the following evil results: To nurse the child during another pregnancy would
give rise to the sickness called lunse. This illness is brought about when the mothers
milk becomes contaminated with blood, and this afflicts the child with diarrhea called
lunse (ukupolomya umulopa = the child passes blood).
The cure for this illness of lunse is that roots taken from the
mushimunwanonge are cooked together with lentils and the child eats it. Then, the
childs body is rubbed with the juice from the lentils. Other remedies are: ukuboko
pa kanwa (kulya pe); mulalusha; bungano; kaenya; cinkwasakwasa;
mupulampako;lilamba.
The people say: They made a mark on this child. They became pregnant
while he was still a baby (uyu mwana balimushila, balimwimitila).
Ulutenta (follows as a result of lunse): The new baby will be sickly and will
suffer from an illness called lutenta which consists in continually dirtying itself.
(Ukunyela nyelafye pe pe = always defecating, or akanya ukucepa ku matako: maya,
nto nto, kunyela nyela = the childs buttocks are so small, it passes stools all the time.)
So the father of both these weakly children (amatetesha) must carry them in a basket
everywhere he goes and contrive to find a cure for them. (Nga tapali, utwana kuti
twafwa = if he fails to find a remedy, the children will die.)
Ukufyala busofu (to give birth to a tiny but healthy baby): This is quite the
opposite of ulutenta. Such a child is born long after the previous child was weaned.
(Alisumuka kale.)
4.G. UKUINGISHA (TO INTRODUCE A MAN INTO HIS MOTHER-INLAWS HOUSE)
This ceremony is performed in order to bring the restrictions of amako to an
end. It takes place only after the birth of two or three children.

On the eve of the ukwingisha ceremony, the couple go to the father-in-laws

house, or, should he be dead, to the maternal uncles house (nalume). A mat is laid in
the center of the hut, with a little stool upon it. The couple enter. The man sits down
on the stool, the woman on the mat. Now beer drinking , songs dances begin. The
whole village participates for the duration of the day. At night-fall all the people
disperse and the couple now do what is called the ukukonkola (to rummage about).
They look for small presents hidden by the mother-in-law in the hut. Bakonkola pa
lusani lwa banafyala. They now go to the grain bin (ubutala) to see if there is a little
calabash of beer hidden there for them.
The next morning the ukwingisha proper takes place. On this occasion the
son-in-law goes alone to his father-in-laws house. Without other company the two sit
down facing each other to a special meal of mush (ubwali) and chicken. The father-inlaw puts a little present on the ubwali. Then he takes a little ball (ulutoshi) of
ubwali in his fingers and a piece of the gizzard of the chicken, and puts them into the
mouth of the son-in-law (aliisha shifyala = he feeds his son-in-law). The latter in his
turn feeds his father-in-law (e kuliishanya = this is to feed one another). From this
moment onwards the amako restrictions are at an end between the father-in-law and
the son-in-law. This also applies to all the brothers and sisters of the father-in-law.
However with regard to the daughter-in-law and her father and mother-in-law, another
ceremony will take place a year or so later to bring to an end the restrictions of
amako.
5. MISFORTUNES IN FAMILY LIFE
These misfortunes fall into categories: ordinary and extraordinary.
5. A. ORDINARY MISFORTUNES
Let us first speak of the ordinary misfortunes affecting the child. These are
illnesses, ailments affecting the child, and death.
5. A. 1. Childs sicknesses
Usual illnesses or ailments of the child (umwana ukulwala) are:
Cele-lesa: (akuponesha cele munda), which is child dysentery. The remedies
are katumbi, citembusha, cinamba or mubwilili. Each of these remedies are mixed
with the childs porridge (ukukumbila mumusunga).
Cumba: the childs body is covered with white powdery blotches. The
remedy used is called litompo (** or cumba).
Ukupolomya: diarrhea. The remedies are cifutwangulube, which is bound
round the waist in a belt, mushisha, mushimunwanongo and icilolo.

Kamonkola or inflammation of the gums at the time of teething the first

tooth. The remedies are: umusafwa bark, umutwe wa mpombo (a duikers head),
icikolola ca panshi (a creeper), umulendenya and kaimbi trees.
Ukulu: the child is slow to begin to walk. People then use umupwa leaves,
akalangwa which are incisions with the venom of the green mamba (ngoshe), cunga
(a thorny tree) and iconkobwe.
Lipima: the child is too heavy for its age and it is believed to be constipated
(taya kunse = he does not go to the toilet). Icikolobwe and icishishilao are used.
Mfuluwe ya mutoto: hernia of the navel. A root of the mpasa plant is made
into artisane.
Umuca: bad teeth of the child or swelling or abscess of the gums.
The nina-kancete, ukungu and ulupangala plants are then used.
Mukombela: akafumo kaingila = the childs belly is shrunken, or amasaya
yafimba = the cheeks are swollen. One would use umusambamfwa and umunawe.
The sick child is carried to the cross-roads while his body is rubbed with the medicine,
which is believed to make it fat (ukukondwela). The roots are crushed and put on a
potsherd.
Nshinshi: a child is born with long hairs on the face. Remedies are
icinkolobwe, akabangasheshe, kacinda wa kushi, kapembe wa nsha.
Ulubeleka lwa munda: the child suffers from a swollen hard belly. The
remedy used is a decoction of ubula bwa nsofu (the intestines of an elephant).
Bwenda-kanwa: childs thrush where mouth and pharynx are inflamed.
Decoctions of umulolo and nsulula plants are used.
Umwenso: the child suffers from fear. They give him leaves of kafulanuma to chew.
Ukulila: the child is always weeping. It is given amalila-ngwema.
Ukoondoloka: the child wastes away. It is given decoction from the
following plants: umusombo, umulolo, mwangwe, bwisa or it is rubbed with
kanyenshinge. Another medicine is mucilikwa-ndibu.
Amakombela: this illness is attributed to a spell. The child stops suckling.
The musamba-mfwa is used as well as umunawe.
Beside these remedies for punctual treatments, other remedies are put into a
little calabash (intungo) with the aim of protecting the child from illness and accidents.
These remedies are mufombwa ku culu, and namililo. (Ni mu kuti umwanakashi
umbi (uwa bucende) nelyo acite cupo, umwana teti akowele. Ne nshilu pamo pene.
Should a woman stranger (of bad reputation) commit adultery (in the house) the child

would not be defiled (be made sick through the breaking of a taboo). The same thing
for a mad person. (** the order of the paragraphs has been inverted.)
5. A. 2. Death of a child
A dying child (umwana apumbuka ukufwa = the child is near death). With the
African illness and death are not attributed to natural causes but are brought about by
evil influences which are not natural. Such evil influences may spring from an evil
spirit (iciwa, icibanda), from the criminal activities of a sorcerer (umuloshi), from the
violation of a taboo (eg ncila the unfaithfulness of the husband causes the death of
the wife in childbirth). To discover the supra-natural cause which brought about the
evil action on the child, the shinganga (diviner) is called in. He will have recourse to
divination (ukubuka ulubuko = to consult the spirits). After having pronounced
numerous magical incantations, he will utter a statement such as: The cause of the
illness is a bad spirit (iciwa), or a sorcerer (umuloshi) or an unfaithful husband (incila),
or the childs spirit (umupashi).
Iciwa: Iciwa e cilile umwana. E cilwele umwana, e cishilelwala umwana
(it is a bad spirit which has brought sickness on the child). The word iciwa refers to
an ancestor who has died of hunger, who has been abandoned, beaten to death
(mpumo), or who has hanged himself through despair. He is now taking out his
revenge on the children of his clan. The iciwa may belong to the clan either the
father or the mother (iciwa catula kuli wishi atemwa iciwa catula kuli nyina).
Discord often arises within the home. The person in the house who has an iciwa
must make amends to the spouse in the form of a chicken (inkoko ya cipala amate = a
chicken as a blessing). One has to try and placate the iciwa. This is done by putting
a while bead (ubulungu bwa mate) on the childs arm and by sprinkling a little flour
on the childs head (baitulula ubunga pa mutwe). Then, the parents of the child take
some ashes, put them in a pot which they deposit at the base of a large tree while they
pronounce the following words: Ciwa, you in this pot which is covered. Do not
come to our village. There is no one there (we ciwa, twakukupilila mu nongo,
wilaisa ku mushi, takuli muntu nangu umo, iyoo).
Umuloshi (sorcerer, either male or female): E ulya imitoto ya bana, e upaka
umufuko we loba lyakashika (it is he/she who devours the navel of children. He who
carries and fills his little bag with red clay.) The person under suspicion has to submit
to all kinds of threats and trials. He must swear by all the gods that he has done
nothing, that he is innocent of the crime of witchcraft for which he is under suspicion.
If I am lying, if I have killed this child, may God and Mulenga kill me. I swear by the
great life of Lesa (nga nabepa, nga naipaya uyu mwana, Lesa andye, Mulenga andye,
cumi ca Lesa, ine tene).
Ncila: In this case the husband is accused of adultery. It is the man
(husband) who has overstepped his wifes womb, ie has caused the death of the baby
(mulume e ucilile ifumo lya mukashi, mulume e ucilile umwana). The result is trouble
in the house, disputes with in-laws, and not infrequently divorce.
Umupashi: This is the spirit of either the child or of the parents which makes
the child suffer (e ucusha mwana). Here, the mother spits as a blessing (ukupala mate)

in honor of the umupashi and she begs the offended spirit to stop troubling her child:
O spirit, have mercy on me. (We mupashi, umbelele ko uluse).
5. A. 3. Dead child (umwana afwa)
As in the case of illness, so with deaths it is always attributed to some evil
which is beyond the natural sphere. The only exception is the death of old people who
die a happy death (mfwa ya Lesa = the death of God). No other human being can die a
natural death. All are killed, whether it be by the action of an iciwa or by the evil
actions of a sorcerer.
The ritual hunt (icibanda: ukusowe banda, ukufumye cibanba): In order to
discover the cause of the death, and especially to find out the person who has practiced
witchcraft (ukulowa) the Africans have recourse to the ritual hunt. The name of the
suspected sorcerer, male or female, is pronounced and the terms for the hunt
(ukutembesha ntembo) are made. If the guilty person is a man, then one male antelope
(nama ilume) must be caught in the nets, or even several male antelopes, and only one
female. This is called abalume ba nama. If the sorcerer who killed the child is a
woman, then a female antelope must be caught in the nets (nama ikota). Even if
several female animals and only one female are caught (abakota ba nama) then this is
good. The ritual hunt now begins. If the results of the hunt differ from the terms, then
the death is attributed to an iciwa of the parents. But if the results of the hunt and of
the terms correspond, then the death is attributed to a sorcerer. In former times the
sorcerer would have had to undergo the poison ordeal (ukunwensho mwafi). Where it
is decided that an iciwa of the parents has caused the death, suitable compensation on
the part of the parents has to be made.
Ukuikalila ibanda - kusowe banda lya cisubo: if the death has not been
attributed to an iciwa, then it must have been caused by an ancestral bad spirit (iciwa)
of either the father or the mother of the child.
Here we give the explanation of one African: The mother of the child remains
within her house throughout the day of the death of her child on account of the ritual
hunt. For the burial of her dead child she prepares a little basket filled with flour
(akape ka bunga = little basket of flour). On this she puts a white bead (bulungu bwa
buta). This is the ulupao (the offering to the spirits to ensure the success of the ritual
hunt). The child is carried to the ceremony (nshishi) but the parents remain outside it
(bashala kunse). The person who carries the little basket of flour, sprinkles the
cemetery with it in order so that those already buried may not chase away the new
arrival (bemutamfya). After the sprinkling with flour, the cortege enters the cemetry.
The grave is dug and the flour and white bead are thrown in. The father (umwine wa
mfwa = father of the dead child) now says the following incantations: Ni kuli ine
mfwa ya fuma, balume ba nama, ni ku mwanakashi, bakota ba nama (if it is from me
that the death is coming; male animals; if it is from the woman that the death is
coming; female animals). All go back home.
In the early morning all set out for the ritual hunt. The mother remains hidden
in her hut throughout the duration of the hunt (naikalila ibanda). When the hunters
arrive at the place where the nets are kept, they put them on the ground (ukusamuna)

