200610

TOPOLOGY WITHOUT TEARS
1
SIDNEY A. MORRIS
Version of October 11, 2006
2
1
c _Copyright 1985-2006. No part of this book may be reproduced by any process without prior written
permission from the author. If you would like a printable version of this book please e-mail your name,
address, and commitment to respect the copyright (by not providing the password, hard copy or soft copy
to anyone else) to s.morris@ballarat.edu.au
2
This book is being progressively updated and expanded; it is anticipated that there will be about fteen
chapters in all. Only those chapters which appear in colour have been updated so far. If you discover any
errors or you have suggested improvements please e-mail: s.morris@ballarat.edu.au
Contents
Title Page and Copyright Statement 1
Contents 2
Introduction 4
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Readers Locations and Professions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Readers Compliments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1 Topological Spaces 11
1.1 Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2 Open Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3 Finite-Closed Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.4 Postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2 The Euclidean Topology 33
2.1 Euclidean Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2 Basis for a Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3 Basis for a Given Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.4 Postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3 Limit Points 54
3.1 Limit Points and Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2 Neighbourhoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3 Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.4 Postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4 Homeomorphisms 68
4.1 Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.2 Homeomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
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CONTENTS 3
4.3 Non-Homeomorphic Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.4 Postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5 Continuous Mappings 88
5.1 Continuous Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.2 Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.3 Postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6 Metric Spaces 102
6.1 Metric Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.2 Convergence of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.3 Completeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.4 Contraction Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.5 Baire Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.6 Hausdor Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.7 Postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7 Compactness 159
7.1 Compact Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.2 The Heine-Borel Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.3 Postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
8 Finite Products 172
8.1 The Product Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
8.2 Projections onto Factors of a Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
8.3 Tychonos Theorem for Finite Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.4 Products and Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.5 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.6 Postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
9 Countable Products 192
9.1 The Cantor Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
9.2 The Product Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
9.3 The Cantor Space and the Hilbert Cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
9.4 Urysohns Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
9.5 Peanos Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
9.6 Postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Appendix 1: Innite Sets 223
4 CONTENTS
Appendix 2: Topology Personalities 246
Bibliography 253
Index 268
Introduction
Topology is an important and interesting area of mathematics, the study of which will not only
introduce you to new concepts and theorems but also put into context old ones like continuous
functions. However, to say just this is to understate the signicance of topology. It is so
fundamental that its inuence is evident in almost every other branch of mathematics. This
makes the study of topology relevant to all who aspire to be mathematicians whether their rst
love is (or will be) algebra, analysis, category theory, chaos, continuum mechanics, dynamics,
geometry, industrial mathematics, mathematical biology, mathematical economics, mathematical
nance, mathematical modelling, mathematical physics, mathematics of communication, number
theory, numerical mathematics, operations research or statistics. (The substantial bibliography
at the end of this book suces to indicate that topology does indeed have relevance to all these
areas, and more.) Topological notions like compactness, connectedness and denseness are as
basic to mathematicians of today as sets and functions were to those of last century.
Topology has several dierent branches general topology (also known as point-set topology),
algebraic topology, dierential topology and topological algebra the rst, general topology,
being the door to the study of the others. I aim in this book to provide a thorough grounding in
general topology. Anyone who conscientiously studies about the rst ten chapters and solves at
least half of the exercises will certainly have such a grounding.
For the reader who has not previously studied an axiomatic branch of mathematics such as
abstract algebra, learning to write proofs will be a hurdle. To assist you to learn how to write
proofs, quite often in the early chapters, I include an aside which does not form part of the proof
but outlines the thought process which led to the proof.
5
6 CONTENTS
Asides are indicated in the following manner:
In order to arrive at the proof, I went through this thought process, which might well
be called the discovery or experiment phase.
However, the reader will learn that while discovery or experimentation is often
essential, nothing can replace a formal proof.
There are many exercises in this book. Only by working through a good number of exercises
will you master this course. I have not provided answers to the exercises, and I have no intention
of doing so. It is my opinion that there are enough worked examples and proofs within the text
itself, that it is not necessary to provide answers to exercises indeed it is probably undesirable
to do so. Very often I include new concepts in the exercises; the concepts which I consider most
important will generally be introduced again in the text.
Harder exercises are indicated by an *.
Finally, I should mention that mathematical advances are best understood when considered
in their historical context. This book currently fails to address the historical context suciently.
For the present I have had to content myself with notes on topology personalities in Appendix
2 - these notes largely being extracted from Mac [137]. The reader is encouraged to visit the
website Mac [137] and to read the full articles as well as articles on other key personalities. But
a good understanding of history is rarely obtained by reading from just one source.
In the context of history, all I will say here is that much of the topology described in this book
was discovered in the rst half of the twentieth century. And one could well say that the centre
of gravity for this period of discovery is, or was, Poland. (Borders have moved considerably.) It
would be fair to say that World War II permanently changed the centre of gravity. The reader
should consult Appendix 2 to understand this cryptic comment.
Acknowledgment
Portions of earlier versions of this book were used at La Trobe University, University of New
England, University of Wollongong, University of Queensland, University of South Australia, City
College of New York, and the University of Ballarat over the last 30 years. I wish to thank those
students who criticized the earlier versions and identied errors. Special thanks go to Deborah
CONTENTS 7
King and Allison Plant for pointing out numerous errors and weaknesses in the presentation.
Thanks also go to several other colleagues including Carolyn McPhail, Ralph Kopperman, Karl
Heinrich Hofmann, Rodney Nillsen, Peter Pleasants, Georey Prince, Bevan Thompson and Ewan
Barker who read various versions and oered suggestions for improvements. Thanks also go
to Jack Gray whose excellent University of New South Wales Lecture Notes Set Theory and
Transnite Arithmetic", written in the 1970s, inuenced our Appendix on Innite Set Theory.
In various places in this book, especially Appendix 2, there are historical notes. I acknowledge
two wonderful sources Bourbaki [27] and Mac [137].
Readers Locations and Professions
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nd your book really helpful to the complex subject of topology;
8 CONTENTS
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CONTENTS 9
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10 CONTENTS
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c _Copyright 1985-2006. No part of this book may be reproduced by any process without prior
written permission from the author.
Chapter 1
Topological Spaces
Introduction
Tennis, football, baseball and hockey may all be exciting games but to play them you must rst
learn (some of) the rules of the game. Mathematics is no dierent. So we begin with the rules
for topology.
This chapter opens with the denition of a topology and is then devoted to some simple
examples: nite topological spaces, discrete spaces, indiscrete spaces, and spaces with the nite-
closed topology.
Topology, like other branches of pure mathematics such as group theory, is an axiomatic
subject. We start with a set of axioms and we use these axioms to prove propositions and
theorems. It is extremely important to develop your skill at writing proofs.
Why are proofs so important? Suppose our task were to construct a building. We would
start with the foundations. In our case these are the axioms or denitions everything else is
built upon them. Each theorem or proposition represents a new level of knowledge and must be
rmly anchored to the previous level. We attach the new level to the previous one using a proof.
So the theorems and propositions are the new heights of knowledge we achieve, while the proofs
are essential as they are the mortar which attaches them to the level below. Without proofs the
structure would collapse.
So what is a mathematical proof?
11
12 CHAPTER 1. TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
A mathematical proof is a watertight argument which begins with information you are given,
proceeds by logical argument, and ends with what you are asked to prove.
You should begin a proof by writing down the information you are given and then state what
you are asked to prove. If the information you are given or what you are required to prove contains
