Hindu Tradition Revision

Regarding the forthcoming examination, I can give you the following guidance. The exam will be two and a half hours in length and you will answer any two questions from a choice of eight questions. You will therefore have over an hour to answer each essay question. Your essays should therefore be extensive and detailed. The topics covered will include: Gods in the Hindu pantheon The Bhagavad-Gita Schools of Hindu thought The importance of story for Hindu religious belief Hinduism in the West Hindu worship The Goddess Hinduism and the category of religion

Week 1: 4 Vedas: Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva In Rig Veda, there are hymns of praise to different Gods and philosophical musing (esp. in book 10) collection of 10 books (mandalas) 2-7 = oldest. Each composed of different sages from different families Sama = manual for chanting hymns at the Soma Yajna (the ritual consumption of Soma) Yajur = the directions for the sacrifices to Gods o Black recension, 1 book, prose and verses o White recension, 3 books, composed entirely of verses (Mantras) Atharva = means spell, full of hymns, philosophy, spells, charms and magic (has less connection to sacrifice) Religion of Vedas centres on a pantheon of gods who represent different natural forces, control all and grant prosperity to those who please them. Thus the gods are praised for establishing an order of creation and as bringers of victory and prosperity to Aryans (those of Indic language origin) who worship them Gods are propitiated by sacrifice (yajna) as offerings are made into a ceremonial fire. The sacrifice brought to the other Gods as named by the priest, by Agni (the fire god) 3 types of offerings (animals, plants and the Soma mixture) God (and by extension creation) are nourished by rituals (to some extent even dependent). In return creation becomes bountiful and gods are benignly disposed. Vedas show the ritual performed by tribal leaders. Original Brahmins developed because of the complexity of the ritual and need to memorise Vedic hymns.

Principal Vedic gods = Indra, Varuna, Agni, Soma, Mitra, The Ashvins, Rudra, Vishnu, Dyaus and Prithivi They are glorified in the Rig Veda hymns, most frequently are Indra (the most popular), Varuna, Soma and Agni Indra has about 25% of the 1028 hymns in the Rig dedicated to Him Contemporary Hinduism absent in Veda collections o No mention of Krishna, Rama or any other avatars that are frequently worshipped today o Rudra is praised but identity as Shiva (Supreme Deity) not a vedic idea o No concept of Supreme Goddesses One reference to the varnas in the Vedic system therefore it is not unreasonable to state that the caste system is non-vedic No reference to temples or image worship which becomes prominent around 500AD. Image worship derived from Tantric sources rather than Vedic Religious Philosophy = limited presence in book 10 of Rig Veda and the Upanishad portions of the Veda (at some length) No reference to liberation (moksha), reincarnation or to Yoga practices No suggestion of atman or soul existing as a separate entity from the body although implied by references to the afterlife amongst the Gods. No suggestion of God being present within ones own being/ or of identity of the atman and Brahman, though again these ideas are covered in the Upanishad Around 700BCE Aryans change from tribal lifestyle to more settled cities and villages therefore religious needs change and Vedic rituals lost relevance (did not die immediately due to brahminical conservatism and royal power) Vedas = not forgotten and belief in divine origin retained, some Indian teachers rejected it entirely i.e. Buddhists. Jainists and Ajivikas, though there are anti-Vedic tendencies within Hinduism as well Hindus regard Vedas as Apaurusheya which means that they were manifested from a higher sphere into the hearts of seers and rishis. Therefore the scriptures are known as Shruti (that which was heard) Today Vedic hymns are respected as sacred and recited during ceremony and rituals but studied by no one Retained and memorised by Brahmins for liturgical purposes not as religious doctrine or a source of spiritual knowledge Vedic rituals are rarely performed (excpt. By the Arya-Sama movement) and the Vedic Gods are no longer worshipped (except Vishnu and Rudra (Shiva) who have developed different identities) although some appear fleetingly Words themselves and their sound have divine power and some famous mantras are recited to invoke an atmosphere of spiritual purity in a place or at a ceremony Rig Veda = 1028 hymns into 10 books, o Rich means a hymn of praise o Rig is the changed form in front of the word Veda o Most hymns glorify the Vedic gods o Gayatri hymn (Rig Veda 3.62.10) = prayer to sun god Savitri o Certain stories are referred to in the hymns, although no narrated in full o Western scholars believe that books 1 and 10 are later o 10 is notable for containing hymns of a philosophical nature