and then they sit down. The father of the dead child (umwine wa mfwa) remains
standing, facing the others, and holding in his hand the musapu the branch used for
blessing the nets. He now pronounces the following solemn words: Uko natula ku
bwinamfula (mukowa) e kwatula ciwa icalya mwana wandi; balume ba nama. Iyoo,
ukwatula fye umwanakashi kubwina mbulo, ukwatula iciwa ica lya mwana wandi;
bakota banama (from the clan of the rain to which I belong if that is where the bad
spirit which has killed my child has originated: then a male animal will be killed. No,
from the clan of the iron ore to which the woman belongs, if that is where the bad
spirit which killed my child has originated; female animals will be killed.) The hunt
now begins, and first animal killed is examined. If it is a male, then the evil spirit is
from the husbands clan, but should it be a female then the iciwa is a member of the
wifes family. On their return to the village, the hunters proclaim the results of the
hunt, which family, that of the man or woman, brought about the death. Now the tears
and lamentations begin, followed by arguments, threats and insults. The rest of the
people say: Kanshi e wa ciwa icilya abana besu (so, it is such and an evil spirit who
is killing our children).
5. A. 4. After the death of the child
Ulupupalo (ukupupala, ukupupana): This is a ceremony to honor the new
spirit of the dead child. It consists of taking away the interdictions imposed on the
mother of the dead child. The restrictions laid upon her is that she may not carry any
child on her back, even that of a relative. The ulupupalo is done by companions of
the woman who take the roots of the munawe, mufwafwa, lwena, and
kabangebange which they crush to powder, and then rub on the back of the woman.
Umuti wa kupokela umwana: After her childs death, the woman may not
perform the marriage act until she washed her whole body in the river with the plant
called mulendenya.
Ukulye mfwa (to eat the death): Husband and wife shave each others whole
head (ukubeya mumpala = to shave the whole head). Then they take two remedies,
the roots from the umusamba-mfwa and from the umunawe, which they crush and
then roll into little dough-balls. On the day chosen to renew their conjugal relations,
they rub their whole bodies with this remedy. This is the ukulye mfwa. During the
course of the following day they both remain confined within the hut (kulinda mu
nganda akasuba konse).
5. B. EXTRAORDINARY MISFORTUNES
5. B. 1. Miscarriage
Ukuponye fumo, ukupose fumo (abortion). Such an accident is considered a
great misfortune and an interdiction is imposed on the woman. Other women say:
Uyu mwanakashi aponeshe fumo, ifumo lyakwe lyapona, ifumo lyasungaika (e
kusanika) (This woman has brought an abortion on herself, she has had a
miscarriage. Her pregnancy has been wasted. That is what is said). So, remedies are
sought to take away the taboos imposed upon her. Those remedies used to purify the

woman are: umusawe, akaseketi, umusamba-mfwa, and those used so that the
woman may approach the fire to cook are mulunguti and cangwe.
In former times, certain local medicine-men (bashinganga) knew how to cause
abortions in women who had become pregnant through adultery. This practice was
employed in order to prevent the severe punishment which such a situation brought on
the woman. The remedy most often used was a little wooden awl. With this
instrument they were able to kill the fetus in the mothers womb. Formerly, chief
Mwamba either sold into slavery those who had committed adultery, or had them
mutilated or burnt to death.
5. B. 2. Premature baby - born dead
Kufyala umuca (to be born prematurely): The mica, premature babies,
babies which are usually incapable of living. After a birth of this kind, mothers
protected themselves against all possible witchcraft and took away the interdictions
imposed on them. They had to rub their bodies with a paste containing roots from the
munawe and musaye.
Ukufyala akapopo: a premature baby dead, or which dies after a few days of
life. This is a great misfortune. Both parents are suspected of adultery. According to
the African, such an accident is considered to be the result of adultery on the part of
the parents. Once more, there exist many possible ways of discovering the guilty party
- incantations, threats, public denunciation , curses, oaths on the gods etc. The
husband, innocent or not, may not touch the baby. If the child should die before the
ukupoka umwana ceremony, the mother only may bury the child. And it is the
mother alone who buries the kapopo. This is what she does: In the early morning,
she takes the dead child in her arms and goes and buries it in the bush at the foot of a
umubanga tree. An upturned earthen pot is put over the grave. Then the mother
returns to the village and at the crossroads of paths (ku masansa) she lights a little fire
on which she puts a little potsherd filled with water. When the water is boiled, she
puts in some tree roots (remedies given to her by the medicine man (shinganga)). This
is called the umufuba. Through the ablutions made with this purifying water, she
purifies herself of the pollution caused by the death of her premature baby, and at the
same time, it prevents her from contaminating other pregnant women. So, on her
return to the village, she can work at the fire and eat with other women.
Ukufyala akasapo (delayed or awaited children): This birth has been delayed
in the sense that the mother has previously had several miscarriages, or all previous
babies have died, or the woman has been barren for a time. This is why the Africans
say: This child has been born through the use of medicinal horns (afumine mu
nsakilwa; it is the result of fecundity (nsakilwa) medicine).
5. B. 3. Ukufyala abana ba mipamba (to give birth to children of evil omen.)
Basuli or fisuli: are children who are born feet first. The are considered as
a bad omen. Such children must be kept away from grain bins, for their presence
would cause them to empty quickly. In other times basuli were sold into slavery.

Bacimpu: are girls whose first menstruation is slow in coming. They do not
attain puberty quickly (tabawa bwangu). It sometimes happens that the reason is that
such girls have had illicit relations with young men just at the time when they should
have had their first menstruation and became pregnant. Children born of such a
clandestine union are also called bacimpu. They are a bad omen because they empty
the grain bins (amatala). In the gardens where yams are cultivated (yams = lungu)
people put the huge fruits of the sausage tree (mufungufungu) in order to preserve
their crops from contamination by the bacimpu.
Bacitongo: like the bacimpu these are also children born before their
mothers have celebrated the icisungu (puberty) ceremonies. They are a bad omen.
Anamolies or monsters: are bad omens. They may be dwarfs (ntuse);
albinos; abnormal children; hermaphrodites, children with dual sexes (cimbi kayupe:
the hyena is believed by Africans to be bisexual, hence the term).
Twins (ukufyala bampundu, ukupasa mapasa): The birth of twins is an event
which causes to certain ceremonies and practices.
1. Birth. When twins are born, the whole village is polluted. The fires in the
houses are extinguished and the ashes from them are thrown to west (ku
masamba) into the rubbish pits. No one may eat or drink whilst the village
is polluted. The parents of the twins must perform a special ceremony in
order to purify the village. Africans believe that when a child appears with
its face turned towards the mother, it is a sign that it is not alone and that it
is looking at the other twin still in the mothers womb. Midwives usually
take to flight to hide themselves as they do not like to assist at the birth of
twins.
2. The midwife who nevertheless dedicates herself to the task of delivering
twins is not at all happy since she knows the difficulties that will befall her.
During all the time that the twins are suckling at the breast (3 to 4 years
among the Bemba) she is not allowed to have marital relations with her
husband. When the twins are finally weaned the midwife is well rewarded
for her services with gifts of food and clothes.
3. The Shinganga (medicine man) of the village has his part to play at the
birth of twins. He takes his axe, his hoe and two small baskets filled with
medicines and sets out for a bifurcation on the village path. He cuts four
stakes from four different trees, the mulombwa, mulunguti, musuku
and mulungi. He drives these stakes into the ground making a rectangle.
Lastly he makes a table from reeds. Underneath the table, he plants a stalk
of aloe (litembusha). Having done this, he into the bush to hide his axe,
hoe and little baskets. His work is finished and he returns to the village.
4. The dance: The twins parents (shi-mpundu = father of twins, na-mpundu =
mother of twins) are dressed by the shinganga in a bark cloth fastened
around the waist (ukufwika ndupu), and they are asperged with ashes. The
mother puts the twins in a winnowing basket (ulupe) and the whole village

follows the unfortunate parents to the bifurcation where the shinganga has
already prepared the table (icintamba). The crowd dances round the table
ridiculing the unhappy parents. This dance lasts a long time. After the
dance shinganga daubs half of the winnowing basket with red kula
powder and the other half with white paste. Now, he gives the parents of
the twins medicines with which they have to wash themselves. This
medicine is called mulombo and is made up of three things: a paste of
flour (umufuba), oil (amafuta) and a root called mutimbwambusa.
5. Nongo ya menshi: When the ceremonies of the dance at the bifurcation
have been completed a pot filled with water is placed on the three stakes
(mulombwa, musangati and umusuku) and a fire is lit underneath. When
the water is hot, three remedies (umusuku, umusokolobe and ndale) are
thrown into it. Then, all the villagers wash themselves with this liquid, (e
kukana fimba e kukana kanka, e kukana sakana) so that they will not swell
up nor tremble. (** the first manuscript adds: ) PS I have forgothen some
more medicines used for the twins, umupulampako, umusoso wa
kawamo, umukome na mafuta, umutebetebe. (** the sequence of
paragraphs has been changed here).
6. Purification of the village (ukupasula ipasa = ceremony to neutralize the
spell which cause the body to swell after the birth of twins). When they
return to the village, the unfortunate parents of the twins enter into their
hut where they perform the marriage act in the presence of two witnesses.
A new fire is lit. The People in the village return and they too light new fire
in their huts. Thus village is purified.
7. The navel of the twins. After several days the umbilical cords fall of. The
shinganga takes both to bury them under the stalk of aloes. It is only after
this that he goes to retrieve his axe, hoe and baskets which he has hidden.
He brings them to his hut.
8. Taboos: Until the twins have been weaned the parents may not perform the
marriage act, and for twins, this is a long time. If the parents violate this
taboo it would be necessary to give them the two remedies cangwe and
mushmwanongo.
Moreover strict uniformity has to be observed in bringing up twins.
Should one twin want to suckle, then the other must also be given the
breast. If she gives saps (pap) to one she must also give it to the other.
Should she clothe one with a piece of cloth, then she must do likewise for
other. If she pets one, she must pet the other. If one weeps, the other must
also weep.
9. Name. Although other children are given ancestral names, as described
above, twins are given no other name than Mpundu (= the twins). They
are considered as being apart.
10.

Relatives: All relatives of the twins fall under a taboo. All must rub
their bodies with umlombo which is used for the purification of the twins.

This is the procedure: A little ball of umulombo is soaked in water in a

large receptacle, and one washes oneself with it. These little balls are sent
to absent relatives. Anyone who would refuse to purify himself with this
umulombo would fall ill, his body would swell up and the poor person
would be trembling all over his body.
11.

Death: When a twin dies he is buried between two anthills. The

surviving twin must take the medicines munawe and musambamfwa in
follow his fellow twin to the grave. Should he survive, then there is a most
astonishing custom: parents must look for another child among their
relatives to succeed the deceased twin. This successor will take the same
name as the deceased, and will be subject to they same restrictions as the
deceased when alive. Even when they have grown up to adolescence, if the
true twin wishes to go everything they do. But these restrictions ceases
with marriage.

12.

Cola: Three or four years after the birth of the twins it can happen
that another child is born. It will be given the name of Cola. The parents
of the twins, who have till now been addressed as Shi-pundu and nampundu, will now be called Shi Cola and Na-Cola. The Cola is also
considered a bad omen. To purify themselves of this defilement both
mother and father must rub their bodies with a paste called umufuba
which is made up of crushed roots from the mutobo-wa-pa- culu and the
ngombe yanina.