technical terms, then you should write down the denitions of those technical terms.
Every proof should consist of complete sentences. Each of these sentences should be a
consequence of (i) what has been stated previously or (ii) a theorem, proposition or lemma that
has already been proved.
In this book you will see many proofs, but note that mathematics is not a spectator sport. It
is a game for participants. The only way to learn to write proofs is to try to write them yourself.
1.1 Topology
1.1.1 Denitions. Let X be a non-empty set. A collection of subsets of X is said to
be a topology on X if
(i) X and the empty set, , belong to ,
(ii) the union of any (nite or innite) number of sets in belongs to , and
(iii) the intersection of any two sets in belongs to .
The pair (X, ) is called a topological space.
1.1.2 Example. Let X = a, b, c, d, e, f and
1
= X, , a, c, d, a, c, d, b, c, d, e, f.
Then
1
is a topology on X as it satises conditions (i), (ii) and (iii) of Denitions 1.1.1.
1.1.3 Example. Let X = a, b, c, d, e and
2
= X, , a, c, d, a, c, e, b, c, d.
Then
2
is not a topology on X as the union
c, d a, c, e = a, c, d, e
of two members of
2
does not belong to
2
; that is,
2
does not satisfy condition (ii) of
Denitions 1.1.1.
1.1. TOPOLOGY 13
3
= X, , a, f, a, f, a, c, f, b, c, d, e, f .
Then
3
is not a topology on X since the intersection
a, c, f b, c, d, e, f = c, f
of two sets in
3
does not belong to
3
; that is,
3
does not have property (iii) of Denitions
1.1.1.
1.1.5 Example. Let N be the set of all natural numbers (that is, the set of all positive
integers) and let
4
consist of N, , and all nite subsets of N. Then
4
is not a topology on
N, since the innite union
2 3 n = 2, 3, . . . , n, . . .
of members of
4
does not belong to
4
; that is,
4
does not have property (ii) of Denitions
1.1.1.
1.1.6 Denitions. Let X be any non-empty set and let be the collection of all subsets
of X. Then is called the discrete topology on the set X. The topological space (X, ) is
called a discrete space.
We note that in Denitions 1.1.6 does satisfy the conditions of Denitions 1.1.1 and so is
indeed a topology.
Observe that the set X in Denitions 1.1.6 can be any non-empty set. So there is an innite
number of discrete spaces one for each set X.
1.1.7 Denitions. Let X be any non-empty set and = X, . Then is called the
indiscrete topology and (X, ) is said to be an indiscrete space.
Once again we have to check that satises the conditions of Denitions 1.1.1 and so is
indeed a topology.
We observe again that the set X in Denitions 1.1.7 can be any non-empty set. So there
is an innite number of indiscrete spaces one for each set X.
In the introduction to this chapter we discussed the importance of
proofs and what is involved in writing them. Our rst experience
with proofs is in Example 1.1.8 and Proposition 1.1.9. You should
study these proofs carefully.
1.1. TOPOLOGY 15
1.1.8 Example. If X = a, b, c and is a topology on X with a , b , and
c , prove that is the discrete topology.
Proof.
We are given that is a topology and that a , b , and c .
We are required to prove that is the discrete topology; that is, we are required to
prove (by Denitions 1.1.6) that contains all subsets of X. Remember that is a
topology and so satises conditions (i), (ii) and (iii) of Denitions 1.1.1.
So we shall begin our proof by writing down all of the subsets of X.
The set X has 3 elements and so it has 2
3
distinct subsets. They are: S
1
= , S
2
= a,
S
3
= b, S
4
= c, S
5
= a, b, S
6
= a, c, S
7
= b, c, and S
8
= a, b, c = X.
We are required to prove that each of these subsets is in . As is a topology, Denitions
1.1.1 (i) implies that X and are in ; that is, S
1
and S
8
.
We are given that a , b and c ; that is, S
2
, S
3
and S
4
.
To complete the proof we need to show that S
5
, S
6
, and S
7
. But
S
5
= a, b = a b. As we are given that a and b are in , Denitions 1.1.1 (ii)
implies that their union is also in ; that is, S
5
= a, b .
Similarly S
6
= a, c = a c and S
7
= b, c = b c .
In the introductory comments on this chapter we observed that mathematics is not a
spectator sport. You should be an active participant. Of course your participation includes
doing some of the exercises. But more than this is expected of you. You have to think about
the material presented to you.
One of your tasks is to look at the results that we prove and to ask pertinent questions.
For example, we have just shown that if each of the singleton sets a, b and c is in and
X = a, b, c, then is the discrete topology. You should ask if this is but one example of a
more general phenomenon; that is, if (X, ) is any topological space such that contains every
singleton set, is necessarily the discrete topology? The answer is yes, and this is proved in
Proposition 1.1.9.
1.1.9 Proposition. If (X, ) is a topological space such that, for every x X, the
singleton set x is in , then is the discrete topology.
Proof.
This result is a generalization of Example 1.1.8. Thus you might expect that the proof
would be similar. However, we cannot list all of the subsets of X as we did in Example
1.1.8 because X may be an innite set. Nevertheless we must prove that every subset
of X is in .
At this point you may be tempted to prove the result for some special cases, for
example taking X to consist of 4, 5 or even 100 elements. But this approach is
doomed to failure. Recall our opening comments in this chapter where we described
a mathematical proof as a watertight argument. We cannot produce a watertight
argument by considering a few special cases, or even a very large number of special
cases. The watertight argument must cover all cases. So we must consider the general
case of an arbitrary non-empty set X. Somehow we must prove that every subset of X
is in .
Looking again at the proof of Example 1.1.8 we see that the key is that every subset
of X is a union of singleton subsets of X and we already know that all of the singleton
subsets are in . This is also true in the general case.
We begin the proof by recording the fact that every set is a union of its singleton subsets.
Let S be any subset of X. Then
S =
_
xS
x.
Since we are given that each x is in , Denitions 1.1.1 (ii) and the above equation imply that
S . As S is an arbitrary subset of X, we have that is the discrete topology.
1.1. TOPOLOGY 17
That every set S is a union of its singleton subsets is a result which we shall use from time
to time throughout the book in many dierent contexts. Note that it holds even when S = as
then we form what is called an empty union and get as the result.
Exercises 1.1
1. Let X = a, b, c, d, e, f. Determine whether or not each of the following collections of
subsets of X is a topology on X:
(a)
1
= X, , a, a, f, b, f, a, b, f;
(b)
2
= X, , a, b, f, a, b, d, a, b, d, f;
(c)
3
= X, , f, e, f, a, f.
2. Let X = a, b, c, d, e, f. Which of the following collections of subsets of X is a topology on
X? (Justify your answers.)
(a)
1
= X, , c, b, d, e, b, c, d, e, b;
(b)
2
= X, , a, b, d, e, a, b, d, a, b, d, e;
(c)
3
= X, , b, a, b, c, d, e, f, b, d, e, f.
3. If X = a, b, c, d, e, f and is the discrete topology on X, which of the following statements
are true?
(a) X ; (b) X ; (c) ; (d) ;
(e) X; (f) X; (g) a ; (h) a ;
(i) X; (j) a X; (k) X; (l) a X;
(m) X ; (n) a ; (o) X ; (p) a .
[Hint. Precisely six of the above are true.]
4. Let (X, ) be any topological space. Verify that the intersection of any nite number of
members of is a member of .
[Hint. To prove this result use mathematical induction.]
5. Let R be the set of all real numbers. Prove that each of the following collections of subsets
of R is a topology.
(i)
1
consists of R, , and every interval (n, n), for n any positive integer;
(ii)
2
consists of R, , and every interval [n, n], for n any positive integer;
(iii)
3
consists of R, , and every interval [n, ), for n any positive integer.
6. Let N be the set of all positive integers. Prove that each of the following collections of
subsets of N is a topology.
(i)
1
consists of N, , and every set 1, 2, . . . , n, for n any positive integer. (This is
called the initial segment topology.)
(ii)
2
consists of N, , and every set n, n + 1, . . . , for n any positive integer. (This is
called the nal segment topology.)
7. List all possible topologies on the following sets:
(a) X = a, b ;
(b) Y = a, b, c.
8. Let X be an innite set and a topology on X. If every innite subset of X is in , prove
that is the discrete topology.
9.* Let R be the set of all real numbers. Precisely three of the following ten collections of
subsets of R are topologies? Identify these and justify your answer.
(i)
1
consists of R, , and every interval (a, b), for a and b any real numbers with a < b ;
(ii)
2
consists of R, , and every interval (r, r), for r any positive real number;
(iii)
3
consists of R, , and every interval (r, r), for r any positive rational number;
(iv)
4
consists of R, , and every interval [r, r], for r any positive rational number;
(v)
5
consists of R, , and every interval (r, r), for r any positive irrational number;
(vi)
6
consists of R, , and every interval [r, r], for r any positive irrational number;
(vii)
7
consists of R, , and every interval [r, r), for r any positive real number;
(viii)
8
consists of R, , and every interval (r, r], for r any positive real number;
1.2. OPEN SETS 19
(ix)
9
consists of R, , every interval [r, r], and every interval (r, r), for r any positive
real number;
(x)
10
consists of R, , every interval [n, n], and every interval (r, r), for n any positive
integer and r any positive real number.
1.2 Open Sets, Closed Sets, and Clopen Sets
Rather than continually refer to members of ", we nd it more convenient to give such sets
a name. We call them open sets. We shall also name the complements of open sets. They
will be called closed sets. This nomenclature is not ideal, but derives from the so-called open
intervals and closed intervals on the real number line. We shall have more to say about this
in Chapter 2.
1.2.1 Denition. Let (X, ) be any topological space. Then the members of are said
to be open sets.
1.2.2 Proposition. If (X, ) is any topological space, then
(i) X and are open sets,
(ii) the union of any (nite or innite) number of open sets is an open set and
(iii) the intersection of any nite number of open sets is an open set.
Proof. Clearly (i) and (ii) are trivial consequences of Denition 1.2.1 and Denitions 1.1.1 (i)
and (ii). The condition (iii) follows from Denition 1.2.1 and Exercises 1.1 #4.
On reading Proposition 1.2.2, a question should have popped into your mind: while any
nite or innite union of open sets is open, we state only that nite intersections of open sets
are open. Are innite intersections of open sets always open? The next example shows that the
answer is no.
1.2.3 Example. Let N be the set of all positive integers and let consist of and each
subset S of N such that the complement of S in N, N S, is a nite set. It is easily veried that
satises Denitions 1.1.1 and so is a topology on N. (In the next section we shall discuss this
topology further. It is called the nite-closed topology.) For each natural number n, dene the