Sama Veda = handbook of chants o Used by priests at Soma sacrifices o Includes the text of hymns and four groups of chants indicating how they are to be sung with indications of melodies. o Chants of the Sama are derived almost exclusively from books 8 and 9 of the Rig Yajur Veda = two recensions white and black o White = more material than black, prose commentary on ritual is gathered into a separate text o Handbook for the priests that carried out the sacrifice o Greater influence on the ritual than on the gods with invocations to the instrument used in the sacrifice o Includes Rig Veda hymns o Yajus refers to formulae spoken by the Adhvaryu priest as he carries out the ritual Atharva = comes from the priestly family that orally preserved it o Less status than the other 3 hence tri-vedi as it is less linked with sacrificial ritual o Mainly consists of rituals and spells for worldly good fortune, wealth, spouse or offspring o 7th of this Veda is from the Rig but some hymns may be older o Also contains some interesting philosophical passages The Gods Indra = 25% of Vedic hymns are dedicated to Indra and is most popular. o Powerful and mighty warrior o God of thunder who defeats demons of drought and darkness o Weapon = Varja (thunderbolt) o Hymns frequently refer to his victory over Vritra Varuna = normally thought of with Mitra, 24 hymns to both, 8 to Varuna and 1 to Mitra, Varuna = judge of humans who punish wrong doers, guardian of rita (governing principle of creation similar to dharma) sometimes associated with waters or with the domain of night Agni= fire god, carries sacrificial offerings up to the gods, 200 hymns to Agni (almost 20% of the total), appear first in each book of the Rig Veda. Mediator between humanity and God Soma = personification of the beverage passed by priests and offered to Indra and Vayu, the wind god.

Week 2: Upanishads and Vedanta

108 Upanishads but many are lost now 13 main ones included as part of Vedas, though they are later and contain a different type of material Principal Upanishads probably composed between 700 300 BCE Individual texts of varying lengths They are varied and so not amount to a philosophical system Some show theistic tendencies such as Chandogya and Brihad Aranyaka Some offer ideas of doctrine later known as Advaita Vedanta and are non-theistic Social change is a possible origin of new ideas

New questions being asked with more concern for the individual Religious thinkers began to look beyond the world and this life. Above all the focus falls upon the question of rebirth and how this can be avoided From India there were many response and some of these ideas are found in the Upanishads Ascetic trad in India as individuals leave society as hermits or beggars or in ashrams in the search for personal salvation. (Major theme of Hindu thought) Philosophy of the Advaita Vedanta is indicated by the Upanishads and other early texts, but it was formally argued as theology by Shankara (the philosopher) Preserved for centuries and undergone a revival by Modern Hinduism teachers and in the West. Someti mes even presented as the philosophy of Hinduism The Advaita Vedanta 1. The true self is not the body or the personality that we are aware of. Is a spiritual entity that survives the death of the body: The Atman 2. Atman is reborn in a new bodily form. The body is determined by actions perfomed in the previous life: Karmic doctrine. Furthermore the good and bad fortune experienced by the living is a result of previous acts 3. Existence in the world is overwhelmingly miserable and one should try to escape from it 4. Cause of suffering is illusion or mistaken identity. We think of ourselves in our current state as opposed to as eternal entities. To end suffering we most stop the illusion ad understand what we truly are. 5. Thus key to salvation is true knowledge (Jana), knowing yourself 6. Beyond the knowledge of identity is the fact that we are identical to all things All things are one The one entity that is real is Brahman Everything that exists is Brahman and so are we Hence Advaita True knowledge is the realisation that our individual identity is an illusion for we are Brahman Brahman is the totality of existence, sometimes referred to as God Denotes monism 7. Knowledge frees us from the misery of life. No more death, suffering, old age or rebirth. This is salvation or moksha, release. 8. All variety is illusion, nothing is real except Brahman 9. Advaita Vedanta doesnt condemn other forms of religious life including god/s worship. Shankara urged people to worship images in temples. But these are steps not the final steps, not final stage and in the end all worship ceases because worship implies duality. Shankara said that salvation is not attained by rituals or actions of any kind. Salvation is only through knowledge 10. Sometimes represented as the teaching of Hinduism. However its only one strand of Hindu thought. Sometimes presented as Hinduism to impress Westerners or as part of the modern quest for Hindu unity 11. Stress on certain key phrases in the Upanishads others stress mantras 12. Advaita Vedanta has logical imperative towards world denial and renunciation. World=illusion and so are its pleasure. By indulging one increases the depth of the