Bacinkula: These are children whose first teeth appear in the upper gum.
Among the Bemba, to give birth to a cinkula is considered a serious misfortune. The
child itself is a bad of the explanation given by a local catechist: From child-birth,
both mother and father love their child. After a time the parents begin to examine the
upper gum (ifiponshi fya pa mulu) of the child. Should they notice that the teeth begin
to continue to examine the gums carefully. Then they say to each other: This is bad.
The child is a cinkula. Relatives and villagers are called in order to ascertain for
themselves the truth, and they say that the child is not a true child. At daybreak the
mother takes her child to the river. On her arrival at the river, the unfortunate mother
who is carrying her baby on her back allows it to fall into the river. She does not turn
around to look, but goes back to the village as if nothing happened without wailing
(umusoa) nor weeping, or any other sign of mourning. Any person who dares to weep
for the cinkula will die.
People fear to rear bacinkula for two reasons:
a) as soon as a cinkula becomes sick, an old relatives must die. If the illness
continues, another old person in the family must die.
b) the cinkula is held responsible for all misfortunes which befall the village:
delay in rain, game is not killed, fish are not caught in the nets, old people
die, in other words, the cinkula is a sorcerer, a man-eater.
5. C. MISFORTUNES OF MARRIED PEOPLE.
Misfortunes in the family, ie re married people can be divided into two groups:
1.
abnormal or accidental eg sterility and

2.

normal (ie not accidental) eg declining age.

5. C. 1. Abnormal misfortunes

a) Sterility of women (bungumba) is a great misfortune in a family. Couples

want many children, a happy progeny is considered the personal honour
and the wealth of grandparents. The shinganga is consulted in order to
discover what evil has cast a spell on the woman, or what evil spirit has
come to throw everything into disorder, or what taboo has been violated,
or even, what unknown cause come to interfere.
After numerous incantations and evocation of spirits (ukubuka
ulubuko) the medicine man will in the end give the sterile woman a
medicine called kansakilwa. Taking a beautiful little calabash adorned
with a bead at the neck, he inserts the remedy mixed with oil. This little
calabash is put into a little basket filled with amulets and charms (ifishimba,
mpimpi and amapingo). The sterile woman must often carry this little bag
on her head and regularly anoint her body with this mysterious oil. Another
medicine called kansakilwa consists of two little antelope horns containing
magical remedies. Here is the procedure: The shinganga catches a
hatching chicken (nkoko yalalila). He kills and plucks it and pierces the
claw (icikondo) so that the blood drips drop by drop into the two little
roots of the umukolobondo and umulombwa trees. He then fills the two
little horns with the blood from the chicken and puts the two roots inside
the horns. After this, the two horns are pierced at their narrow end in two
different directions (bapushanya) and bound together with white string
(ulushinga lwabuta = white rawhide). There two horns are given to the
sterile woman who must carry them under the armpits (mu mapa) in order
to keep the evil spirit away from the house (ukutamfya iciwa mu nganda).
Other remedies taken from roots of trees in the form of drinks are given to
the woman. These are: canakashi, kamwinani, kolobondo and
mungolomya.
It often happens that sterility is only temporary due to physiological
reasons, so that after a time the woman becomes pregnant. Then she
rejoices saying: Caliwama (it is very good). Later on, when she has
delivered her baby, she will go to the shinganga and say: Come and see
your protecting spirit (somone mboswa obe). The child when born is
called kasapo.
N.B. Where sterility is permanent, divorce generally results. (Te
mwanakashi, iyoo. All ngumba. = She is not a woman. She is sterile.)
On her death, a sterile woman is buried with a black charcoal (a sign of
death) between her legs, a sign of derision.
b) Sterility of men. The impotent man (bucibola) is very unfortunate in the
family circle and especially with the in-laws. As soon as impotency is
noticed, the man is divorced. In the case where this happens on the
wedding day, divorce happens ipso facto. Tali mwaume, ashinda ukulya

cisungu (he is not a man, he is unable to eat the pubescent girl ie unable
to do the marriage act). When impotency occurs after marriage, the
parents will take their daughter away, saying: Te mwaume wine wine, aba
cibola, malyombo: alwala makasa, mapapa, mankufula, aba mutungwi (he
is not a true man, he is impotent (NB cibola, malyombo, makasa,
mapapa, and folobowa are synonyms meaning an impotent man), he is
an eunuch).
Sometimes such an unfortunate husband will go to his brothers or
cousins and beg them to go live with his wife while he is looking for a cure.
Medicines are:
kabasa-musongwa: incisions made in the organs,
kaluba-ndoshi: a herb drink,
the organs of a he-goat made into a gruel. The amulets
(ifishimba) are: umucila wa njili (tail of a warthog), cangwe,
musombo, libungano, kapulula-mbushi, musokansoka and camusalenkwale.
We give other medicines below which are thought to bring
fecundity to married people: kangwa (mu lushingo); mumawe (mu mucila
wa njili = in the tail of a warthog); kamfwala wa nsawe; cibangalume;
mupapa (a herbal drink made from bark); kaminu (with lentils); kafutabutula; kalalila; na-mwinshi; mucengwa (ointment); mucilibwa-ndibu;
muntufita (with honey from the honey fly, cibongo); musokolobe-wafita (herbal leaves); umulolo wa panshi (leaves used as tisane); mumpo
(leaves used as tisane).
If at the end of a long treatment, permanent impotency is proved
then divorce results.
c) Accidents at birth. (Ukufwa incila = to die in childbirth). Among the
Bemba to die in childbirth is a great evil. The midwives who assist the
woman say: Umwana apindama (the child was lying crosswise in the
womb) nyina ailikisha umwana mu nda (the mother has crushed the child
in her womb); umwanakashi alafwa ncila (the child has turned crosswise
in the womb; the mother dies in childbirth).
The cause of this misfortune is adultery on the part of one of the
parents. There can be no other reason. According to the African, one
partner in the marriage has been unfaithful to the other, especially during
the period of umulilo wa mwana (the childs fire lit, after childbirth and
remaining till after the ukupoka mwana ceremony, see above), or adultery
happened during the time of gestation (umwanakashi ali ne fumo = the
woman is pregnant). Such unfaithfulness is called ncila ya mwana or
ncila ye fumo (the overstepping of the child, or of the womb). An inquiry
must be made, and for the Africans this means a ceremonial of incantations,
threats and even torture in order to obtain a guilty verdict, and the
denunciation of the person with whom he had these secret relations
(alumbule umuntu wa musoka). To the husband, one says: Nga
walumbula, umwana apusuka (if you confess, you will save the child),

nga wafisa, umwana afwa (but, if you lie, the child will die with its
mother). Some swear by the gods that they are innocent (akaninina fye =
he denies his guilty), and he claims that his wife is guilty. The same
question is asked of the wife: Nga walumbula umwana apusuka, nga
wafisa, umwana afwa (if you confess, the child will be saved, but if you
deny, the child will die). She will also swear on all her gods that she is
not guilty and that her husband is the guilty one. Incantations such as the
following are then made: a relative of the woman takes a hoe and goes to
the bush. He draws near to a tree intoning: Mwaume e wacilile
umwanakashi, imishila itambalale, nakana, mwanakashi e wabifishe, imishila
ilole panshi (if the guilty party is the husband may my hoe cut a root
which will fall horizontally: but if the wife is the guilty one may the root
fall vertically). He makes a mighty stroke with his hoe, and the manner in
which the root falls supplies the verdict. If a sentence is made where the
husband is pronounced guilty , he will be made to admit his guilty, if need
be, by torture. So, if he is guilty, he will confess, but if innocent, he will
blame a relative already deceased, and so extricate himself from this cruel
treatment. If the woman is pronounced guilty, she will be made to confess.
But since she is already ill, nothing would be gained from submitting her to
torture, so the shinganga will bring her a basket of roots cut into small
pieces from the tree where the incantations were made, and he says: If
you have committed adultery, throw a handful of flour into the basket.
The woman, since she has nothing to loose or gain, being seriously ill, says:
Nalibifishe na baume abengi (I have done wrong with many men), but
she does not actually name any of them.
If after all these difficulties, the woman should succeed in
bringing her child into the world, then the partner in the marriage who has
been found guilty is released from this guilt after compensation has been
made to him or her. But where the child dies the penalties are most severe
(see above, 5.A.2. death of a child).
Where the woman dies in childbirth, it is considered one duty
of the husband (whether guilty or not) to extract the dead baby from the
mothers womb. To do this, he will take a pointed stick from the roof of
his hut, and drive it into the dead womans womb, and with a knife he
makes a gaping opening so as to take the child out.
Having done this, he makes a huge opening in the wall of the hut. It
is through this hole that he takes out the two corpses for burial. Again it is
the husband who digs the graves and buries the bodies. Both are buried
separately, outside the village, at a cross road. No other funeral
ceremonies are performed. Should a married woman pass near to the tomb
of the dead woman, she must say the following words in order to placate
the spirit: Uli musuma waiipeye we mwine ku mwaume (you are good
because you have killed yourself, forced by your husband).
If the woman dies after childbirth (ukufwa ncentu) the ceremonies
are identical.

The consequences of having been found guilty of adultery are

dreadful.
About a woman found guilty, people will say: Aifwilo mwine:
aifwantile cimuti pa lukasa (she has bruised her foot with a piece of
wood, and died through her own fault, ie her adultery has become like a
mortal wound in her foot).
For a husband found guilty (rightly or wrongly) he must in order to
free himself from the consequences of his evil act surrender his own sister.
He takes her to the place where his wife was interred. He strikes her on the
forehead with a stick, and his victim falls into the pit already dug in
advance. Should this blow fail to kill her, she is given in marriage to a
brother of the deceaseds wife. Children born of such a union compensate
for the death of the woman. It happened on occasion that the whole family
of the unfortunate husband was thrown into slavery by the chief.
To prevent such dreadful happenings which are the consequences of
breaking the taboo against adultery, there are medicines to be taken by
unfaithful husbands and wives.
An unfaithful husband would use the following:
a tisane made from the roots of the cangwe and mutimbwambusa.
roots from the katumbi mixed with oil. Unknown to his wife,
the husband rubs her apron with it (cishisa).
roots from the kalalila. He puts this medicine on the ground
on the road, jumps over it, and says: Nshicila muntu, ncila muti (I have
not overstepped a woman, I overstepped a tree).
leaves from the mushsha and mucilibwa-ndibu. He chews
them, then crushes them on his axe, saying: Nshicila muntu, ncila muti (I
have not overstepped a woman, I have overstepped a tree).
with roots from the kansalonsalo, mukume and mupulu
mpumpi he rubs his belly.
he takes leaves from the mulolo and mukonde or from the
mungolomya and cikuku, puts them in a pot and then goes to the river to
wash himself with them.
An unfaithful wife will use the following:
roots taken from the mushisha and nyinamweshi which are
mixed with the heart of a chicken. With these she makes a herb drink. She
will drink this concoction only with her hands rubbed in ashes.
roots from the kafutu-bututa and the mupetwa-ndupe are
taken in secret by the midwife to the woman and she makes incisions into
the organs.
other remedies are: roots from the cangwe,
mutimbwambusa, mulyansefu, citapatapa.

d) Adultery (ubucende, ulubembu)