set S
n
as follows:
S
n
= 1 n + 1 n + 2 n + 3 = 1
_
m=n+1
m.
Clearly each S
n
is an open set in the topology , since its complement is a nite set. However,
n=1
S
n
= 1. (1)
As the complement of 1 is neither N nor a nite set, 1 is not open. So (1) shows that the
intersection of the open sets S
n
is not open.
You might well ask: how did you nd the example presented in Example 1.2.3? The answer
is unglamorous! It was by trial and error.
If we tried, for example, a discrete topology, we would nd that each intersection of open
sets is indeed open. The same is true of the indiscrete topology. So what you need to do is some
intelligent guesswork.
Remember that to prove that the intersection of open sets is not necessarily open, you need
to nd just one counterexample!
1.2.4 Denition. Let (X, ) be a topological space. A subset S of X is said to be a
closed set in (X, ) if its complement in X, namely X S, is open in (X, ).
In Example 1.1.2, the closed sets are
, X, b, c, d, e, f, a, b, e, f, b, e, f and a.
If (X, ) is a discrete space, then it is obvious that every subset of X is a closed set. However in
an indiscrete space, (X, ), the only closed sets are X and .
1.2. OPEN SETS 21
1.2.5 Proposition. If (X, ) is any topological space, then
(i) and X are closed sets,
(ii) the intersection of any (nite or innite) number of closed sets is a closed set and
(iii) the union of any nite number of closed sets is a closed set.
Proof. (i) follows immediately from Proposition 1.2.2 (i) and Denition 1.2.4, as the
complement of X is and the complement of is X.
To prove that (iii) is true, let S
1
, S
2
, . . . , S
n
be closed sets. We are required to prove that
S
1
S
2
S
n
is a closed set. It suces to show, by Denition 1.2.4, that X(S
1
S
2
S
n
)
is an open set.
As S
1
, S
2
, . . . , S
n
are closed sets, their complements X S
1
, X S
2
, . . . , X S
n
are open
sets. But
X (S
1
S
2
S
n
) = (X S
1
) (X S
2
) (X S
n
). (1)
As the right hand side of (1) is a nite intersection of open sets, it is an open set. So the
left hand side of (1) is an open set. Hence S
1
S
2
S
n
is a closed set, as required. So (iii)
is true.
The proof of (ii) is similar to that of (iii). [However, you should read the warning in the
proof of Example 1.3.9.]
Warning. The names open and closed often lead newcomers to the world of topology into
error. Despite the names, some open sets are also closed sets! Moreover, some sets are neither
open sets nor closed sets! Indeed, if we consider Example 1.1.2 we see that
(i) the set a is both open and closed;
(ii) the set b, c is neither open nor closed;
(iii) the set c, d is open but not closed;
(iv) the set a, b, e, f is closed but not open.
In a discrete space every set is both open and closed, while in an indiscrete space (X, ), all
subsets of X except X and are neither open nor closed.
To remind you that sets can be both open and closed we introduce the following denition.
1.2.6 Denition. A subset S of a topological space (X, ) is said to be clopen if it is
both open and closed in (X, ).
In every topological space (X, ) both X and are clopen
1
.
In a discrete space all subsets of X are clopen.
In an indiscrete space the only clopen subsets are X and .
Exercises 1.2
1. List all 64 subsets of the set X in Example 1.1.2. Write down, next to each set, whether
it is (i) clopen; (ii) neither open nor closed; (iii) open but not closed; (iv) closed but not
open.
2. Let (X, ) be a topological space with the property that every subset is closed. Prove that
it is a discrete space.
1
We admit that clopen is an ugly word but its use is now widespread.
1.2. OPEN SETS 23
3. Observe that if (X, ) is a discrete space or an indiscrete space,then every open set is a
clopen set. Find a topology on the set X = a, b, c, d which is not discrete and is not
indiscrete but has the property that every open set is clopen.
4. Let X be an innite set. If is a topology on X such that every innite subset of X is
closed, prove that is the discrete topology.
5. Let X be an innite set and a topology on X with the property that the only innite
subset of X which is open is X itself. Is (X, ) necessarily an indiscrete space?
6. (i) Let be a topology on a set X such that consists of precisely four
sets; that is, = X, , A, B, where A and B are non-empty distinct proper subsets
of X. [A is a proper subset of X means that A X and A ,= X. This is denoted by
A X.] Prove that A and B must satisfy exactly one of the following conditions:
(a) B = X A; (b) A B; (c) B A.
[Hint. Firstly show that A and B must satisfy at least one of the conditions and then
show that they cannot satisfy more than one of the conditions.]
(ii) Using (i) list all topologies on X = 1, 2, 3, 4 which consist of exactly four sets.
1.3 The Finite-Closed Topology
It is usual to dene a topology on a set by stating which sets are open. However, sometimes
it is more natural to describe the topology by saying which sets are closed. The next denition
provides one such example.
1.3.1 Denition. Let X be any non-empty set. A topology on X is called the nite-
closed topology or the conite topology if the closed subsets of X are X and all nite subsets
of X; that is, the open sets are and all subsets of X which have nite complements.
Once again it is necessary to check that in Denition 1.3.1 is indeed a topology; that is,
that it satises each of the conditions of Denitions 1.1.1.
Note that Denition 1.3.1 does not say that every topology which has X and the nite
subsets of X closed is the nite-closed topology. These must be the only closed sets. [Of
course, in the discrete topology on any set X, the set X and all nite subsets of X are indeed
closed, but so too are all other subsets of X.]
In the nite-closed topology all nite sets are closed. However, the following example shows
that innite subsets need not be open sets.
1.3.2 Example. If N is the set of all positive integers, then sets such as 1, 5, 6, 7, 2, 4, 6, 8
are nite and hence closed in the nite-closed topology. Thus their complements
2, 3, 4, 5, . . ., 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, . . ., 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, . . .
are open sets in the nite-closed topology. On the other hand, the set of even positive integers is
not a closed set since it is not nite and hence its complement, the set of odd positive integers,
is not an open set in the nite-closed topology.
So while all nite sets are closed, not all innite sets are open.
1.3. FINITE-CLOSED TOPOLOGY 25
1.3.3 Example. Let be the nite-closed topology on a set X. If X has at least 3 distinct
clopen subsets, prove that X is a nite set.
Proof.
We are given that is the nite-closed topology, and that there are at least 3 distinct
clopen subsets.
We are required to prove that X is a nite set.
Recall that is the nite-closed topology means that the family of all closed sets
consists of X and all nite subsets of X. Recall also that a set is clopen if and only if
it is both closed and open.
Remember that in every topological space there are at least 2 clopen sets, namely
X and . (See the comment immediately following Denition 1.2.6.) But we are told
that in the space (X, ) there are at least 3 clopen subsets. This implies that there is a
clopen subset other than and X. So we shall have a careful look at this other clopen
set!
As our space (X, ) has 3 distinct clopen subsets, we know that there is a clopen subset
S of X such that S ,= X and S ,= . As S is open in (X, ), Denition 1.2.4 implies that its
complement X S is a closed set.
Thus S and XS are closed in the nite-closed topology . Therefore S and XS are both
nite, since neither equals X. But X = S (XS) and so X is the union of two nite sets. Thus
X is a nite set, as required.
We now know three distinct topologies we can put on any innite set and there are many
more. The three we know are the discrete topology, the indiscrete topology, and the nite-closed
topology. So we must be careful always to specify the topology on a set.
For example, the set n : n 10 is open in the nite-closed topology on the set of natural
numbers, but is not open in the indiscrete topology. The set of odd natural numbers is open in
the discrete topology on the set of natural numbers, but is not open in the nite-closed topology.
We shall now record some denitions which you have probably met before.
1.3.4 Denitions. Let f be a function from a set X into a set Y .
(i) The function f is said to be one-to-one or injective if f(x
1
) = f(x
2
) implies x
1
= x
2
,
for x
1
, x
2
X;
(ii) The function f is said to be onto or surjective if for each y Y there exists an x X
such that f(x) = y;
(iii) The function f is said to be bijective if it is both one-to-one and onto.
1.3.5 Denitions. Let f be a function from a set X into a set Y . The function f is said
to have an inverse if there exists a function g of Y into X such that g(f(x)) = x, for all
x X and f(g(y)) = y, for all y Y . The function g is called an inverse function of f.
The proof of the following proposition is left as an exercise for you.
1.3.6 Proposition. Let f be a function from a set X into a set Y .
(i) The function f has an inverse if and only if f is bijective.
(ii) Let g
1
and g
2
be functions from Y into X. If g
1
and g
2
are both inverse functions of f,
then g
1
= g
2
; that is, g
1
(y) = g
2
(y), for all y Y .
(iii) Let g be a function from Y into X. Then g is an inverse function of f if and only if f
is an inverse function of g.
Warning. It is a very common error for students to think that a function is one-to-one if it
maps one point to one point.
All functions map one point to one point. Indeed this is part of the denition of a function.
A one-to-one function is a function that maps dierent points to dierent points.
We now turn to a very important notion that you may not have met before.
1.3.7 Denition. Let f be a function from a set X into a set Y . If S is any subset of
Y , then the set f
1
(S) is dened by
f
1
(S) = x : x X and f(x) S.
The subset f
1
(S) of X is said to be the inverse image of S.
Note that an inverse function of f : X Y exists if and only if f is bijective. But the inverse
image of any subset of Y exists even if f is neither one-to-one nor onto. The next example
demonstrates this.
1.3.8 Example. Let f be the function from the set of integers, Z, into itself given by f(z) = [z[,
for each z Z.
The function f is not one-to one, since f(1) = f(1).
It is also not onto, since there is no z Z, such that f(z) = 1. So f is certainly not
bijective. Hence, by Proposition 1.3.6 (i), f does not have an inverse function. However inverse
images certainly exist. For example,
f
1
(1, 2, 3) = 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3
f
1
(5, 3, 5, 7, 9) = 3, 5, 7, 9, 3, 5, 7, 9.
We conclude this section with an interesting example.
1.3.9 Example. Let (Y, ) be a topological space and X a non-empty set. Further, let f be
a function from X into Y . Put
1
= f
1
(S) : S . Prove that
1
is a topology on X.
Proof.
Our task is to show that the collection of sets,
1
, is a topology on X; that is, we have
to show that
1
satises conditions (i), (ii) and (iii) of Denitions
1.1.1.
X
1
since X = f
1
(Y ) and Y .