illusion and absorbs oneself more fully in it. Thus the leaders of this school are ascetic and monks or hermits. However not all ascetics are followers of Advaita Vedanta.

Week 3
Yoga and Hinduism The origin of Yoga practice are lost in antiquity Either pre or non-Aryan as there are clues in the Indus Valley cities Not mentioned in the Veda-Samhitas though is in the Upanishads notably in the Shvetashvatara and in the Bhagavad Gita. May original be shamanic practice to gain power Has never lost its links to magic In Advaita Vedanta, knowledge is key to power, identity is created by means of knowledge. We become what we know ourselves to be. If we know ourselves to be Brahman then we are just that and we transcend the limitations of an individual identity Yoga sometimes referred to as one of 6 orthodox philosophies 5 others = Vedanta, Samkhya, Mimamsa, Vaisheshika and Nyaya. Yoga as a philosophy is misleading as it is more concerned with techniques and practice that offer the adept the power to either perform magic or attain moksha Techniques Primarily = means of direct perception of the philosophical truths postulated by religious philosophies such as Advaita Vedanta and Samkhya. Yoga offers technique by which truth can be directly experienced Involves the exploration of the inner self to gain Jana or knowledge that is key to moksha Best known forms of Yoga practice is that presented by Patanjali in his Yoga-sutras. Written probably in 1st or 2nd Centuries CE. Offering Yoga of 8 limbs, Ashtanga yoga 1. Yama Practice of Virtue 2. Niyama Restraint from wickedness 3. Asana sitting postures 4. Pranayama control of breathing process 5. Pratyahara Restraint of senses from outward perception 6. Dharana Intense concentration 7. Dhyana Meditation 8. Samadhi state of full realisation Yoga allows communion with the higher reality within ones own being It grants direct perception of the self and hence of the absolute reality that is Brahman This knowledge is the power that brings the adept to the state of moksha, liberation from worldly grief and release from rebirth Yoga = not worship Not the adoration of some higher being Instead = exploration of ones own being to discover the truth of ones self and also the absolute truth. Truth brings knowledge from bondage of human condition Different ashrams or yogic schools have different practices and focuses Some emphasise concentration, others stress breath control to induce trance.

Some teachers refer to inner psychic energies lying dormant, which can be released by certain techniques We may note the awakening of the Kundalini Shakti (divine powers in us) and the chakras of life Tantra Tantras = texts teaching alternative form of religion to that of the Veda including alt. forms of yoga Tantra is also found in medieval Indian Buddhism. Tantric Yoga claims to be more powerful than other forms demanding greater sacrifices but offering quicker more tangible results. Tantric Yoga often focuses on a guru/disciple relationship Guru has awakened their full potential. He is filled with the released energies and his touch or even his presence can awaken dormant energies of their disciples Tantric Yoga teaches different things to awake this energy. Sometime Sexual but this has been overemphasised in Western culture. Sexuality is involved for 2 reasons: 1. Tantra seeks to elevate one beyond human status by breaking the norms of human society meat eating, alcohol, fornication thus bringing freedom from the restraints of normal human life 2. Ritualised sexual practice is believed to awaken dormant energies; it is a microcosm that imitates the creative act in which God impregnates the Goddess; union of Shiva and Durga. Tantric sexuality is highly ritualised = no pleasure of the kama-sutras Yoga practices and virtually any religious activity may be referred to as a Yoga technique Hence worship = Bhakti-Yoga and ritual acts are called Karma-Yoga Yoga and Magic There has been a connection between the two from early on Patanjali refers to siddhis ( 8 powers) that come to one who practices Yoga 1. To become weightless 2. To become heavy 3. To travel at the speed of the mind 4. To manifest objects 5. To become small 6. To fly 7. To read minds etc Warns against these Widely believed (still) that holy men in India will have magical powers Many have massive popular followings At village level such persons may be despised but also feared as they are believed to have the power to bless or curse.