Up till now we have seen the consequences of adultery committed
during a forbidden period, eg the childs fire and pregnancy. Let us see
now the consequences of adultery at other times. Without the fear of
breaking the above taboos adultery should be easier. But there are other
ways and means of obviating possible abuses, through diviners and the use
of medicines. Here are some of these:
Tutema (ukukowela, ukukowesha ababiye = to be defiled, and to
defile others through the breaking of a taboo). People who have committed
adultery may not approach the childs fire, put a cooking pot on the fire,
Wash in hot water, warm themselves at the fire, nor eat from black plates
(nongo sha fita). The violation of this would mean exposing oneself to all
kinds of illnesses unless one suitable medicines.
For polygamists the tutema also exists, when the husband has
marital relations with his second wife during the absence of his first wife.
Ukushilika (to drive away people or things through the power of
a charm). When a husband has to he absent for some time, he will set a
charm on his wife (kwambila umukashi) so as to prevent her from having
secret relations with another man. In the bush he cuts down a root called
mumpula-mpako (a parasite plant). He crushes it, attaches a very thin
piece of metal to it and heats both at the fire. Returning to the house, he
fixes this little charm to his wifes clothes with out her knowledge. This is
the ukushiliko mwanakashi (to set a charm on his wife). If it should
happen during the husbands absence that a person comes and wishes to
commit adultery (ukucita ubupulumushi) with his wife, who has the
(miambi) charm on her person, he would not succeed. (asendama tekete,
bubi = he goes to bed with her, but cannot do the act). His eyes redden
(alaifwena fye na menso yakashika ce = he would scratch himself, his eyes
would become red and his organs swell delay to return, then death will
meet up with him (e mifwile = death occurs), unless he can confess
(aisokolola) to the husband himself and make compensation.
Another method: Before his departure on a prolonged journey, the
husband goes to seek the mupani and busule roots in the bush. He
crushes these into powder and hides them in the roof of the hut. When
another man comes to sleep with the wife, he will suffer a terrible
punishment. During the night, he will loose his semen virile (akuntila ko
ubwaume bonse = his seed dries up). When he returns home, he will find
that he has become absolutely impotent, unless of course, he confesses to
the womans husband and makes suitable compensation (kano asokelesha
icuma, nga amone cupo = unless he secretly makes restitution, he will not
be able to do the marriage act again).
Amasho (madness brought about by adultery). Here is the
version of one African: The wife lives alone because her husband gone to

foreign countries to look for work. She commits adultery. After these
unlawful relations, she uses the nuptial pot (kapalwilo). Later on the
husband returns and lives with his unfaithful wife. In the morning they
make their ablutions with the 'kapalwilo'. From that moment the man
becomes mad (apena, alakupikilwa no lunshingwa, e masho =he becomes
mad, he is struck with dizziness. This is masho). Remedies are sought:
Roots from the cangwe , musambamfwa, nseketi, munga,
muntumbwisha, are made into a paste. The woman will also become mad
if she tries to get a divorce. To everyone it is evident that adultery is the
cause. She must confess the name or names of those with whom she has
committed adultery. And it is her business to seek a cause for her husband.
She will go alone into the bush to look for the root called
mushimunwanongo. This she will grind to a powder and put into a little
bundle. She takes this bundle to the hut and hides it. Each time she does
the marriage act with her husband, she puts a little of the medicine in the
akapalwilo. In this way the husband will be cured (amundapa = she will
cure him).
Another method: A husband, on his return from a long sojourn
abroad, will use the following strategy in order to find out if his wife has
been unfaithful or not: On his return home he throws some pagan
medicines into the fire and tells his wife to prepare him some food. If she
has committed adultery, she will become mad (masho).
Cilolela (it is forbidden to look at blood, wounds etc). The man
who lives with anothers wife must not look at a wound (icilaso) which he
himself has caused or he will die. Likewise, a wife who has committed
adultery must not care for a wound of her husbands. If she looked at the
blood flowing he would die.
If the husband were to die, the unfaithful wife may not accompany
the corpse to the cemetry unless she has obtained a very special medicine.
On going to the cemetry she must not look about her no at people. She
must look at herself (ailolela umwine). Later on at the time of giving birth
to this child born of adultery, she must still look only at herself. Should it
happen that she were to look on the child, she would die in childbirth
(afwa ncentu). Special medicines are given to this woman (cilolela).
These are:
leaves from kampande and mutumbwisha. The eyes are
washed with them.
roots from mulolo which are crushed on a stone and rubbed in
incisions made in the left thigh.
leaves from the mupapi and mulama are taken by the woman
who rubs her eyes with them.
leaves from the mushisha and nkolobwe are mixed with oil
and the woman rubs her hands with the mixture.

Illnesses and remedies: numerous illnesses are attributed to

adultery. We give here some of the chief illnesses and the remedies for
them:
1. Ubulwele bwa bucenjeshi, ubupulumushi, ubucende (the illness
of cunning, adultery and immorality): mushisha; musukwantipa; mupetwa-ndupe; mutobo; umulombwa-kamulebwe;
kamusonsonkola; kantentela-mwela; katatantwika; katumbi;
luko; myelemyele; mutinta; mubanga; mwemwe wa nseko;
mwenge; mwengelwa; citebeleshi; namifilo; pupwe; tupele;
mukolobondo wa panshi; mulala-ntanga; mulalusha; mulama;
mulume wa ngwingwinta; mulya-nsofu; mupombwe;
munembwa; mupapi; musengele-lubuta; mutensha-mwela;
mutende; mutende; nkwale; mutimbwambusa.
N.B. An adulterer is supposed to have red eyes, and is subject
to all kinds of illnesses.
The adulterer is subject to the tutema (see above).
To be allowed to approach the fire, he must first take two roots,
one from the mupetwa-ndupe and one from the
mumpombwe. These are tied together and lit at both ends. In
this way he becomes immune to the taboo (asonteka pa conto
kubili kubili, e kusungula = he lights them together in a fire in
the open and so prevents the affects of the taboo).
2. Ubulwele bwa mubongola (bilharzia). Remedies are:
kaombo; kabasa-musongwa; kaluba-mpili; ndyabateni;
kakwashi; kapanga; mulama; ntanda; muputu; musaye;
mupangwa; cangwe; masako ya pa musula wa mbwa.
Ubulwele bwa tuswende (syphilis). Remedies are:
lunsonga; minamwashi; mulelema; mubwilili; mukome; ciya;
nsangati; mutinsha-mwela; musambamfwa; ninamwinshina;
namina; mwafi; mwangwe; kafula-mume; munsokansoka;
mutoki wa nsamba; lusengwa; mupundu; mwishiba-aliko;
musongwa.
Punishment for adultery: In former times adultery was severely
punished . Those guilty were fined by the chief and made to pay heavy
compensation. Formerly too, these people were mutilated and burnt while
their families were sold into slavery. When the husband caught his wife in
the act of adultery, it was his right to kill both her and her partner
immediately. They were run through with a spear. Then the husband
would go to the father-in-law with his spear spotted with blood. The
father-in-law was bound him another wife.
e) Numerous children die (abana bafwa abengi)

It is a great misfortune in a family and source of much trouble to the

parents where many of their children died. Among Africans, either the
father or the mother is accused of murdering the children. Let us study
each case:
Akase (amatetesha = children are weak). The husband is accused
of being more or less a weakling (wankuli, muntu wa kase), his children are
weak (amatetesha), they all die. The remedies used are: cikolekole;
ficitimbiti; ngombe yanina; kasongolo unono (worn as a girdle); lilanda lya
nce (used as a waistband).
Icikonko ku mutima (grief). The mother who sees her children
die, experiences considerable resentment in her heart. If she has suffered
the loss of numerous children when she subsequently gives birth to a child
she must take the following medicines on the day following the birth:
muntufita-ibamba; mupandwa-lesa; (a tree struck by lightning) and
bamba. These medicines are heated at the fire and coated with salt from
the cilombela. She sucks them while holding a heavy hammer on her
head.
Amapingo, nsakilwa (fecundity medicine against witchcraft). The
mother pays a visit to the medicine man who prepares various magical
medicines for her. Medicines similar to those used against sterility. She
also rubs her breasts with the cibangalume. With other medicines such as
mwenge and kafutu-bututa she makes incisions on herself from her
bosom to the sexual organs.
Umuti wa kutemwana (remedy for peace). Unhappiness and
discord are rife in the home. People who want peace in the home search
for remedies to bring it about. Roots or from the mulolo, kantebetebe,
mulolo, musembwe, kapanga and mufutu. The couple must bless
them (ukupala po) and eat them with their food. A part of the remedy
when mixed with oil or water is used for purification.
f) Divorce (ukulekana, ukusulana)
Where there is considerable trouble in the home, divorce usually
results. Formerly divorce was rife. Here are some of the motives for
divorce: Sterility on the part of the woman; impotency of the man;
incompatibility; lack of docility; infidelity; bad treatment; too much
interference from the mother-in-law; deaths; possession by an iciwa (bad
spirit); jealousy etc, etc. The husband tells his wife: Ninkakashi; aba no
bulamu; tancindika; aba no bupusaushi; tabomba ifyo ndemweba etc (= she
has a wicked tongue; she is lazy; she is insolent; she plays around; she does
not work; she does not obey). The wife will say: Alampuma;
mupulumushi sana; atemwa umwanakashi umbi; ine alansalula; tamfwika
bwino (= he beats me; he is a fornicator; he loves other women; he
despises me; he does not gives me dresses).

When the relations become very strained divorce results. The wife
returns to her mothers house to await divorce and to look for another
husband, while the man goes to look for another wife. Sometimes divorce
proceedings were brought to the chief. Those partners in marriage who
had performed icipingo ceremonies (oath of conjugal fidelity) could only
seek divorce after obtaining very special medicines.
g)

Polygamy (ukuupe mpali), bigamy (ukupalika)

85 percent of the Bemba are monogamous. Bigamy was the
prerogative of the great (abakalamba) and polygamy the attribute of chiefs.
Polygamy was a sign of wealth and prestige. As marriage customs of chiefs
are quite different from those of ordinary people, they must be considered
apart. Let us first consider bigamy and polygamy among the privileged
because certain wealth people have two or more wives.
Names of wives: The first wife is given the name of umukolo.
She is usually the woman with whom the man has made the icisungu
(puberty) ceremonies, and the ubwinga (marriage ceremonies).
The second wife is called the umwinga. The first wife is the lady
of the house and she considers the umwinga as a concubine.
House: each wife apart in her own hut, with her own cooking
utensils and they eat apart. The house of the umukolo is the important
house (nganda nkalamba) and that of the umwinga the lesser house
(nganda inono). The wives neither mix nor eat together, and it is not
uncommon for them not to speak to each other. Jealousy (ubufuba),
quarrels and insults are common. One seldom finds the houses of these
wives near to each other. Usually they are found at different ends of the
village. They may even be in different villages. People often mock
polygamists who run from one house to another. (Ni cimbwi cifwile
ntangalalo = it is the hyena who dies at the crossroad from hesitation;
Uwaikete fibili afwile ku menshi = the one who holds two things, dies in the
water.)
Relations: The polygamist lives about one month with his first wife
(umukolo) and about one month with his second wife (umwinga). On the
day which he has chosen to leave one wife for the other, he must observe
the customary rules carefully. First of all he must warn his umukolo that
he wants to leave her. Then he goes to the house of the umwinga.
Arriving there he places his bow and arrows at the door, the recognized
sign that do his work. As the umwinga is a kind of concubine (ukutolana
fye = they live with each other without ubwinga) he cannot use the
marriage pot (akapalwilo) with her. She will use it alone. Having spent a
month with his umwinga the polygamist returns to his umukolo. He will
always follow the custom of warning one of the door of the other, to make
known that he is coming to live with her. With his umukolo the husband
uses the nuptial pot, but on the first day he will drain it without washing
himself for fear of the tutema taboo. Only on the use of the nuptial pot.