1
since = f
1
() and .
Therefore
1
has property (i) of Denitions 1.1.1.
To verify condition (ii) of Denitions 1.1.1, let A
j
: j J be a collection of members of
1
, for some index set J. We have to show that
jJ
A
j

1
. As A
j

1
, the denition
of
1
implies that A
j
= f
1
(B
j
), where B
j
. Also
jJ
A
j
=
jJ
f
1
(B
j
) = f
1
_
jJ
B
j
_
.
[See Exercises 1.3 # 1.]
Now B
j
, for all j J, and so
jJ
B
j
, since is a topology on Y . Therefore, by
the denition of
1
, f
1
_
jJ
B
j
_

1
; that is,
jJ
A
j

1
.
So
1
has property (ii) of Denitions 1.1.1.
[Warning. You are reminded that not all sets are countable. (See the Appendix for comments
on countable sets.) So it would not suce, in the above argument, to assume that sets
A
1
, A
2
. . . . , A
n
, . . . are in
1
and show that their union A
1
A
2
. . . A
n
. . . is in
1
. This
would prove only that the union of a countable number of sets in
1
lies in
1
, but would not
show that
1
has property (ii) of Denitions 1.1.1 this property requires all unions, whether
countable or uncountable, of sets in
1
to be in
1
.]
Finally, let A
1
and A
2
be in
1
. We have to show that A
1
A
2

1
.
As A
1
, A
2

1
, A
1
= f
1
(B
1
) and A
2
= f
1
(B
2
), where B
1
, B
2
.
A
1
A
2
= f
1
(B
1
) f
1
(B
2
) = f
1
(B
1
B
2
). [See Exercises 1.3 #1.]
As B
1
B
2
, we have f
1
(B
1
B
2
)
1
. Hence A
1
A
2

1
, and we have shown that
1
also has property (iii) of Denitions 1.1.1.
So
1
is indeed a topology on X.
Exercises 1.3
1. Let f be a function from a set X into a set Y . Then we stated in Example 1.3.9 that
f
1
_
_
jJ
B
j
_
=
_
jJ
f
1
(B
j
) (1)
and
f
1
(B
1
B
2
) = f
1
(B
1
) f
1
(B
2
) (2)
for any subsets B
j
of Y , and any index set J.
(a) Prove that (1) is true.
[Hint. Start your proof by letting x be any element of the set on the left-hand side and
show that it is in the set on the right-hand side. Then do the reverse.]
(b) Prove that (2) is true.
(c) Find (concrete) sets A
1
, A
2
, X, and Y and a function f : X Y such that f(A
1
A
2
) ,=
f(A
1
) f(A
2
), where A
1
X and A
2
X.
2. Is the topology described in Exercises 1.1 #6 (ii) the nite-closed topology? (Justify your
answer.)
3. A topological space (X, ) is said to be a T
1
-space if every singleton set x is closed
in (X, ). Show that precisely two of the following nine topological spaces are T
1
-spaces.
(Justify your answer.)
(i) a discrete space;
(ii) an indiscrete space with at least two points;
(iii) an innite set with the nite-closed topology;
(iv) Example 1.1.2;
(v) Exercises 1.1 #5 (i);
(vi) Exercises 1.1 #5 (ii);
(vii) Exercises 1.1 #5 (iii);
(viii) Exercises 1.1 #6 (i);
(ix) Exercises 1.1 #6 (ii).
4. Let be the nite-closed topology on a set X. If is also the discrete topology, prove
that the set X is nite.
5. A topological space (X, ) is said to be a T
0
-space if for each pair of distinct points a, b
in X, either there exists an open set containing a and not b, or there exists an open set
containing b and not a.
(i) Prove that every T
1
-space is a T
0
-space.
(ii) Which of (i)(vi) in Exercise 3 above are T
0
-spaces? (Justify your answer.)
(iii) Put a topology on the set X = 0, 1 so that (X, ) will be a T
0
-space but not a
T
1
-space. [The topological space you obtain is called the Sierpinski space.]
(iv) Prove that each of the topological spaces described in Exercises 1.1 #6 is a T
0
-space.
(Observe that in Exercise 3 above we saw that neither is a T
1
-space.)
6. Let X be any innite set. The countable-closed topology is dened to be the topology
having as its closed sets X and all countable subsets of X. Prove that this is indeed a
topology on X.
7. Let
1
and
2
be two topologies on a set X. Prove each of the following statements.
1.4. POSTSCRIPT 31
(i) If
3
is dened by
3
=
1

2
, then
3
is not necessarily a topology on X. (Justify
your answer, by nding a concrete example.)
(ii) If
4
is dened by
4
=
1

2
, then
4
is a topology on X. (The topology
4
is
said to be the intersection of the topologies
1
and
2
.)
(iii) If (X,
1
) and (X,
2
) are T
1
-spaces, then (X,
4
) is also a T
1
-space.
(iv) If (X,
1
) and (X,
2
) are T
0
-spaces, then (X,
4
) is not necessarily a T
0
-space. (Justify
your answer by nding a concrete example.)
(v) If
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
are topologies on a set X, then =
n
i=1
i
is a topology on X.
(vi) If for each i I, for some index set I, each
i
is a topology on the set X, then
=
iI
i
is a topology on X.
1.4 Postscript
In this chapter we introduced the fundamental notion of a topological space. As examples we saw
various nite spaces, as well as discrete spaces, indiscrete spaces and spaces with the nite-closed
topology. None of these is a particularly important example as far as applications are concerned.
However, in Exercises 4.3 #8, it is noted that every innite topological space contains an
innite topological space with one of the ve topologies: the indiscrete topology, the discrete
topology, the nite-closed topology, the initial segment topology, or the nal segment topology
of Exercises 1.1 #6. In the next chapter we describe the very important euclidean topology.
En route we met the terms open set and closed set and we were warned that these
names can be misleading. Sets can be both open and closed, neither open nor closed, open but
not closed, or closed but not open. It is important to remember that we cannot prove that a set
is open by proving that it is not closed.
Other than the denitions of topology, topological space, open set, and closed set the most
signicant topic covered was that of writing proofs.
In the opening comments of this chapter we pointed out the importance of learning to write
proofs. In Example 1.1.8, Proposition 1.1.9, and Example 1.3.3 we have seen how to think
through a proof. It is essential that you develop your own skill at writing proofs. Good exercises
to try for this purpose include Exercises 1.1 #8, Exercises 1.2 #2,4, and Exercises 1.3 #1,4.
Some students are confused by the notion of topology as it involves sets of sets. To check
your understanding, do Exercises 1.1 #3.
The exercises included the notions of T
0
-space and T
1
-space which will be formally introduced
later. These are known as separation properties.
Finally we emphasize the importance of inverse images. These are dealt with in Example
1.3.9 and Exercises 1.3 #1. Our denition of continuous mapping will rely on inverse images.
Chapter 2
The Euclidean Topology
Introduction
In a movie or a novel there are usually a few central characters about whom the plot revolves.
In the story of topology, the euclidean topology on the set of real numbers is one of the central
characters. Indeed it is such a rich example that we shall frequently return to it for inspiration
and further examination.
Let R denote the set of all real numbers. In Chapter 1 we dened three topologies that can
be put on any set: the discrete topology, the indiscrete topology and the nite-closed topology.
So we know three topologies that can be put on the set R. Six other topologies on R were
dened in Exercises 1.1 #5 and #9. In this chapter we describe a much more important and
interesting topology on R which is known as the euclidean topology.
An analysis of the euclidean topology leads us to the notion of basis for a topology. In
the study of Linear Algebra we learn that every vector space has a basis and every vector is a
linear combination of members of the basis. Similarly, in a topological space every open set can
be expressed as a union of members of the basis. Indeed, a set is open if and only if it is a union
of members of the basis.
33
34 CHAPTER 2. THE EUCLIDEAN TOPOLOGY
2.1 The Euclidean Topology on RRR
2.1.1 Denition. A subset S of R is said to be open in the euclidean topology on R if
it has the following property:
() For each x S, there exist a, b in R, with a < b, such that x (a, b) S.
Notation. Whenever we refer to the topological space R without specifying the topology, we
mean R with the euclidean topology.
2.1.2 Remarks. (i) The euclidean topology is a topology.
Proof.
We are required to show that satises conditions (i), (ii), and (iii) of Denitions
1.1.1.
We are given that a set is in if and only if it has property .
Firstly, we show that R . Let x R. If we put a = x1 and b = x+1, then x (a, b) R;
that is, R has property and so R . Secondly, as has property by default.
Now let A
j
: j J, for some index set J, be a family of members of . Then we have to
show that
jJ
A
j
; that is, we have to show that
jJ
A
j
has property . Let x

jJ
A
j
.
Then x A
k
, for some k J. As A
k
, there exist a and b in R with a < b such that
x (a, b) A
k
. As k J, A
k