Week 4: Hindu Scriptures

Sacred texts have a number of different functions for a religious tradition 2 are the most important: 1. Liturgical, the role and recital of sacred text as part of ritual (sound over meaning) 2. Didactic, text provide teachings and instructions concerning conduct, theology, philosophy etc

Hindu trad recognises this division using: 1. Liturgical use of text as SHABDA or sound 2. Didactic use (ARTHA or meaning) Shabda is particularly prominent and many texts, perhaps most notably the Vedic hymns, are used primarily as part of ritual life with the meaning being only secondary importance Variety of religious work in Hinduism that are considered sacred or not depending on regions, sects or communities in India and further afield More widely known works are in Sanskrit language, usually formed in metered rhythmic verses therefore making it easier to memorise Others in vernacular languages of different regions of India, more parochial and of local significance Hinduism has no sole authority to decided tradition as a whole and was is accepted and rejected Therefore writings of many holy and revered teachers have been accept as having scriptural status There are some main ones which are revered by almost all Hindus The Veda Samhitas Composed between 1300 and 800 BCE Sacred hymns of the Aryans (believed to have entered India from Central Asia between 2000 and 1500 BCE 4 Veda Samhitas, Rig, Sama, Yajus, Atharva Hymns praise a succession of gods from a pantheon and also offer instructions for rituals involving the sacred fire Still held in high regard by Hindus, but mainly have ritual significance The Upanishads Regarded as part of the Vedas and hence have Shruti (body of sacred text) status Western scholars believe however that these are later compositions added to the Veda Samhitas between 800-400 BCE. 108 Upanishads Today only a fraction know + 13 recognised as most prominent Largely non-theistic, philosophical works, looking for an underlying reality beyond the phenomenal world Pose the Q. Who am I? Replying that the self (atman) is identical with the total reality (Brahman) Yoga and meditation as means of perceiving this truth Upanishads are studied by learned Hindu pandits Less Sig. in popular Hinduism Dharma-shastras Hindu law books Composed 400BCE onwards Also referred as Smritis, lay down the duties of the 4 social groups (varnas) Dictating regulations for individual conduct, governance, marriage, inheritance etc.. Today, rarely consulted as most communities derive rules of conduct from oral trad. Hence not as important as many make the mistake of believing Ramayana and the Mahabharata Sometimes referred to as the Hindu Epics

M was probably composed at different stages between 400BCE and 300CE, although some believe it was done at one time Narrates the conflict between two branches of a royal family and includes numerous interludes of religious instruction Krishna is introduced for 1st time as manifestation of Vishnu In place of pantheon both works present a form of monotheism Vishnu or Shiva presented as the Supreme Deity R dated between 200CE and 100CE tells of Vishnus manifestation as Rama a heroic king who vanquishes a race of brutal demons to free his wife Sita which has been kidnapped by their king. Both well known to virtually all Hindus today and provide examples of virtue and wickedness as well as inspiration for divorcees of Vishnu, Krishna and Rama Bhagavad Gita Short passage from the Mahabarata in which Krishna gives religious instruction to Arjuna, his cousin Focuses particularly on finding a way in which human beings can gain salvation without entirely abandoning their position and duties in society The Gita emphasises the idea of devotion to a Supreme Deity, in this case Krishna as best way of gaining liberation from rebirth Well known in contemporary Hinduism and provides the basis for much of the religious ideology in India today The Puranas 18 major Composed between 300 and 900CE though based on earlier material Narrate numerous stories of the Great Deities, Vishnu and Shiva as well as Durga (the goddess) Some material is plainly sectarian elevating one deity at the expense of the others Most stories of the avataras of Vishnu including the early life of Krishna as well as stories about Shiva and Durga focussing on the maintenance of the order of creation by Deities assisting gods against their enemies, the Asuras. Also substantial philosophical passages as well as important ritualistic treatises Other Scriptures Numerous works sacred to different sects