So the polygamist lives alternate months with his wives. When one wife is
pregnant, the polygamist lives with his other wife.
From the day on which his pregnant wife gives birth to a child until
the occasion of the ukupoka umwana or ukutwala mpasa, the
polygamist must follow strictly the rules of taboo regarding childs fire.
Not to do so would result in the death of the mother and child. So, no
relations with another woman either by day or by night. He must live in the
hut where the childs fire burns. He must abstain for a full year from the
complete marriage act with this wife. He is also forbidden to warm himself
at the childs fire. As the fire of the child is to the left of the door, in
coming and going from the house, the polygamist must never pass to the
left. The ceremony of ukupoko umwana brings all these restrictions to an
end. When the second wife delivers a child all these prohibitions come into
force at her house.
Ukusansho mulilo (exchanging fires). The umukolo (first wife)
decides to prepare beer for her husband (ie a day of feasting) on a set day.
It is fitting that the umwinga (second wife) be invited. But to do this, the
restrictions which prevent such a meeting must be temporarily suspended.
So, a special medicine is put into the beer pot and also into the water
container. The umwinga is then invited into the umukolos hut. She sits
down near the entrance. She sits down facing the umukolo while the
husband stands a little to the side. The umukolo now stand up, draws a
little of the immunized water, and pours it into the beer. She sits down and
the umwinga repeats the same actions. (E kusansho mulilo = this is the
exchanging of fires). By these actions the interdict is taken away, so both
women can now speak to each other, sing dance and above all, drink
together. N.B. But the umukolo will never be invited to the umwingas
house.
5. C. 2. Normal misfortunes of married people
a) Ikando (menopause) is a critical stage in the life of a woman. Other
women will say: Alwele kando (she is afflicted with a painful
menopause). And so, the woman is given many medicines: kalanangwa;
kanamililo kanini; kasalasha-mwaice; lutuli; kalume ka citungulu; kaseketi
wabuta; katata waonda; mankongwe; libungano likalamba; mukololo wa
mu mushitu.
Other medicines are also given to her such as: kasalasha;
mumpombwe and mupandwa lesa. These three remedies are deposited in
a little calabash from the musukusu. This calabash is attached
immediately above the door of the hut in such a way that each time the
woman goes out of the house she is struck on the head with it.
b) Mpokeleshi (a substitute). With menopause the conjugal life of the
woman more or less comes to an end, so her husband will ask for a
substitute who will continue to bear him children at the place and in the

name of the wife who has now become sterile. Hence, the name
mpokeleshi (ukupokela = to help out). The young woman thus chosen to
take on the role of mpokeleshi will either be a grand-daughter or a cousin,
or a niece from the maternal side, of the woman whom she will replace.
The older woman now withdraws from her husbands house, and is
considered by everyone to be elderly or a widow (umushimbe = unmarried).
c) Mfwa (death) of one of the spouses is considered the supreme evil in the
household. Since such a death gives rise to all kinds of funeral customs and
eventually to remarriage, we shall treat these matters in the following
chapter.
The last moments (umuntu aleka umweo = person stops breathing).
No one is allowed to die in the village, apart from the chief or people of
importance (abakalamba). If ordinary people died in the village, it would
become polluted. As soon as a person becomes seriously ill, people make a
special hut (ukusalikisha kasakwe) outside the village There they bring the
sick person and lay him on a mat pitting numerous medicines at both the
head and the foot of the mat. The spouse of the dying must sit apart from
the others since he / she is considered more or less responsible for the
death. It is the relatives of the dying person who look after the final needs
of the sick person. In the hut which is full of people, it is hot and clammy.
Almost complete silence reigns with no weeping or crying. All eyes are
turned towards the dying person. The last moment comes and the sick
person gives up his life. Then cries and weeping burst out, mixed with
wailing for the dead (ukulila imisowa). Close relatives of the dead person
close his eyes and mouth (ku kupisha) and his legs are tied against the
abdomen (ukuonga = to arrange the corpse for burial, babywise).
Before burial (ukulinda, kutusha). The dead person is not buried
immediately. The corpse will remain a full day on the mat. It is resting as
they say. Only one person is delegated to guard it.
When a person of authority dies, no tears are shed as for ordinary
people (abapabi), but instead, the drums are beaten in a special way. This
is how it is done: The drum is beaten hard with two drum sticks
(mishimpo) together, then it is beaten lightly in a prolonged roll (imishika).
This drumming will last several hours. The cilukaluka dance is performed
throughout the village. After this offerings of beer and food are put at the
door of the deceased' hut. The aim of all these ceremonies is twofold: to
honour the person, and to beg him to be the villagers who remain.
According to peoples belief, the spirit of the deceased lives and survives
after death, and can exercise a good or evil influence on the living. It can
even come to life again. The spirit of the deceased remains in the hut
throughout the day, and it is pleased with the tokens of respect which are
offered to it in the way of drumming, dancing, and of course, it can eat and
drink at ease of the food which has been brought to the house. Naturally,
commoners will not receive such great tokens of respect. Chiefs, especially
senior chiefs, undergo special ceremonies at their deaths. These are too
long to insert here.

Burial (ukushiko muntu = to bury a man)

The grave: several relatives of the deceased dig the grave in the
cemetery (mupolo or nshishi) which is usually rather far from the village.
The site is usually chosen near the banks of a river or near very high trees.
Before beginning to dig the grave, the grave-diggers beg the spirits which
dwell in the cemetery to be good to them and show them their favor. Then,
they make an offering of a little flour and some beads. Only then do they
begin to dig. When the job is completed, all return to the village.
Carrying the body (ukusenda icala, icitumbi): The corpse is wrapped
up in a reed mat which is tied to a large pole (umutembo). The body is
carried directly to the cemetery. However when the dead person is a
person of authority, the procession wends its way (ukumutandasha)
throughout the village. People take turns to carry the body suspended on
the pole, two by two. Usually the journey to the cemetery is long. Each
time the cortege stops to change the bearers a little flour is scattered. The
cortege is made up of the corpse with bearers in the front followed by
family, friends and villagers.
The burial itself: The mortal remains are interred by two or three near
relatives, and in doing so, much care is taken. The head of the deceased
must face the east (ku kabanga e kwatulile ifikolwe = from the east our
ancestors had their origin). Everybody present gives a gift to the deceased
in the form of a bead, a little flour or an ornamental shell (mpande). Each
person throws a little earth into the grave. The face of the deceased is
turned to the south. A hole is made in the cloth which covers the head so
that the person can hear the prayers and supplications offered up on his
behalf. It sometimes happens that a long stick is fixed into the ear in such a
way that a communication from the ear to the exterior of the grave is made
(ie should the deceased come to life again). Before the final act of filling in
the grave is completed, incantations are made to as certain the culprit who
brought about the death. The kapolo (the priest of the spirits) now says:
Tulefwaya icikulile. Icikulile (ciwa) nga cafuma kuli bawiso na banoko,
balume ba nama. Nakana nga cafuma ku mwanakashi, bakota ba nama
(we want to know who ate you (ciwa = bad spirit). If it comes from your
father and your mother, may we kill a male animal, but if the wrong was
committed on the wifes side, may we kill a female animal). Or they may
say: Nga ni ku muloshi umwaume kampanda e kwatulile mfwa, balume ba
nama ne kota limo; nga imfwa yatulile ku muloshi mwanakashi kampanda,
bakota ba nama ne ilume po imo etc (if the death comes from a male
witch (sorcerer) may we kill a single male animal; but if the cause of death
comes from the action of a female sorcerer, then may we kill one female
animal and a male also). Later on, the ritual hunt will reveal the cause of
the death: a bad spirit (ciwa) or a sorcerer (muloshi).

Purifications (ukusangulula): When the grave has been filled in, the
grave diggers put a little ant-hill at the head of the mound
(uluputa). Everyone leaves to return home to the village.
Purification of the cortege: On the way when the cortege reaches a
cross-road, it must purify itself. The diviner, a munungwe (ie one of the
opposite clan) is there with a preparation for purifying them consisting of
roots from the mubwilili which have been crushed and the boiled in a
potsherd (utwinga = broken pots). He sprinkles each one as he passes by.
Those who have actually touched the corpse must each take some of this
medicine and rub it into the eyes, legs and arms (ukufikina, kupotola = to
rub with the hands). In this way they are immunised from the body
swelling up (kukana fimba = not to swell up).
Purification of the house of the dead person. During the burial services,
two relatives, of the dead person, a man and a woman are appointed to
fulfill the work of purification. They are called abanungwe and belong to
the opposite clan. They must have had no dealings with the corpse ie to be
safe from all contamination through the dead person. With wood from
musamba-mfwa tree the man lights a new fire outside the hut while the
woman sweeps the hut, breaks some personal utensils of the deceased and
smears the floor with clay (ukushingula = to smear). The bed is installed
immediately afterwards and the new fire is also brought into the hut.
Purification of the village: From early morning the village was
considered to be defiled. All fires were put out and the ashes were
scattered to the east. So, the village must now be purified. All the
members of the funeral cortege, on their return to the village from the
cemetery, must pass in front of the deceaseds hut, the door of which has
been left open (ukucenama), each one looks inside (ukulengela), takes a
little of the new fire, and brings it to own hut.
Purification of the family: Members of the family and especially the
grave diggers must undergo a special purification. A little fire, taken from
the new fire made by the umunungwe is brought into the hut. Then two
potsherds (utuinga) are filled with water and medicines are put into them
(roots from the cisaye, mukuwe and kalunguti and two peanuts). One
of the potsherds is called the icilume and symbolizes the dead person, and
the other is the icikota symbolizing the living. Both are put on the fire.
When water is boiled the potsherd icilume is withdrawn from (ukuipula)
the fire in the presence of all the people and it is thrown into the bush to
honour the deceased. The potsherd icikota is also taken from the fire
before the whole assembly and poured out at the foot of the bed
(ntambalilo) to purify it. The purification by the rubbing of the spear, axe,
hoe, bow and arrows takes place (ukusansamata). All these tools had been
placed near the door.
Whilst the burial ceremonies are in progress the children of the
deceased are kept apart. They are shut up in a hut (balebesalila = they are
shut up). Bemona, uko bafumya umuntu, bekata ku nongo sha mfwa

(that they may not see how the deceased is taken away, and that they may
not touch the pot of death). After the purification ceremony they are free
to return home.
Purification of food: The grave diggers slaughter a chicken by striking
it against a pole of the house (ukukupawila pa cilu ca nganda) so the
blood splashes all over (umulopa wasabaukila pa cilu), so the interior of the
hut is sprinkled with this blood. The sacrificial chicken is called
iccipupalo. The funeral meal now follows. The chicken is cooked in a
special pot called nongo ya mfwa (the death pot) which is put on a small
potsherd called kainga to cook. The ubwali (mush) is cooked in the
same way. When the food is cooked, the assembled people take the dishes
from the fire, and begin to eat.
After some days, beer is brewed (ubwalwa bwe shinda; bwa cishiminishi
= beer offered to those assisted at the burial) and it is offered to the porters
(abakonkele mu ishinda lya muntu ufwile = those who went to the burial).
The ritual hunt (ukusowe-banda, ukufunye-banda = to hunt with nets
at a ritual hunt). Some days after the purification ceremonies have been
completed the relatives of the deceased arrange a ritual hunt since they with
to know what caused the death of their kinsman. As we have seen above in
the incantations (kuume ntembo kutemba) the sex antelope or antelopes
caught in the nets will determine the sex of the guilty person.
In the early morning the people gather at the place where the nets are
kept. The priest of the hunt (kapala, kapepa) give little boys three small
branches. These have had their tops split, into the split beads and flour
been inserted. This is the lupao (the offering to the spirits). One of these
branches is stuck into the ground at the foot of a big tree near the exit from
the village. Another is put where the nets are kept, and the third is put in
the middle of the icelu (hunting ground). When fixing these branches in
the ground, the little boys pronounce the words: Mwe mipashi ya kuno,
mutwafweko (spirits of this place help us). The nets are blessed when
taken down from their supports. The kapepa, priest of the hunt, strikes
them with the handle of his axe and with a branch of one these trees, the
kasengele-lubuta or the musangati. This is the musapu blessing. Then
he spits on the nets (ukupala-mate = bless) and says: Ifintu fiise bwangu
bwangu ku masumbu, ifya kulya bantu filambalale panshi (may the
antelopes be caught quickly in our nets, and may wild beasts keep away).
Now all the hunters beat both the nets and the ground while saying:
Cilungile ca kwa kampinda na Mukonda (may the divinities of the hunt
favor us; literally: this is the hunt of the spirits of the forest). The witch
horns (nsengo sha pandilwamo) and magical remedies (muti
mumpulumpumpi) are attached are now stretched out and the hunt begins.
The first antelope to be killed is considered the answer of the spirits to
their prayer. The kapalo (priest) throws flour on the beasts head saying:
Nomba twaishiba uko mfwa yatulile (now we know where the death has
come from). The beast is cut up. The kapalo takes a leg for himself.