jJ
A
j
and so x (a, b)
jJ
A
j
. Hence
jJ
A
j
has property
and thus is in , as required.
Finally, let A
1
and A
2
be in . We have to prove that A
1
A
2
. So let y A
1
A
2
.
Then y A
1
. As A
1
, there exist a and b in R with a < b such that y (a, b) A
1
. Also
y A
2
. So there exist c and d in R with c < d such that y (c, d) A
2
. Let e be the greater
of a and c, and f the smaller of b and d. It is easily checked that e < y < f, and so y (e, f). As
(e, f) (a, b) A
1
and (e, f) (c, d) A
2
, we deduce that y (e, f) A
1
A
2
. Hence A
1
A
2
has property and so is in .
Thus is indeed a topology on R.
2.1. EUCLIDEAN TOPOLOGY 35
We now proceed to describe the open sets and the closed sets in the euclidean topology on
R. In particular, we shall see that all open intervals are indeed open sets in this topology and all
closed intervals are closed sets.
(ii) Let r, s R with r < s. In the euclidean topology on R, the open interval (r, s) does
indeed belong to and so is an open set.
Proof.
We are given the open interval (r, s).
We must show that (r, s) is open in the euclidean topology; that is, we have to show
that (r, s) has property () of Denition 2.1.1.
So we shall begin by letting x (r, s). We want to nd a and b in R with a < b such
that x (a, b) (r, s).
Let x (r, s). Choose a = r and b = s. Then clearly
x (a, b) (r, s).
So (r, s) is an open set in the euclidean topology.
(iii) The open intervals (r, ) and (, r) are open sets in R, for every real number r.
Proof.
Firstly, we shall show that (r, ) is an open set; that is, that it has property ().
To show this we let x (r, ) and seek a, b R such that
x (a, b) (r, ).
Let x (r, ). Put a = r and b = x + 1. Then x (a, b) (r, ) and so (r, ) .
A similar argument shows that (, r) is an open set in R.
(iv) It is important to note that while every open interval is an open set in R, the converse
is false. Not all open sets in R are intervals. For example, the set (1, 3) (5, 6) is an open set in
R, but it is not an open interval. Even the set
n=1
(2n, 2n + 1) is an open set in R.
(v) For each c and d in R with c < d, the closed interval [c, d] is not an open set in R.
Proof.
We have to show that [c, d] does not have property ().
To do this it suces to nd any one x such that there is no a, b having property ().
Obviously c and d are very special points in the interval [c, d]. So we shall choose
x = c and show that no a, b with the required property exist.
We use the method of proof called proof by contradiction. We suppose that a and
b exist with the required property and show that this leads to a contradiction, that is
something which is false. Consequently the supposition is false! Hence no such a and
b exist. Thus [c, d] does not have property () and so is not an open set.
Observe that c [c, d]. Suppose there exist a and b in R with a < b such that c (a, b) [c, d].
Then c (a, b) implies a < c < b and so a <
c+a
2
< c < b. Thus
c+a
2
(a, b) and
c+a
2
/ [c, d]. Hence
(a, b) , [c, d], which is a contradiction. So there do not exist a and b such that c (a, b) [c, d].
Hence [c, d] does not have property () and so [c, d] / .
(vi) For each a and b in R with a < b, the closed interval [a, b] is a closed set in the euclidean
topology on R.
Proof. To see that it is closed we have to observe only that its complement (, a) (b, ),
being the union of two open sets, is an open set.
(vii) Each singleton set a is closed in R.
Proof. The complement of a is the union of the two open sets (, a) and (a, ) and so is
open. Therefore a is closed in R, as required.
[In the terminology of Exercises 1.3 #3, this result says that R is a T
1
-space.]
2.1. EUCLIDEAN TOPOLOGY 37
(viii) Note that we could have included (vii) in (vi) simply by replacing a < b by a b.
The singleton set a is just the degenerate case of the closed interval [a, b].
(ix) The set Z of all integers is a closed subset of R.
Proof. The complement of Z is the union
n=
(n, n +1) of open subsets (n, n +1) of R and
so is open in R. Therefore Z is closed in R.
(x) The set Q of all rational numbers is neither a closed subset of R nor an open subset of
R.
Proof.
We shall show that Q is not an open set by proving that it does not have property ().
To do this it suces to show that Q does not contain any interval (a, b), with a < b.
Suppose that (a, b) Q, where a and b are in R with a < b. Between any two distinct real
numbers there is an irrational number. (Can you prove this?) Therefore there exists c (a, b)
such that c / Q. This contradicts (a, b) Q. Hence Q does not contain any interval (a, b), and
so is not an open set.
To prove that Q is not a closed set it suces to show that R Q is not an open set. Using
the fact that between any two distinct real numbers there is a rational number we see that R Q
does not contain any interval (a, b) with a < b. So R Q is not open in R and hence Q is not
closed in R.
(xi) In Chapter 3 we shall prove that the only clopen subsets of R are the trivial ones,
namely R and .
Exercises 2.1
1. Prove that if a, b R with a < b then neither [a, b) nor (a, b] is an open subset of R. Also
show that neither is a closed subset of R.
2. Prove that the sets [a, ) and (, a] are closed subsets of R.
3. Show, by example, that the union of an innite number of closed subsets of R is not
necessarily a closed subset of R.
4. Prove each of the following statements.
(i) The set Z of all integers is not an open subset of R.
(ii) The set S of all prime numbers is a closed subset of R but not an open subset of R.
(iii) The set P of all irrational numbers is neither a closed subset nor an open subset of R.
5. If F is a non-empty nite subset of R, show that F is closed in R but that F is not open in
R.
6. If F is a non-empty countable subset of R, prove that F is not an open set.
7. (i) Let S = 0, 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, . . . , 1/n, . . .. Prove that the set S is closed in the
euclidean topology on R.
(ii) Is the set T = 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, . . . , 1/n, . . . closed in R?
(iii) Is the set
2, 2
2, 3
2, . . . , n
2, . . . closed in R?
8. (i) Let (X, ) be a topological space. A subset S of X is said to be an F
-set if it is the
union of a countable number of closed sets. Prove that all open intervals (a, b) and all
closed intervals [a, b], are F
-sets in R.
(ii) Let (X, ) be a topological space. A subset T of X is said to be a G
-set if it is the
intersection of a countable number of open sets. Prove that all open intervals (a, b)
and all closed intervals [a, b] are G
-sets in R.
(iii) Prove that the set Q of rationals is an F
-set in R. (In Exercises 6.5#3 we prove that

Q is not a G
-set in R.)
(iv) Verify that the complement of an F
-set is a G
-set and the complement of a G
-set
is an F
-set.
2.2. BASIS FOR A TOPOLOGY 39
2.2 Basis for a Topology
Remarks 2.1.2 allow us to describe the euclidean topology on R in a much more convenient
manner. To do this, we introduce the notion of a basis for a topology.
2.2.1 Proposition. A subset S of R is open if and only if it is a union of open intervals.
Proof.
We are required to prove that S is open if and only if it is a union of open intervals;
that is, we have to show that
(i) if S is a union of open intervals, then it is an open set, and
(ii) if S is an open set, then it is a union of open intervals.
Assume that S is a union of open intervals; that is, there exist open intervals (a
j
, b
j
), where j
belongs to some index set J, such that S =
jJ
(a
j
, b
j
). By Remarks 2.1.2 (ii) each open interval
(a
j
, b
j
) is an open set. Thus S is a union of open sets and so S is an open set.
Conversely, assume that S is open in R. Then for each x S, there exists an interval
I
x
= (a, b) such that x I
x
S. We now claim that S =
xS
I
x
.
We are required to show that the two sets S and
xS
I
x
are equal.
These sets are shown to be equal by proving that
(i) if y S, then y
xS
I
x
, and
(ii) if z
xS
I
x
, then z S.
[Note that (i) is equivalent to the statement S

xS
I
x
, while (ii) is equivalent to
xS
I
x
S.]
Firstly let y S. Then y I
y
. So y

xS
I
x
, as required. Secondly, let z

xS
I
x
. Then
z I
t
, for some t S. As each I
x
S, we see that I
t
S and so z S. Hence S =
xS
I
x
, and
we have that S is a union of open intervals, as required.
The above proposition tells us that in order to describe the topology of R it suces to say
that all intervals (a, b) are open sets. Every other open set is a union of these open sets. This
leads us to the following denition.
2.2.2 Denition. Let (X, ) be a topological space. A collection B of open subsets of
X is said to be a basis for the topology if every open set is a union of members of B.
If B is a basis for a topology on a set X then a subset U of X is in if and only if it is a
union of members of B. So B generates the topology in the following sense: if we are told
what sets are members of B then we can determine the members of they are just all the sets
which are unions of members of B.
2.2.3 Example. Let B = (a, b) : a, b R, a < b. Then B is a basis for the euclidean topology
on R, by Proposition 2.2.1.
2.2.4 Example. Let (X, ) be a discrete space and B the family of all singleton subsets of
X; that is, B = x : x X. Then, by Proposition 1.1.9, B is a basis for .
1
= X, , a, c, d, a, c, d, b, c, d, e, f.
Then B = a, c, d, b, c, d, e, f is a basis for
1
as B
1
and every member of
1
can be
expressed as a union of members of B. (Observe that is an empty union of members of B.)
Note that
1
itself is also a basis for
1
.
2.2.6 Remark. Observe that if (X, ) is a topological space then B = is a basis for the
topology . So, for example, the set of all subsets of X is a basis for the discrete topology on X.
We see, therefore, that there can be many dierent bases for the same topology. Indeed
if B is a basis for a topology on a set X and B
1
is a collection of subsets of X such that
B B
1
, then B
1
is also a basis for . [Verify this.]
As indicated above the notion of basis for a topology allows us to dene topologies.
However the following example shows that we must be careful.
2.2.7 Example. Let X = a, b, c and B = a, c, a, b, b, c. Then B is not a basis for
any topology on X. To see this, suppose that B is a basis for a topology . Then consists
of all unions of sets in B; that is,
= X, , a, c, a, c, a, b, b, c.
(Once again we use the fact that is an empty union of members of B and so .)
However, is not a topology since the set b = a, b b, c is not in and so does not
have property (iii) of Denitions 1.1.1. This is a contradiction, and so our supposition is false.
Thus B is not a basis for any topology on X.
Thus we are led to ask: if B is a collection of subsets of X, under what conditions is B a
basis for a topology? This question is answered by Proposition 2.2.8.
2.2.8 Proposition. Let X be a non-empty set and let B be a collection of subsets of X.
Then B is a basis for a topology on X if and only if B has the following properties:
(a) X =
BB
B, and
(b) for any B
1
, B
2
B, the set B
1
B
2
is a union of members of B.
Proof. If B is a basis for a topology then must have the properties (i), (ii), and (iii) of
Denitions 1.1.1. In particular X must be an open set and the intersection of any two open sets
must be an open set. As the open sets are just the unions of members of B, this implies that (a)
and (b) above are true.
Conversely, assume that B has properties (a) and (b) and let be the collection of all subsets
of X which are unions of members of B. We shall show that is a topology on X. (If so then
B is obviously a basis for this topology and the proposition is true.)
By (a), X =
BB
B and so X . Note that is an empty union of members of B and so
. So we see that does have property (i) of Denitions 1.1.1.
Now let T
j
be a family of members of . Then each T
j
is a union of members of B. Hence
the union of all the T
j
is also a union of members of B and so is in . Thus also satises
condition (ii) of Denitions 1.1.1.
Finally let C and D be in . We need to verify that C D . But C =
kK
B
k
, for some
index set K and sets B
k
B. Also D =
jJ
B
j
, for some index set J and B
j
B. Therefore
C D =
_
_
kK
B
k
_