Lecture 5: Hindu Monotheism, Devotion to Vishnu Hinduism has its own for of monotheism BUT very different from Western monotheism as include monism, polytheism and image worship, Different focuses I.e. Vishnu, sometimes Shiva and sometimes Goddess Some confusion as some monistic strands integrate ideas of devotion, sometimes saying that the inconceivable divine entity takes one different forms or imagined as such for the sake of human beings This creates Hindu Trinity 1. Brahma: Creator 2. Vishnu: Maintaining 3. Shiva: Destroyer Devotees of Vishnu Vaishnavas

Substantial amount and divided into many different sects Religious regional identity based on birth place of founder Different beliefs and practice but majority believe in on Supreme Being transcendent of the world and creator of it This = Vishnu and specific form of iconography Vaishnavas vs Veidc = Vaish, Vishnu is beyond the world, wholly transcendent whereas Vedic = gods as part of creation Furthermore Vishnu = personal god responding to prayer and worship and bestows grace to his votaries Earliest written examples of Vaishnava theology in later Upanishads (Katha and Isha) Iconography of Vishnu Dressed in garments (yellow silk) Four-armed holding: Conch, Lotus, Disc and Club

The conch: the sound this produces 'Om', represents the primeval sound of creation The chakra, or discus: symbolises the mind The lotus flower: an example of glorious existence and liberation The mace: represents mental and physical strength Blue skin Jewels, flower garland and crown Benign and attractive appearance Carrier is the bird Garuda Consort is Lakshmi, Goddess of Prosperity and Good Fortune In Mahabarata and Puranas, Vishnu sleeps before the world created on a bed that is the body of a multi-headed serpent Sesha. From the navel grows a lotus stalk and Brahma the creator appears on it, Brahma creates with Vishnus guidance Other accounts = creation out of Vishnus body and drawing back into himself as creation and dissolution consistently re-occur Heaven = Vaikuntha: all inhabitants are in Vishnus likeness and find eternal joy through worshipping him , devotees can escape rebirth by entering Vaikuntha or merging with Vishnus body Avatara Mahabarata and Bhagavad Gita: Vishnu ascending from his abode to this world to preserve creational order/ natural dharma Assisting gods in their conflicts with enemies or taking role as religious teacher Stories are told about the descents or avatars and these stories are a major part of Vaishnava teachings 10 avatars Today in India and UK, Rama and Krishna are widely worshipped

Some even believe Krishna supersedes Vishnu but they as still regarded as Vaishnava worshippers Vishnu is addressed by many other names & in Mahabharata = a prayer that claims to list 1000 of them Vaishnava Beliefs 1. 1 Absolute Supreme Deity, creator and controller of all things in this world including karma and destiny = Vishnu 2. Vishnu creates the world in accordance with ordered scheme, can be witnessed all around as the order of creation. Humanity acts in accordance with this scheme and adheres to the laws of dharma. Such conduct is pleasing to Vishnu and may be regarded as an expression of devotion 3. When the order is disrupted Vishnu appears on earth to rectify (Avatara) 4. All creation is manifested from within the Deity. Thus the Deity is Brahman and is all things, although he preserves his own distinct identity. E.G. in the Bhagavad Gita when Krishna reveals his divine identity, Arjuna sees that all existence is a part of the body of the deity 5. As with the Vedanta, World is pessimistic and rebirth is miserable. Vaishnavas see desirability in Moksha (salvation) but only through grace of Vishnu. Worshippers of Vishnu are saved from the cycle. Moksha for Vaishnavas = becoming part of Vishnu or going Vaikuntha. Great Teachers of Vaishnavism Vishnu worship: great theologians.. Ramanuja and Madhva Then Alvars who were Tamil and wrote devotional poetry in Tamil language, without forming a systematic theology as did Ramanuja and Madhva Later teachers focussed more on Krishna and Rama the Vishnu and more emotional forms of devotion Ramanuja and Madhva condemn Shankara philosophy as does not allow for personal Deity or accept the ultimate validity of devotion Ramanuja uses body and soul to explain the relationship between God and creation. Only partial unity, absolute. Visishta Advaita qualified oneness. Also argues that if indiv. Soul were identical to Brahman it could never be subject to illusion for then illusion would be the highest principle Madhva goes further in insisting there was no true unity between God and living beings, eternal damnation and certain souls not attaining moksha Practices 1. Centres on image veneration either in homes or temple. Many in South India are dedicated to Vishnu 2. Vaishnavas hear stories of Vishnu and recite them, also sing hymns of praise or meditate on the form of Vishnu 3. Vaishnavas from many backgrounds. They may also be wandering men who follow the path of prapanna (surrender) by accepting any fate Vishnu may bestow one them 4. Plays, dances and story recitals performed 5. Recital the names of Vishnu, sometimes using beads to count Many Vaishnavas worship Vishnu, Rama or Krishna without being a member of specific sects, they worship at home and attend temple on special days, but without any formal affiliation. Vaishnavas mark their foreheads with tilak and style often shows their sect