The rest of the animal is divided among the other hunters. The head alone
is kept as it is brought to the village and is given as food to the family of the
dead person (e kulye nama ye banda = this is the meat of the hunt).
The beer of the deceased (ubwalwa bwa lupupo, ukupupa lupupo ceremony to honour the new spirit of the recently deceased person).
Roughly a month after the death the deceased persons family prepares
the beer called ulupupo. Each one gives some millet (amale) which is put
into the river to germinate. When the millet has germinated (imimena =
germinated grain) it is dried and crushed by a umunungwe (person of the
opposite clan). At the proper time the ukushimpula umusunga, the
fermented grain is cooked over the fire. All the family gather together in
the hut and the men pour in the hot water (ukutubila) taking turns with the
women.
A special calabash of beer called umufungo is prepared for the
deceased person (ufwile anwemo = that the dead person may drink). A
child or nephew of the deceased pours this beer on the little anthill on top
of the grave, or better still, he empties the beer into the hole which
communicates with the ear of the deceased. But if the cemetery is far
away, the beer is thrown into the bush and the deceased will come there to
drink it. This properly speaking is the ulupupo. After this offering of
beer to the deceased the people begin to drink what they call ntengwe or
cinshinshi-cinshi. Along with the drinking there are ulupupo songs.
Here are a few:
Nshinshimune mishimu,
nali nindala.
Akashitu akalaala maayo kalawama ngala (bis)
Wilanseka akashamo ico uli na noko (nyina)
Nani nobe ukayako ku nshila ya muyayaya.
Let me propitiate the spirits;
I have been lying down.
The grove where my mother lies is adorned with
feathers.
Do not mock me in my grief, you who are still with your
mother
Who will ever go onto the path without end.
(The last line seems to be a Christian addition).
Nalishingwa njikumbate ne mulanda.
Kushala neka namona malwa, namona nshiku.
I am lonely (left alone)
Let me cross my arms over my neck, poor me.
Makes me very unlucky.
Umwana wa mfwilwa ekala mulukolo (lukungu)

Nkumbu shaba. Letako akase,

Akashule nyina ukwalaala.
Fwemisuusu ya nkoko twakulaalubaana.
The child of the bereaved stays on the verandah.
There is sadness. Bring a small hoe,
Let us go and dig up mother where she lies,
We young chicks we shall always be lost.
This ulupupo ceremony is open to all. To refuse to take part would
be interpreted as defaming the dead one, and would cause the anger of the
people. With the umusunga (fermented grain) which is left over, the
umunungwe (member of the opposite clan) prepares more beer which is
called cansula mabula.
Widow or widower (muka mwilwa)
Neither widow nor widower has any part to play in the funeral
ceremonies because in mot cases they are considered the cause of the death
of their partner in marriage. Sometimes the widower is bound and flogged,
all the property of his wife such as ornaments, clothes, hoes etc are taken
by the deceaseds relatives. Happy indeed is the man who, as a result of the
incantations is not accused of sorcery or of being possessed by a bad spirit,
for then the reprisals would be really terrible. The lot of the widow is no
better. She is beaten, bound and scoffed at. All her husbands possessions
such as grain bins with food go to the parents of the deceased. She is
reduced to begging (ukupula) until her destiny is known by revealing the
degree of her culpability for the death of her husband. But, what in worse,
this muka-mfwilwa (widow) is placed under an interdict. She is haunted
by the death in her body (aba ne mfwa mu nda). As she is haunted by the
death of her husband she cannot re-marry. To marry again while under
interdict would result in the death of the new spouse. So people say of
such a person: E cilwa buko iciisa ulubansa nga lwabuta (this is to fight
the in-law who cames in a crowd). This applies also to the widower. Both
must drive away death.
To drive away the death (ukutamfya mfwa).
The widower: to drive away the death of his wife who haunts him, the
husband must seek to have clandestine marriage relations for two days with
a sister or niece of his dead wife. The ceremony differs according to the
state of the woman who agrees to sleep with him, whether she is married or
not.
If the woman chosen is unmarried: The ceremony lasts two days and it
takes place in the village. After the widower has done the marriage act the
first time with the young woman, she puts two utuinga (little pots) on the
fire. They are filled with water and remedies (roots from the mubwilili).
One of the utuinga is called kalubi (fetish) and the other icikota (the
big woman). The water from the kalubi is thrown on the road along
which the funeral procession passed. (Aitila amenshi mwishinda lya

mucishi = she throws the water on the route to the grave.) On the second
day the widower and the young woman together place the akapalwilo
(marriage pot) on the fire, and together remove it from the fire when the
water is hot in order to wash themselves. This is the definite bond of
marriage. A mupa, e myupile mu kupyana, e mipyanine amupa no
kumupa (he marriage her. This is the way of marrying in the ritual to
remove death).
It sometimes happens that the widower does not find a relative of his
dead wife with whom he can free himself from the death. So, he appeals
any widow to help him. If her relatives agree, she is given to him in
marriage. (Bamupa cishishi = he marries this next of kin in order to throw
away the spirit and death). With her, he first of all goes through the
ceremony of ukutamfye mfwa. They then say: E wamupokela mfwa
(she has taken death away from him): E wamutamfishe mwa (she has
cleared death away from him), E wamupoka umupashi (she has liberated
him from the spirit of the deceased).
It the woman chosen is married (umwanakashi waupwa) the problem is
more difficult, for as she is married she naturally will incur the
consequences of her adultery (amasho - a spell falling upon anyone who
cannot perform the ritual purifications; and ncila - death caused by her
unfaithfulness). This ceremony is given the name of ukwiba mfa, ukwiba
amafwa (to steal the death). This married woman has to take the
advantage of the absence of her husband to have extramarital relations.
Normally the first days encounter takes place in the bush. (Kwongoloka
mu mpanga = to slip away unobserved into the bush). They do as in the
case of the unmarried woman, ie they deposit the two utuinga (pots) on
the fire, but there is a difference. When the woman washes with the lustral
water (icikota) the man touches (strikes) her from behind on the shoulder
with a piece of wood from the hearth. The woman gives him a medicine
which he must rub on (ukufikina) himself. On the second day they have the
marriage act in the widows house in the village. As in the previous case
the akapalwilo (marriage pot) is put on the fire, but the widower must not
look at it. He goes outside and holds one of the poles of the house.
In this way he keeps in contact with the ceremony being performed
within the house. At the conclusion of this ceremony the man is free from
the effects of the death and can marry again without any fear. The woman
goes home, but for a full day she must not look at her husband (cilolela),
nor must she approach or touch the fire (tutema) nor touch food (tepika)
Moreover she must put a special medicine in her kapalwilo (marriage pot)
so as to avoid any evil effects from her adultery.
The widow (mukamfwilwa, uwafwilwo mulume = whose husband has
died): First of all there is the ceremony or ukunwa amenshi (to drink
water) which consists in giving the bows and arrows belonging to the dead
husband to a nephew or grand nephew who is destined to replace his uncle
by taking his name and performing his functions (e kutola amata, e kufumye
mifitalila ya mubiye = this is to take arrows, this is to inherit arrows, to take

away the bad things from ones neighbor). Another way of putting this is:
E kubule mishingo (amata) ya munankwe (this is to inherit the
possessions and wife of the dead man).
To get rid of the death from the widow is a ceremony called
ukupyana, it lasts for two days. This ukupyana mukamfwilwa has the
same aim as for the widower: to rid of the taboos caused by the death by
having sexual relations with the next of kin of the dead person, moreover
the widow is inherited. In neighboring tribes it led to polygamy, but not
necessarily among the Bemba (** woman is often free to remarry as she
likes). There are always several suitors who will offer themselves to free
the widow from the death which has her in its grip. If the suitor appointed
by the family is unmarried the ceremony to be performed is the same as that
of the widower with an unmarried woman. But the ceremony finishes with
a true marriage (amupa mu kupyanina = he marries her in performing the
kupyana rites). When the suitor appointed by the family is a married man
the ceremonies followed are those of a widower and a married woman.
But there are some differences. The ceremony is quite public and not in
secret, and it is followed in the hut of the widow. The married man with
the consent of his wife puts one of her bracelets and her girdle (ninkamusha
amasho = I shall not suffer the spell which results from not performing the
ritual ablutions). When they are having sexual relations the door remains
open (nganda yacenama). These sexual relations take place during the day.
All that follows is the same as mentioned above, ie first day: the two
utuinga (little pots) are put on the fire, ie the akalubi and the icikota.
Medicines are put inside. The lustral water is poured on the road to the
cemetery, contact with the woman through the shoulders. On the second
day, after sexual relations, the akapalwilo is put on the fire: the man goes
outside the house, but keeps contact through holding a pole of the house.
Medicines are taken.
The married man now returns to his proper wife and gives her bracelet
and girdle back to her. He then gives appropriate gifts to her. On the first
night after he has performed the marriage act with his wife, they may not
have matrimonial ablutions (ie kuteka akapalwilo). The water is simply
poured out. The during the course of the whole day may not touch the fire.
It is only on the next day that both husband and wife perform the ritual
ablutions together with the akanweno (the marriage pot).
The widow, who has been freed from the death (bamulile mfwa) in
many cases continues to live with the man has delivered her, her liberator.
But they may only perform the marriage act during the day with the door
remaining open for this is considered to be a public concubinage or a
tolerated polygamy.

CHAPTER FIVE
TECHNICAL QUESTIONS
1. CONSANGUITY
1. A. ASCENDANTS IN THE DIRECT LINE OF BOTH MOTHER AND
FATHER
M = F M
8 | 9 10
|
M
=
4
|
|
M
2_

= F
| 11
|
F
5

M = F
M
12 | 13
14
|
M
=
6
|
|
=
F
|
3
|
1

= F
| 15
|
F
7

third degree
great grandparents
second degree
grand parents
first degree
parents
children

Terms:
1 and 2 are umwana and wishi (daughter/son and father)
1 and 3 are umwana and nyina (daughter/son and mother)
1 and 4 are umwishikulu and shikulu (grand-daughter/-son and grandfather)
1 and 5 are umwishikulu and nakulu (grand-daughter/-son and grandmother)
1 and 6 are umwishikulu and shikulu (grand-daughter/-son and grandfather)
1 and 7 are umwishikulu and nakulu (grand-daughter/-son and grandmother)
1 and 8 are umwana icishikululwa and wishi (great grand-daughter/-son and
great grand-father)
1 and 9 are umwana icishikululwa and nyina (great grand-daughter/-son and
great grand-mother)
1 and 10 are umwana icishikululwa and wishi (great grand-daughter/-son
and great grand-father)
1 and 11 are umwana icishikululwa and nyina (great grand-daughter/-son
and great grand-mother)
1 and 12 are umwana icishikululwa and wishi (great grand-daughter/-son
and great grand-father)
1 and 13 are umwana icishikululwa and nyina (great grand-daughter/-son
and great grand-mother)
1 and 14 are umwana icishikululwa and wishi (great grand-daughter/-son
and great grand-father)

1 and 15 are umwana icishikululwa and nyina (great grand-daughter/-son

and great grand-mother)
Customary law:
1. Where 1 is a man, marriage is not permitted with ascendants who are in the
direct line of the father (blood relation).
2. Where 1 is a woman, marriage is sometimes permitted with 4 among
ordinary people, and with 4 or 6 in the case of chiefs.
3. Marriage between blood relations in the direct line in first, second and third
degree is never permitted. Their traditional relationship in the blood line to
the third degree is the same as parents towards their children.
1. B. DESCENDANTS IN THE DIRECT LINE OF BOTH MOTHER AND
FATHER
___

1st degree

1 ___

|
M2
|
M4

|
F3 ___ _
|
F9 _

|
M6

2nd degree
|
F7__

3rd

degree
|
M8

|
F9

|
M10

|
F11

|
M12

|
F13

|
M14

|
F15

1. Terms on the fathers side:

1 is umufyashi umwaume (male parent)
1 and 2 are wishi : umwana umwaume (father : son)
1 and 3 are wishi : umwana umwanakashi (father : daughter)
1,& 4, 6 are shikulu : abeshikulu abaume (grand-father : grand-son)
1,& 5, 7 are shikulu : abeshikulu abanakashi (grand-father : grand-daughter)
1,& 8, 10, 12, 14 are wishi: ifishikululwa abaume (great grand-father : great
grand-son)
1,& 9, 11, 13, 15 are wishi : ifishikululwa abanakashi (great grand-father :
great grand-daughter).
2. Terms on the mothers side:
1 is umufyashi umwanakashi (female parent)
1 and 2 are nyina : umwana umwaume (mother : son)
1 and 3 are nyina : umwana umwanakashi (mother : daughter)
1& 4, 6 are nakulu : abeshikulu abaume (grand-mother : grand-son)
1& 5, 7 are nakulu : abeshikulu abanakashi (grand-mother : grand-daughter)
1& 8, 10, 12, 14 are nyina : ifishikululwa abaume (great grand-mother :
great grand-son)
1& 9, 11, 13, 15 are nyina : ifishikululwa abanakashi (great grang-mother :
great grand-daughter).