_
_
jJ
B
j
_
=
_
kK, jJ
(B
k
B
j
).
You should verify that the two expressions for C D are indeed equal!
In the nite case this involves statements like
(B
1
B
2
) (B
3
B
4
) = (B
1
B
3
) (B
1
B
4
) (B
2
B
3
) (B
2
B
4
).
By our assumption (b), each B
k
B
j
is a union of members of B and so C D is a union of
members of B. Thus C D . So has property (iii) of Denition 1.1.1. Hence is indeed
a topology, and B is a basis for this topology, as required.
Proposition 2.2.8 is a very useful result. It allows us to dene topologies by simply writing
down a basis. This is often easier than trying to describe all of the open sets.
We shall now use this Proposition to dene a topology on the plane. This topology is known
as the euclidean topology.
2.2.9 Example. Let B be the collection of all open rectangles
x, y) : x, y) R
2
, a < x < b, c < y < d in the plane which have each side parallel to the X-
or Y -axis.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
b
c
d
X
Y
....................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..........................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Then B is a basis for a topology on the plane. This topology is called the euclidean topology.
Whenever we use the symbol R
2
we mean the plane, and if we refer to R
2
as a topological
space without explicitly saying what the topology is, we mean the plane with the euclidean
topology.
To see that B is indeed a basis for a topology, observe that (i) the plane is the union of all of
the open rectangles, and (ii) the intersection of any two rectangles is a rectangle. [By rectangle
we mean one with sides parallel to the axes.] So the conditions of Proposition 2.2.8 are satised
and hence B is a basis for a topology.
2.2.10 Remark. By generalizing Example 2.2.9 we see how to put a topology on
R
n
= x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) : x
i
R, i = 1, . . . , n, for each integer n > 2.
We let B be the collection of all subsets x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) R
n
: a
i
< x
i
< b
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , n of
R
n
with sides parallel to the axes. This collection B is a basis for the euclidean topology on R
n
.
Exercises 2.2
1. In this exercise you will prove that disc x, y) : x
2
+ y
2
< 1 is an open subset of R
2
, and
then that every open disc in the plane is an open set.
(i) Let a, b) be any point in the disc D = x, y) : x
2
+ y
2
< 1. Put r =
a
2
+b
2
. Let
R
a,b
be the open rectangle with vertices at the points a
1r
8
, b
1r
8
). Verify that
R
a,b
D.
(ii) Using (i) show that
D =
_
a,bD
R
a,b
.
(iii) Deduce from (ii) that D is an open set in R
2
.
(iv) Show that every disc x, y) : (x a)
2
+ (y b)
2
< c
2
, a, b, c R is open in R
2
.
2. In this exercise you will show that the collection of all open discs in R
2
is a basis for a
topology on R
2
. [Later we shall see that this is the euclidean topology.]
(i) Let D
1
and D
2
be any open discs in R
2
with D
1
D
2
,= . If a, b) is any point in D
1
D
2
,
show that there exists an open disc D
a,b
with centre a, b) such that D
a,b
D
1
D
2
.
[Hint: draw a picture and use a method similar to that of Exercise 1 (i).]
(ii) Show that
D
1
D
2
=
_
a,bD
1
D
2
D
a,b
.
(iii) Using (ii) and Proposition 2.2.8, prove that the collection of all open discs in R
2
is a
basis for a topology on R
2
.
3. Let B be the collection of all open intervals (a, b) in R with a < b and a and b rational
numbers. Prove that B is a basis for the euclidean topology on R. [Compare this with
Proposition 2.2.1 and Example 2.2.3 where a and b were not necessarily rational.]
[Hint: do not use Proposition 2.2.8 as this would show only that B is a basis for some
topology not necessarily a basis for the euclidean topology.]
4. A topological space (X, ) is said to satisfy the second axiom of countability if there exists
a basis B for such that B consists of only a countable number of sets.
(i) Using Exercise 3 above show that R satises the second axiom of countability.
(ii) Prove that the discrete topology on an uncountable set does not satisfy the second
axiom of countability.
[Hint. It is not enough to show that one particular basis is uncountable. You must
prove that every basis for this topology is uncountable.]
(iii) Prove that R
n
satises the second axiom of countability, for each positive integer n.
(iv) Let (X, ) be the set of all integers with the nite-closed topology. Does the space
(X, ) satisfy the second axiom of countability?
5. Prove the following statements.
(i) Let m and c be real numbers, with m ,= 0. Then the line L = x, y) : y = mx +c is a
closed subset of R
2
.
(ii) Let S
1
be the unit circle given by S
1
= x, y) R
2
: x
2
+y
2
= 1. Then S
1
is a closed
subset of R
2
.
(iii) Let S
n
be the unit n-sphere given by
S
n
= x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, x
n+1
) R
n+1
: x
2
1
+x
2
2
+ +x
2
n+1
= 1.
Then S
n
is a closed subset of R
n+1
.
(iv) Let B
n
be the closed unit n-ball given by
B
n
= x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) R
n
: x
2
1
+x
2
2
+ +x
2
n
1.
Then B
n
is a closed subset of R
n
.
(v) The curve C = x, y) R
2
: xy = 1 is a closed subset of R
2
.
6. Let B
1
be a basis for a topology
1
on a set X and B
2
a basis for a topology
2
on a set Y .
The set X Y consists of all ordered pairs x, y), x X and y Y . Let B be the collection
of subsets of X Y consisting of all the sets B
1
B
2
where B
1
B
1
and B
2
B
2
. Prove
that B is a basis for a topology on X Y . The topology so dened is called the product
topology on X Y .
[Hint. See Example 2.2.9.]
7. Using Exercise 3 above and Exercises 2.1 #8, prove that every open subset of R is an F
-set
and a G
-set.
2.3 Basis for a Given Topology
Proposition 2.2.8 told us under what conditions a collection B of subsets of a set X is a basis for
some topology on X. However sometimes we are given a topology on X and we want to know
whether B is a basis for this specic topology . To verify that B is a basis for we could simply
apply Denition 2.2.2 and show that every member of is a union of members of B. However,
Proposition 2.3.2 provides us with an alternative method.
But rst we present an example which shows that there is a dierence between saying that a
collection B of subsets of X is a basis for some topology, and saying that it is a basis for a given
topology.
2.3.1 Example. Let B be the collection of all half-open intervals of the form (a, b], a < b,
where (a, b] = x : x R, a < x b. Then B is a basis for a topology on R, since R is the union
of all members of B and the intersection of any two half-open intervals is a half-open interval.
However, the topology
1
which has B as its basis, is not the euclidean topology on R. We
can see this by observing that (a, b] is an open set in R with topology
1
, while (a, b] is not an
open set in R with the euclidean topology. (See Exercises 2.1 #1.) So B is a basis for some
topology but not a basis for the euclidean topology on R.
2.3. BASIS FOR A GIVEN TOPOLOGY 47
2.3.2 Proposition. Let (X, ) be a topological space. A family B of open subsets of X
is a basis for if and only if for any point x belonging to any open set U, there is a B B
such that x B U.
Proof.
We are required to prove that
(i) if B is a basis for and x U , then there exists a B B such that x B U,
and
(ii) if for each U and x U there exists a B B such that x B U, then B is
a basis for .
Assume B is a basis for and x U . As B is a basis for , the open set U is a union
of members of B; that is, U =
jJ
B
j
, where B
j
B, for each j in some index set J. But x U
implies x B
j
, for some j J. Thus x B
j
U, as required.
Conversely, assume that for each U and each x U, there exists a B B with x B U.
We have to show that every open set is a union of members of B. So let V be any open set.
Then for each x V , there is a B
x
B such that x B
x
V . Clearly V =
xV
B
x
. (Check
this!) Thus V is a union of members of B.
2.3.3 Proposition. Let B be a basis for a topology on a set X. Then a subset U of
X is open if and only if for each x U there exists a B B such that x B U.
Proof. Let U be any subset of X. Assume that for each x U, there exists a B
x
B such that
x B
x
U. Clearly U =
xU
B
x
. So U is a union of open sets and hence is open, as required.
The converse statement follows from Proposition 2.3.2.
Observe that the basis property described in Proposition 2.3.3 is precisely what we used in
dening the euclidean topology on R. We said that a subset U of R is open if and only if for
each x U, there exist a and b in R with a < b, such that x (a, b) U.
Warning. Make sure that you understand the dierence between Proposition 2.2.8 and Proposition
2.3.2. Proposition 2.2.8 gives conditions for a family B of subsets of a set X to be a basis for
some topology on X. However, Proposition 2.3.2 gives conditions for a family B of subsets of a
topological space (X, ) to be a basis for the given topology .
We have seen that a topology can have many dierent bases. The next proposition tells us
when two bases B
1
and B
2
on the same set X dene the same topology.
2.3.4 Proposition. Let B
1
and B
2
be bases for topologies
1
and
2
, respectively, on a
non-empty set X. Then
1
=
2
if and only if
(i) for each B B
1
and each x B, there exists a B
B
2
such that x B
B, and
(ii) for each B B
2
and each x B, there exists a B
B
1
such that x B
B.
Proof.
We are required to show that B
1
and B
2
are bases for the same topology if and only if
(i) and (ii) are true.
Firstly we assume that they are bases for the same topology, that is
1
=
2
, and
show that conditions (i) and (ii) hold.
Next we assume that (i) and (ii) hold and show that
1
=
2
.
Firstly, assume that
1
=
2
. Then (i) and (ii) are immediate consequences of Proposition
2.3.2.
Conversely, assume that B
1
and B
2
satisfy the conditions (i) and (ii). By Proposition 2.3.2,
(i) implies that each B B
1
is open in (X,
2
); that is, B
1