Week 6
Shaivism Shaivism shares many characteristics with Vaishnavism as a monotheistic tendency but Shiva replaces Vishnu Shaivism is still a significant force in Hinduism, though tends to be less organised sectarian lines than Vaishnavism Shaivism is centred around temple worship, especially in the South of India worship in an aniconic form as a lingam Who is Shiva Shown as ascetic or Yogin residing in mountains like Himalayas on Mt Kailash though may be symbolic Shown as dark in colour, smeared with ashes clad in leopard, engaging in Yoga meditation Less benign than Vishnu, surrounded by ghost and evil spirits, dances in crematorium and he dances in a state of intoxication banging his drum to bring about the destruction of the world. Hence name as Nataraja, this dance may symbolise the rhythm of creation, the one constant principle while all else changes From Vedic god Rudra around 300BCE Referred to in Upanishads, Mahabharata, Ramayana and Puranas Also has avatars Aspects of Shaivism Multiple manifestations of form Many Hindus have no particular sectarian allegiance and worship Shiva in an almost polytheistic manner Almost all Hindus show reverence to Shiva, Big festival usual in Feb Hindu fests are set like Easter according to lunar calendar In the great Shiva temples of the South, the Deity is worshipped in his form as a lingam or phallus, which symbolises creative potency of Deity Shiva often worshipped with Durga, the Great Goddess South of India Shaivism focussed on sin, divine grace and intense love of God. They have their own scriptures mainly in the Tamil language In the North for example: monism and teachings of shankara. Shiva here is regarded less a personal Deity and more as Brahman equivalent into which the Shaivite becomes absorbed. Some are Tantrism and ascetic links Imitating Shiva Regarded with suspicion by Orthodox Hindus Worship of the Goddess Some Hindus also regard the Supreme Deity as the Goddess, Devi. Consort of Shiva and may be regarded as the female aspect of divine nature, sometimes regarded as superior to Shiva and Vishnu Shiva is known in her benign aspect Durga, the divine mother, Mataji. She blesses and protects those who surrender themselves to her she has infinite power to destroy evil and harm

The Goddess also has ferocious and fearful aspect as Kali. Her rage and ferocity is directed against evil in the world. But shown as superior to Shiva The Goddess Is known as Shakti or the energy of God and the worshippers of the Goddess are known as Shaktas Some Hindu teachings express the view that Shiva is the God and Pavarti is the Goddess; the creation of the world occurs from the union of the two as the God impregnates the world with life in the form of the spiritual entities that bring consciousness to inert matter This form of Hinduism is later or at least later accepted into the Sanskrit orthodoxy from its origins in folk Hinduism Not referred to in Mahabharata and only emerges in the Puranas, after 5th or 6th Centuries Goddess worship is a prominent expression of Hinduism throughout India especially S.India where is worshipped as Durga alongside Shiva. Goddess worship may often involve animal sacrifice and for this reason is regarded as less respectable by Hindus, especially high caste Vaishnavas who abhor the killing of animals and regard it as adharma. Goddess worship is often non-brahminical, except in the South, and does not take the same sectarian forms as does Shaivism and especially Vaishnavism Also tends not to involve itself in theological disputes or produce commentaries on the Sanskrit texts. The view is sometimes expressed that such intellectual wrangling is an irrelevance; only Devi-bhakti is important and this does not require intellectualised theories