3. Customary law:
1. Where 1 is a woman, there is no marriage between blood relations in the
direct line. There exists the custom of ukunwa amenshi (described above
page 104).
2. Where 1 is a man, marriage can sometimes take place with 5 among
ordinary people, and also with 5 and 7 in the case of chiefs. This granddaughter (5 or 7) umwishikulu) now takes the name of mwishikulu-nkashi.
The relatives who give this girl to the chief in marriage say: Bamusubila ku
mfumu (they give her in trust to the chief).
3. Marriage cannot take place between ifishikululwa (great grand children)
because traditionally they are sons and daughters.
1. C. ASCENDANTS IN THE COLLATERAL LINE OF BOTH FATHER AND
MOTHER
F
10

M
M
M
F
11
12
13
14
| ____________
____________ |
F
M
M = F
F
M
4
5
6
7
8
9
/_____\
F 1 M
2
3

M
15

3rd degree
2nd degree

1st degree

1. Terms:
1 is munyina (plural bamunyina)
munyina umwaume = brother, munyina umwanakashi = sister.
a)

If this munyina is a man:

1 and 2 are ndume + nkashi (brother : sister)
1 and 3 are munyina : munyina (brother : sister ie child of uncle or
maternal aunt)
1 and 4 are umwanasenge : nyinasenge (nephew : maternal aunt)
1 and 5 are umwana : wishi mwaice or mukalamba (nephew : paternal
uncle)
1 and 6 are umwana : wishi
1 and 8 are umwana : nyina mwaice or mukalamba
1 and 9 are umwipwa : nalume (nephew : maternal uncle)
1 and 10 are akamwanasenge : nyina senge mukalamba
1 and 11 are umwishikulu : shikulu mwaice or mukalamba
1 and 14 are umwishikulu : nakulu mwaice or mukalamba
1 and 15 are akamwipwa : nalume mukalamba

b)

If this munyina is a woman:

1 and 2 are munyina : munyina
1 and 3 are nkashi : ndume. All other categories as above.

2. Customary law:
1. Where 1 is a man, there can be no marriage with blood relations who are
ascendants in the collateral line.
2. Where 1 is a woamn, she may be given in marriage to a great uncle,
numbers 11 and 15: With regard to chiefs they say: They put their sister in
the care of the chief (e kutila: basubila nkashi ku mfumu).
1. D. DESCENDANTS IN COLLATERAL LINE OF BOTH MOTHER AND
FATHER
____________________________________
|
|
|
M2
1
F3

1st

degree
____|____
|
|
M4
F5
___|___ ___|___
M
F M
F

____|____
|
|
M6
F7
___|___ ___|___
M
F M
F

____|____
|
|
M8
F9 2nd degree
___|___ ___|___
M
F M
F
3rd

10

14

18

degree
11 12

13

15 16

17

19

20

21

1. Terms:
a) Where 1 is a man:
1 and 2 are munyina : munyina (or ndume-nankwe) (brother)
1 and 3 are ndume : ndume : nkashi (brother : sister)
1 and 4 are wishi (mwaice) : umwana mwaume (father ie paternal
uncle : son ie nephew)
1 and 5 are wishi (mwaice) : umwana mwanakashi (father, ie paternal
uncle : daughter ie niece)
1 and 8 are nalume : umwipwa mwaume (maternal uncle : nephew)
1 and 9 are nalume : umwipwa mwanakashi (maternal uncle : niece)
1 and 10 are shikulu (mwaice) : umwishikulu mwaume (grand-father :
grand-son)
1 and 12 are shikulu (mwaice) : umwishikulu mwaume (grand-father:
grand-son)
1 and 11 are shikulu (mwaice) : umwishikulu mwanakashi (grand-father :
grand-daughter)
1 and 13 are shikulu (mwaice) : umwishikulu mwanakashi (grandfather : grand-daughter)
1 and 18 are nalume umukalamba : akepwa kaume (great maternal uncle
: nephew)
1 and 20 are nalume umukalamba : akepwa kaume (great maternal uncle
: nephew)
1 and 19 are nalume umukalamba : akepwa akanakashi (great maternal
uncle : niece)

1 and 21 are nalume umukalamba : akepwa akanakashi (great maternal

uncle : niece)
4 : 5 : 6 : 7 are bamunyina (brothers and sisters) no marriage is possible.
4 : 5 : 6 : 7 : 8 : 9 abafyala (cousins) traditional marriage permitted.
This means that children born from two brothers are bamunyina (brothers and
sisters).
But children born from a brother and sister are abafyala (cousins; singular
umufyala).
b)
Where 1 is a woman:
1 and 2 are nkashi : ndume
1 and 3 are munyina : munyina (nkashinankwe)
1 and 4 are nyinasenge : mwanasenge mwaume
1 and 5 are nyinasenge : mwanasenge umwanakashi
1 and 8 are nyina mwaice : umwana umwaume
1 and 9 are nyina mwaice : umwana mwanakashi
1 and 10 are nyinasenge mukalamba : kanasenge kaume
1 and 12 are nyinasenge mukalamba : kanasenge kaume
1 and 11 are nyinasenge makalamba : kanasenge kanakashi
1 and 13 are nyinasenge mukalamba : kanasenge kanakashi
1 and 18 are nakulu (mwaice) : umwishikulu mwaume
1 and 20 are nakulu (mwaice) : umwishikulu mwaume
1 and 19 are nakulu (mwaice) : umwishikulu mwanakashi
1 and 21 are nakulu (mwaice) : umwishikulu mwanakashi
6 :7 : 8 : 9 are bamunyina (brothers and sisters)
6 : 7 : 8 : 9 - 4 : 5 are abafyala (cousins)
This means that children born from two sisters (** although we call them
cousins).
2. Customary marriage law:
Marriage between cousins who call themselves brothers and sisters are never
allowed.
Marriage between cousins who call themselves abafyala are allowed and
even frequent in both collateral lines (** this in order to re-group and stregthen the
family).
These abafyala are children of a brother and a sister on either side. In other
words the children of the maternal uncle (nalume) are abafyala. Those of the paternal
aunt (nasenge) are also abafyala. They may marry.

____________________
_____________________
|
|
|
|
|
|
(nasenge)F
M
M
F
F
M(nalume)
3
4
1 = 2
5
6
___|___
___|___
___|___
___|___
___|___

|
|
M
F
7
8
: _ :
abafyala

|
M
9
:

|
F
10

|
M
11

|
F
12

|
M
13

|
F
14

|
M
15
:

bamunyina

|
F
16

:
:
abafyala

9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 are bamunyina (brother and sister) : no marriage is
possible.
7, 8 and 15, 16 are abafyala of all the above numbers ie 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14,
so marriages are possible.
5. 2. AFFINITY
a)

Affinity in the direct line.

M = F
M = F
3
4
5
6
|_____ M = F _____|
1 | 2
_______ | _______
|
|
M7
F8

1. Terms:
1 and 2 are umulume : umukashi (husband : wife)
1 and 5 are shifyala : shifyala (son-in-law)
1 and 6 are shifyala : nafyala (son-in-law : mother-in-law)
1 and 8 are wishi : umwana (father : daughter)
1 and 7 are wishi : umwana (father : son)
2 and 3 are nafyala : shifyala (daughter-in-law : mother-in-law)
2 and 7, 8 are nyina : umwana (mother : son/daughter)
2. Customary law:
No marriage can take place as we have here the ubuko (amako) customs (see
above).
In case a widower who has a son (or a daughter) marries a widow who also has
a daughter (or a son) no marriage is allowed between these children.
b)

Affinity in the collateral line = brother or sister-in-law (bukwe)

12
_______|_______
|
|
|

11
_______|_______
|
|
|

2nd degree

F3
|
7

M4
|
8

M1

F2

F5
|
9

M6
|
10

1st degree
2nd degree

1. Terms with regard to 1 (a man):

5 and 6 his bukwe 6 is often given the bukwe of umwaume munankwe
(male friend).
9 and 10 are his abana bukwe (children of brother or sister-in-law.)
11 is his shibuko or nabuko = the father or mother of the step-sister (**
these last terms might be dialectal but are not Bemba. A mubemba will
call these people shifyala and nafyala).
2. Terms with regard to 2 (woman):
3 and 4 are her bukwe, 3 often takes the name of umwanakashi munakwe
(female friend).
7 and 8 are abana bukwe (** dialectal, same remark as at 11 above).
12 is shibuko or nabuko = father or mother (in-law). (** dialectal, see
remark at 11 above).
3. Customary law:
Intermarriages of affinies are frequent, above all in cases of ubupyani
(succession) and impotence. Affinity too often results in clandestine between abana
bukwe (children of in-laws).
Ba cufi (brothers married to sisters) are:
a)
two brothers married to two sisters
b) the spouse of a sister-in-law and the spouse of a brother-in-law. Thye
cannot intermarryas they are amako ie forbidden to speak to each other.
5. 3. MARRIAGE LAWS
Summary of customary marriage laws both with regard to consanguinity and
affinity.
1. With regard to ordinary people.
a)

Consanguinity in the direct line:

First degree: marriage is always forbidden.
Seconde degree: marriage is not permitted in either ascending or
descending line ie between grand-son and grand-mother.
Though its rarely permitted between grand-daughter and
grand-father.

b) Consanguinity in the collateral line:

First degree: marriage is never permitted.

Second degree: marriage is often allowed ie between bafyala (some

cousins).
Third degree: marriage is often permitted, for instance between
mpokeleshi (substitue niece) given in marriage by the wife
to the husband the wife is old.
c)
Affinity in the direct line: marriage is always forbidden.
d)
Affinity in the collateral line:
First degree: with a living relative of the marriage partner marriage is
completely forbidden. On the death of the marriage partner
bupyani (marriage performed with relative of the dead
person by right of inheritance) is very frequent.
Second degree: marriage is very frequent, for instance mpokeleshi (see b
above); kuupe mpali (polygamy).
Third degree: marriage is also very frequent.
N.B. An individual wishing to marry a particular person among his
kinsfolk, may not marry the daughter of that person, but only
a niece or grand-daughter.
2.