2
. As every member of
1
is a
union of members of
2
this implies
1

2
. Similarly (ii) implies
2

1
. Hence
1
=
2
, as
required.
2.3.5 Example. Show that the set B of all open equilateral triangles with base parallel to
the X-axis is a basis for the euclidean topology on R
2
. (By an open triangle we mean that the
boundary is not included.)
Outline Proof. (We give here only a pictorial argument. It is left to you to write a detailed
proof.)
We are required to show that B is a basis for the euclidean topology.
We shall apply Proposition 2.3.4, but rst we need to show that B is a basis for some
topology on R
2
.
To do this we show that B satises the conditions of Proposition 2.2.8.
........
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X
Y
.................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
............................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The rst thing we observe is that B is a basis for some topology because it satises the
conditions of Proposition 2.2.8. (To see that B satises Proposition 2.2.8, observe that R
2
equals
the union of all open equilateral triangles with base parallel to the X-axis, and that the intersection
of two such triangles is another such triangle.)
Next we shall show that the conditions (i) and (ii) of Proposition 2.3.4 are satised.
Firstly we verify condition (i). Let R be an open rectangle with sides parallel to the axes and
any x any point in R. We have to show that there is an open equilateral triangle T with base
parallel to the X-axis such that x T R. Pictorially this is easy to see.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
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.
X
Y
...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .........................
........................ x
Finally we verify condition (ii) of Proposition 2.3.4. Let T
be an open equilateral triangle

with base parallel to the X-axis and let y be any point in T
. Then there exists an open rectangle

R
such that y R
. Pictorially, this is again easy to see.

......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
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......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
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......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
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......
......
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......
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......
......
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......
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X
Y
...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .........................
........................
y
So the conditions of Proposition 2.3.4 are satised. Thus B is indeed a basis for the euclidean
topology on R
2
.
In Example 2.2.9 we dened a basis for the euclidean topology to be the collection of all
open rectangles (with sides parallel to the axes). Example 2.3.5 shows that open rectangles
can be replaced by open equilateral triangles (with base parallel to the X-axis) without changing
the topology. In Exercises 2.3 #1 we see that the conditions above in brackets can be dropped
without changing the topology. Also open rectangles can be replaced by open discs
1
.
1
In fact, most books describe the euclidean topology on R
2
in terms of open discs.
Exercises 2.3
1. Determine whether or not each of the following collections is a basis for the euclidean
topology on R
2
:
(i) the collection of all open squares with sides parallel to the axes;
(ii) the collection of all open discs;
(iii) the collection of all open squares;
(iv) the collection of all open rectangles.
(v) the collection of all open triangles
2. (i) Let B be a basis for a topology on a non-empty set X. If B
1
is a collection of subsets
of X such that B
1
B, prove that B
1
is also a basis for .
(ii) Deduce from (i) that there exist an uncountable number of distinct bases for the
euclidean topology on R.
3. Let B = (a, b] : a, b R, a < b. As seen in Example 2.3.1, B is a basis for a topology on
R and is not the euclidean topology on R. Nevertheless, show that each interval (a, b) is
open in (R, ).
4.* Let C[0, 1] be the set of all continuous real-valued functions on [0, 1].
(i) Show that the collection /, where / = M(f, ) : f C[0, 1] and is a positive real
number and M(f, ) =
_
g : g C[0, 1] and
_
1
0
[f g[ <
_
, is a basis for a topology
1
on C[0, 1].
(ii) Show that the collection |, where | = U(f, ) : f C[0, 1] and is a positive real
number and U(f, ) = g : g C[0, 1] and sup
x[0,1]
[ f(x) g(x) [< , is a basis for a
topology
2
on C[0, 1].
(iii) Prove that
1
,=
2
.
5. Let (X, ) be a topological space. A non-empty collection o of open subsets of X is said
to be a subbasis for if the collection of all nite intersections of members of o forms a
basis for .
(i) Prove that the collection of all open intervals of the form (a, ) or (, b) is a subbasis
for the euclidean topology on R.
(ii) Prove that o = a, a, c, d, b, c, d, e, f is a subbasis for the topology
1
of Example
1.1.2.
6. Let o be a subbasis for a topology on the set R. (See Exercise 5 above.) If all of the
closed intervals [a, b], with a < b, are in o, prove that is the discrete topology.
7. Let X be a non-empty set and o the collection of all sets X x, x X. Prove o is a
subbasis for the nite-closed topology on X.
8. Let X be any innite set and the discrete topology on X. Find a subbasis o for such
that o does not contain any singleton sets.
9. Let o be the collection of all straight lines in the plane R
2
. If o is a subbasis for a topology
on the set R
2
, what is the topology?
10. Let o be the collection of all straight lines in the plane which are parallel to the X-axis. If
o is a subbasis for a topology on R
2
, describe the open sets in (R
2
, ).
11. Let o be the collection of all circles in the plane. If o is a subbasis for a topology on R
2
,
describe the open sets in (R
2
, ).
12. Let o be the collection of all circles in the plane which have their centres on the X-axis. If
o is a subbasis for a topology on R
2
, describe the open sets in (R
2
, ).
2.4. POSTSCRIPT 53
2.4 Postscript
In this chapter we have dened a very important topological space R, the set of all real numbers
with the euclidean topology, and spent some time analyzing it. We observed that, in this topology,
open intervals are indeed open sets (and closed intervals are closed sets). However, not all open
sets are open intervals. Nevertheless, every open set in R is a union of open intervals. This led us
to introduce the notion of basis for a topology and to establish that the collection of all open
intervals is a basis for the euclidean topology on R.
In the introduction to Chapter 1 we described a mathematical proof as a watertight argument
and underlined the importance of writing proofs. In this chapter we were introduced to proof by
contradiction in Remarks 2.1.2 (v) with another example in Example 2.2.7. Proving necessary
and sucient conditions, that is, if and only if conditions, was explained in Proposition 2.2.1,
with further examples in Propositions 2.2.8, 2.3.2, 2.3.3, and 2.3.4.
Bases for topologies is a signicant topic in its own right. We saw, for example, that the
collection of all singletons is a basis for the discrete topology. Proposition 2.2.8 gives necessary
and sucient conditions for a collection of subsets of a set X to be a basis for some topology
on X. This was contrasted with Proposition 2.3.2 which gives necessary and sucient conditions
for a collection of subsets of X to be a basis for the given topology on X. It was noted that
two dierent collections B
1
and B
2
can be bases for the same topology. Necessary and sucient
conditions for this are given by Proposition 2.3.4.
We dened the euclidean topology on R
n
, for n any positive integer. We saw that the family
of all open discs is a basis for R
2
, as is the family of all open squares, or the family of all open
rectangles.
The exercises introduced three interesting ideas. Exercises 2.1 #8 covered the notions of
F
-set and G
-set which are important in measure theory. Exercises 2.3 #4 introduced the space
of continuous real-valued functions. Such spaces are called function spaces which are the central
objects of study in functional analysis. Functional analysis is a blend of (classical) analysis and
topology, and was for some time called modern analysis, cf. Simmons [181]. Finally, Exercises
2.3 #512 dealt with the notion of subbasis.
Chapter 3
Limit Points
Introduction
On the real number line we have a notion of closeness. For example each point in the sequence
.1, .01, .001, .0001, .00001, . . . is closer to 0 than the previous one. Indeed, in some sense, 0 is a
limit point of this sequence. So the interval (0, 1] is not closed, as it does not contain the limit
point 0. In a general topological space we do not have a distance function, so we must proceed
dierently. We shall dene the notion of limit point without resorting to distances. Even with
our new denition of limit point, the point 0 will still be a limit point of (0, 1] . The introduction
of the notion of limit point will lead us to a much better understanding of the notion of closed
set.
Another very important topological concept we shall introduce in this chapter is that of
connectedness. Consider the topological space R. While the sets [0, 1] [2, 3] and [4, 6] could
both be described as having length 2, it is clear that they are dierent types of sets . . . the rst
consists of two disjoint pieces and the second of just one piece. The dierence between the two
is topological and will be exposed using the notion of connectedness.
54
3.1. LIMIT POINTS AND CLOSURE 55
3.1 Limit Points and Closure
If (X, ) is a topological space then it is usual to refer to the elements of the set X as points.
3.1.1 Denition. Let A be a subset of a topological space (X, ). A point x X is
said to be a limit point (or accumulation point or cluster point) of A if every open set, U,
containing x contains a point of A dierent from x.
3.1.2 Example. Consider the topological space (X, ) where the set X = a, b, c, d, e, the
topology = X, , a, c, d, a, c, d, b, c, d, e, and A = a, b, c. Then b, d, and e are limit
points of A but a and c are not limit points of A.
Proof.
The point a is a limit point of A if and only if every open set containing a contains
another point of the set A.
So to show that a is not a limit point of A, it suces to nd even one open set
which contains a but contains no other point of A.
The set a is open and contains no other point of A. So a is not a limit point of A.
The set c, d is an open set containing c but no other point of A. So c is not a limit point
of A.
To show that b is a limit point of A, we have to show that every open set containing b
contains a point of A other than b.
We shall show this is the case by writing down all of the open sets containing b and
verifying that each contains a point of A other than b.
The only open sets containing b are X and b, c, d, e and both contain another element of
A, namely c. So b is a limit point of A.
The point d is a limit point of A, even though it is not in A. This is so since every open set
containing d contains a point of A. Similarly e is a limit point of A even though it is not in A.
56 CHAPTER 3. LIMIT POINTS
3.1.3 Example. Let (X, ) be a discrete space and A a subset of X. Then A has no limit
points, since for each x X, x is an open set containing no point of A dierent from x.
3.1.4 Example. Consider the subset A = [a, b) of R. Then it is easily veried that every
element in [a, b) is a limit point of A. The point b is also a limit point of A.
3.1.5 Example. Let (X, ) be an indiscrete space and A a subset of X with at least two
elements. Then it is readily seen that every point of X is a limit point of A. (Why did we insist
that A have at least two points?)
The next proposition provides a useful way of testing whether a set is closed or not.
3.1.6 Proposition. Let A be a subset of a topological space (X, ). Then A is closed in
(X, ) if and only if A contains all of its limit points.
Proof.
We are required to prove that A is closed in (X, ) if and only if A contains all of its
limit points; that is, we have to show that
(i) if A is a closed set, then it contains all of its limit points, and
(ii) if A contains all of its limit points, then it is a closed set.
Assume that A is closed in (X, ). Suppose that p is a limit point of A which belongs to
X A. Then X A is an open set containing the limit point p of A. Therefore X A contains an
element of A. This is clearly false and so we have a contradiction to our supposition. Therefore
every limit point of A must belong to A.
Conversely, assume that A contains all of its limit points. For each z XA, our assumption
implies that there exists an open set U
z
z such that U
z
A = ; that is, U
z
X A. Therefore
XA =
zX\A
U
z
. (Check this!) So XA is a union of open sets and hence is open. Consequently
its complement, A, is closed.
3.1.7 Example. As applications of Proposition 3.1.6 we have the following:
(i) the set [a, b) is not closed in R, since b is a limit point and b / [a, b);
(ii) the set [a, b] is closed in R, since all the limit points of [a, b] (namely all the elements of
[a, b]) are in [a, b];
(iii) (a, b) is not a closed subset of R, since it does not contain the limit point a;
(iv) [a, ) is a closed subset of R.
3.1.8 Proposition. Let A be a subset of a topological space (X, ) and A
the set of all