With regard to senior chiefs.

a) Marriage in the direct line is never allowed ie first degree of consanguinity

or affinity (there can be certain special exceptions).
b) In all other cases modesty does not prevent the chief from marrying
whomever he wants.
Note: the majority of people prefer to marry outside the near family (outside
the clan) but within the tribe.
3. A. MATRILINEAL DESCENT
The totems of the Bemba is a practical way of reckoning ones blood
relationship. A child is born with two totems, but it belongs only to one, the totem
(clan = umukowa) of its mother. In other words the Bemba are matrilineal. Thus
people of the same blood through their mother.
(umwina mfula) M = F (umwina ngandu)
________________|________________
|
|
M ( = F)
(M =) F
ngandu
nkonde
nsofu
umwina ngandu
|______
_______|__
|
|
|
|
(F=) M
F (=M)
M
F (=M) kashimu
nkonde
nkonde
ngandu
ngandu
____|____
|
|
M
F

ngandu
In the same family there are many totems. These have their importance only for
marriage and succession, especially among chiefs.
3. B. EXOGAMY AND ENDOGAMY
Marriage within the tribe (tribal endogamy) is the general rule.
But exogamy, marrying people from other tribes, is permitted. A Mubemba
can marry a Mubisa or even a European girl. Such marriages are taken seriously.
However family quarrels frequently lead to a quick divorce. Chiefs often have
exogamous marriges in the form of treaties with other tribes. This is called
ukufulishanya imishingo (to exchange girdles). Marriages between people of distant
tribes also take place but people disapprove of such unoins.
Marriage within the clan or people of the same maternal totem is not permitted,
or only very rarely. Should this happen and misfortune befall the home, the couple
must together atone by offering to the nuptial bed: they toss beads on it saying:
twapwishanya nshiku (we have put bad luck to an end). Should the child die, the
husband alone would make the offerings.
Marriage between two people who belong to same totem on the fathers side
not oppose any tribal law. E kuupa bwino, e kuupa pa bufyala-bufyala (this is to
marry well, it is to marry cross cousins).
Exogamy is thus the general rule. Umwina nsofu (a person belonging to the
elephant totem) can marry a woman belonging to another totem eg umwina nkonde
(the banana totem).
3. C. SUBSTITUTE WIFE (MPOKELESHI)
a) Among ordinary people:
F3
M4
___|___
___|___
|
|
|
|
M7
F8
M9
F10
__|__ __|__ __|__ __|__
M F M F M F M F
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

M1
=
F2
M5
____|____
____|___
|
|
|
|
M11
F12
M13
F14
__|__
__|__ __|__
__|__
M F
M F M F
M F
33 34
35 36 25 26
27 28

F6
____|____
|
|
M15
F16
__|__
__|__
M F
M F
29 30
31 32

The husband (1) of the woman (2) may take a substitute wife after his woman
is unable to bear him any more children. This substitute wife mpokeleshi may be
taken from the following women:

a) Grand-niece (18), she is a blood relation, third degree on the collateral

(indirect) line. (Umwishikulu ku nkashi inakwe uwafyelwe ku mwaume (7)
= grand-daughter of his sister born of the man 7.)
b) His niece (14), there is affinity here, second degree on the collateral line.
(Mwana senge = daughter of the paternal aunt).
c) Grand-niece (26, 30 or 32), affinity in the collateral (indirect line to the
third degree. 30 and 32 are called abeshikulu ku mwanakashi from
womans side).
N.B. He may not marry his grand-niece (28) because as he (the man 1) having
married the mother he may not marry her daughter but only the niece or granddaughter of this woman.
According to custom, the man cannot marry any of his other relatives because
they are considered to be his own daughters ie 10 or grand-daughters 24.
N.B. It sometimes happens that the mpokeleshi has not yet reached the age
of reason, or is not yet grown up to womanhood.
b) Among notables and chiefs:
The rules laid down for people of importance follow those already indicated for
ordinary people with these exceptions:
Certain people may marry a grand-daughter (34) born from their son (11).
This is consanguinity in the direct line, second degree.
They may also marry a grand-daughter (22). This is third degree of
consanguinity in the collateral line. Ukuupa umwishikulu wa mulume lubali lwa
mwana mwaume (to marry a grand-daughter on the side of his own son).
Chiefs do not experience shame (insoni) and so, for a substitute wife, they may
marry:
a) two sister (2 and 5) nkashi inankwe. This is affinity in the collateral line,
first degree.
b) grand-daughters (34 and 36) beshikulu. These are blood relations in the
direct line, second degree.
c) great nieces (18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, and 30) beshikulu. Here there is both
consanguinity and affinity in the collateral line to the third degree.
d) a niece (16) umwanasenge, his brothers daughter. This is affinity in the
collateral line in the second degree
N.B. It is forbidden for those who have married a relative to marry the
daughter of that relative. So, where a person has married 5 or 16 it is expressively
forbidden to marry 14 and 32.

3. D. IMEDIMENTS TO MARRIAGE: (SUMMARY OF ABOVE WITH SOME

ADDITIONS)
a) Among ordinary people:
1. The general rule: Marriage place with people who are not related.
2. Marriage is sometimes permitted among relatives:
abafyala: the son of a maternal uncle can marry the daughter
of a partenal aunt or the son of a partenal aunt can
marry the daughter of a maternal uncle.
abepwa: the partenal uncle may marry his maternal niece
(mwanasenge).
The partenal grand-father may marry his martenal grand-niece (mwishikulu).
b)

Among chiefs:
Chiefs marry or less as they wish.
1. They may marry three natural sisters from one family. This in first
degree affinity in the collateral line.
2. They can marry their grand-daughters born from either their sons or
daughters. This is direct consanguinity, second degree.
3. There are two cases where two chiefs have married a mother and
daughter (by succession = ubupyani). This is direct affinity, first
degree. Such is the case of Chitimukulu and Nkula became
Chitimikulu he inherited Chitis first wife (mukolo) and married the
daughter of this woman. They are Mutambanshiku and Nalibanda.
3. E. LUMBWE (CONSORT OF A QUEEN)

Great chieftainesses do not marry properly speaking. Rather they choose a

consort to their liking, whether he is married or not. They often simply bring this
consort to the royal hut (kupakata mu kasaba = to pay respect in the royal hut) without
any marriage ceremony. Should the consort displease the princess he will be sent
away. The princess may also have two or three lovers as well. This in polyandry.
It sometimes happened in the past that the consort was put to death after he
had given the princess several children. N.B. Children of such a union are princes
taking the totem of their mother.
Minor princesses chose for consorts persons belonging to the family.
When this consort dies, according to the law of succession, the new husband
should be the brother of the deceased, or a nephew born from the deceaseds sister or
from a grand-son of the deseased mans sister.
Even in the case of the death of the princess herself, a successor must be found
for her. This would for her. This would be the paternal niece or great niece.

Kaulu. The bukaulu is a royal relationship which stems from the affinity of
the children. So, children born from a chiefs sister-in-law are kaulu to children born
from a chief and a commoner.
3. F. INHERITANCE OF A NAME. (UKUNWA AMENSHI = TO INHERIT
ANOTHERS NAME)
M ------------------------- F ----------------------M
_____|_____
_____|_____
/
|
|
|
|
/
M
F
F
M ---------- /
the scheme is inversed
_|_
___|___
/
for a woman.
|
|
|
/
M
F
M____________/
|_______________________/
The ukunwa amenshi (to drink water) means to inherit the name of a family
chief. This heir is chosen from a blood relation of the deceased, usually his nephew
(son of his sister) or his great nephew (the son of his niece). Usually the heir is a child.
At the ceremony of ukunwa amenshi he is anointed with oil and given presents as
well as the bows and arrows of the deceased (acindika mushili = he respects the soil).
He also takes the name of the deceased (atola umupashi wakwe = he takes his spirit).
Even more than this the heir enjoys the same role as the deceased with regard to the
family. He calls his uncles and aunts brothers and sisters and he calls his younger
brothers and sisters, as well as his cousins, nephews and niece or sons and daughters.
This ceremony of ukunwa amenshi takes place for women, especially those
given in marriage to a chief. A niece or grand-daughter is chosen who will take the
name of the deceased. The heiress will wear on her arms a bead bequeathed by the
deceased and she will assume the role of aunt or great aunt.
The reason behind this ukunwa amenshi ceremony is to preserve in the family
the honor given by the chief to an ancestor such a mushika (minister of the chief) or
the honor given to a woman for being his umukolo (his first wife).
3. G. SUCCESSION - INHERITANCE (UKUPYANA)
Properly speaking ukupyana is a ceremony performed on two consecutive
days in order to remove the death (kutamfye mfwa), ie the taboos resulting from the
death and to make it possible to remarry. The ceremony consists in performing the
marriage act with the next of kin of the deceased by the widow or widower. When the
ceremony is completed the widow or widower is freed from the death of his or her
partner in marriage (bamupokele mfwa; bamupokela umupashu = to take away his
spirit). Those who may perform these ceremonies are the following:
Bupyani - 1 - a widow:
M1 = F2 ------------------ M -------------------- F3
___|___
___|___

|
|
F4 = M
__|__
|
|
F6 M F7

|
|
F5 = M
__|__
|
|
F8 F9

This may be a sister-in-law (3), bukwe or the maternal niece (4) born from
her brother, but not 5, the mwanasenge, the daughter of the paternal aunt.
She may be grand-niece 7 or 9, but not 6 or 8 who are grand-chidren of the
man (beshikulu ku baume).
Bupyani - 2 - a widower: this may be number 1 in reverse.
N.B. The widower sometimes may find difficulty in obtaining a female relative
of his wife who will consent to the bupyana (to chase the death away). So, he is
obliged to do the ceremony with any widow. This is called kupyana cishishi (the
spirit and death of the deceased is thrown into the receptacle for them).
In the case of a widow, is no difficulty in finding a candidate.
3. H. VALIDITY OF AFRICAN MARRIAGES
(Personal notes). (** summarized and reworded by us.)
Some years ago missionaries doubted the validity of African marriages. Their
arguments were that there is no reciprocal contact between bride and bridegroom,
since the young girl is simply given to the man. The contract exists only between the
latter and the father-in-law. The second argument was that customary marriages can in
theory and practice be dissolved.
I do not intend to settle the dispute. However, my opinion is that we must
look at African marriages as follows:
a) The consent: Indeed the young girl is handed over to the man. If she
openly refuses marriage we must consider the marriage as being invalid. If she
does not openly show her inner disapproval one must accept that the marriage
is valid. Let us note well that Bemba girls are dignified and independent. They
are not slaves, neither are they given as slaves to their husbands. Morever both
fianc and fiance have known one another for years and certainly knows one
anothers mind. If a girl dislikes the boy, she would be quick to find some way
out. Thus the tacit consent of the girl is sufficient.
b)
Error: There might be an error regarding the unity and indissolubility
of marriage in African marriages. This simple or involuntary error does
however not invalidate a marriage. The case is different if one of the parties
positively refuses one of the essential qualities of marriage, otherwise one must
judge by the outward signs of consent given.

c)
Impediments: Customary marriage knows of natural impediments:
age: No one will marry a girl if she is nubile. Nevertheless girls might be
given in marriage before the age of reason. Such marriages are validated
when a girl becomes conscious of her position and consents to stay on.
impotence of the man: If a physical inability to have normal sexual
relations is witnessed on the day of marriage and is proved to be
permanent, the marriage will not take place. As for sterility or inability to
beget children, it does not invalidate a marriage (** but it will lead to
divorce).
marriage bond: In customary law a previous marriage bond does not
prevent a second marriage (** when divorce has been pronounced).
Church law upholds the first bond, except in the case of the pauline
privilege (** when one of the married people converts to the Faith).
consanguinity: Strictly speaking only marriages between parents and
children are against a universally accepted law, and probably also between
grand-parents and grand-children (first and second degree direct line of
consanguinity). Marriages between brothers and sisters (first degree
collateral line of consanguinity) are universally banned. Marriage can be
allowed (** as among the Bemba) between cross-cousins (second degree
collateral line of consanguinity).
marriage outside the tribe: Such marriages are sometimes considered as
null by people
Conclusion: One must consider all African marriages as lawful (I do not use
the word valid as it connotes the idea of a thing executed with proper formalities,
especially those laid down for a marriage in the Catholic Church). Each case has to be
studied on its own merits by us missionaries.
Lubushi 22 February 1934.