limit points of A. Then A A
is a closed set.
Proof. From Proposition 3.1.6 it suces to show that the set A A
contains all of its limit

points or equivalently that no element of X (A A
) is a limit point of A A
.
Let p X (AA
). As p / A
, there exists an open set U containing p with U A = p or

. But p / A, so U A = . We claim also that U A
= . For if x U then as U is an open

set and U A = , x / A
. Thus U A
= . That is, U (A A
) = , and p U. This implies

p is not a limit point of A A
and so A A
is a closed set.
3.1.9 Denition. Let A be a subset of a topological space (X, ). Then the set A A
consisting of A and all its limit points is called the closure of A and is denoted by A.
3.1.10 Remark. It is clear from Proposition 3.1.8 that A is a closed set. By Proposition
3.1.6 and Exercises 3.1 #5 (i), every closed set containing A must also contain the set A
. So
A A
= A is the smallest closed set containing A. This implies that A is the intersection of all
closed sets containing A.
3.1.11 Example. Let X = a, b, c, d, e and
= X, , a, c, d, a, c, d, b, c, d, e.
Show that b = b, e, a, c = X, and b, d = b, c, d, e.
Proof.
To nd the closure of a particular set, we shall nd all the closed sets containing that
set and then select the smallest. We therefore begin by writing down all of the closed
sets these are simply the complements of all the open sets.
The closed sets are , X, b, c, d, e, a, b, e, b, e and a. So the smallest closed set
containing b is b, e; that is, b = b, e. Similarly a, c = X, and b, d = b, c, d, e.
3.1.12 Example. Let Q be the subset of R consisting of all the rational numbers. Prove that
Q = R.
Proof. Suppose Q ,= R. Then there exists an x R Q. As RQ is open in R, there exist a, b
with a < b such that x (a, b) R Q. But in every interval (a, b) there is a rational number q;
that is, q (a, b). So q R Q which implies q R Q. This is a contradiction, as q Q. Hence
Q = R.
3.1.13 Denition. Let A be a subset of a topological space (X, ). Then A is said to
be dense in X or everywhere dense in X if A = X.
We can now restate Example 3.1.12 as: Q is a dense subset of R.
Note that in Example 3.1.11 we saw that a, c is dense in X.
3.1.14 Example. Let (X, ) be a discrete space. Then every subset of X is closed (since its
complement is open). Therefore the only dense subset of X is X itself, since each subset of X is
its own closure.
3.1.15 Proposition. Let A be a subset of a topological space (X, ). Then A is dense
in X if and only if every non-empty open subset of X intersects A non-trivially (that is, if
U and U ,= then A U ,= .)
Proof. Assume, rstly that every non-empty open set intersects A non-trivially. If A = X, then
clearly A is dense in X. If A ,= X, let x X A. If U and x U then U A ,= . So x is a
limit point of A. As x is an arbitrary point in X A, every point of X A is a limit point of A.
So A
X A and then, by Denition 3.1.9, A = A
A = X; that is, A is dense in X.

Conversely, assume A is dense in X. Let U be any non-empty open subset of X. Suppose
U A = . Then if x U, x / A and x is not a limit point of A, since U is an open set containing
x which does not contain any element of A. This is a contradiction since, as A is dense in X,
every element of X A is a limit point of A. So our supposition is false and U A ,= , as
required.
Exercises 3.1
1. (a) In Example 1.1.2, nd all the limit points of the following sets:
(i) a,
(ii) b, c,
(iii) a, c, d,
(iv) b, d, e, f.
(b) Hence, nd the closure of each of the above sets.
(c) Now nd the closure of each of the above sets using the method of Example 3.1.11.
2. Let (Z, ) be the set of integers with the nite-closed topology. List the set of limit points
of the following sets:
(i) A = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 10,
(ii) The set, E, consisting of all even integers.
3. Find all the limit points of the open interval (a, b) in R, where a < b.
4. (a) What is the closure in R of each of the following sets?
(i) 1,
1
2
,
1
3
,
1
4
, . . . ,
1
n
, . . . ,
(ii) the set Z of all integers,
(iii) the set P of all irrational numbers.
(b) Let S be a subset of R and a R. Prove that a S if and only if for each positive
integer n, there exists an x
n
S such that [x
n
a[ <
1
n
.
5. Let S and T be non-empty subsets of a topological space (X, ) with S T.
(i) If p is a limit point of the set S, verify that p is also a limit point of the set T.
(ii) Deduce from (i) that S T.
(iii) Hence show that if S is dense in X, then T is dense in X.
(iv) Using (iii) show that R has an uncountable number of distinct dense subsets.
(v)* Again using (iii), prove that R has an uncountable number of distinct countable dense
subsets and 2
c
distinct uncountable dense subsets.
3.2 Neighbourhoods
3.2.1 Denition. Let (X, ) be a topological space, N a subset of X and p a point in
X. Then N is said to be a neighbourhood of the point p if there exists an open set U such
that p U N.
3.2.2 Example. The closed interval [0, 1] in R is a neighbourhood of the point
1
2
, since
1
2
(
1
4
,
3
4
) [0, 1].
3.2.3 Example. The interval (0, 1] in R is a neighbourhood of the point
1
4
, as
1
4
(0,
1
2
) (0, 1].
But (0, 1] is not a neighbourhood of the point 1. (Prove this.)
3.2. NEIGHBOURHOODS 61
3.2.4 Example. If (X, ) is any topological space and U , then from Denition 3.2.1, it
follows that U is a neighbourhood of every point p U. So, for example, every open interval (a, b)
in R is a neighbourhood of every point that it contains.
3.2.5 Example. Let (X, ) be a topological space, and N a neighbourhood of a point p. If
S is any subset of X such that N S, then S is a neighbourhood of p.
The next proposition is easily veried, so its proof is left to the reader.
3.2.6 Proposition. Let A be a subset of a topological space (X, ). A point x X is a
limit point of A if and only if every neighbourhood of x contains a point of A dierent from
x.
As a set is closed if and only if it contains all its limit points we deduce the following:
3.2.7 Corollary. Let A be a subset of a topological space (X, ). Then the set A is closed
if and only if for each x X A there is a neighbourhood N of x such that N X A.
3.2.8 Corollary. Let U be a subset of a topological space (X, ). Then U if and
only if for each x U there exists a neighbourhood N of x such that N U.
The next corollary is readily deduced from Corollary 3.2.8.
3.2.9 Corollary. Let U be a subset of a topological space (X, ). Then U if and
only if for each x U there exists a V such that x V U.
Corollary 3.2.9 provides a useful test of whether a set is open or not. It says that a set is
open if and only if it contains an open set about each of its points.
Exercises 3.2
1. Let A be a subset of a topological space (X, ). Prove that A is dense in X if and only if
every neighbourhood of each point in X A intersects A non-trivially.
2. (i) Let A and B be subsets of a topological space (X, ). Prove carefully that
A B A B.
(ii) Construct an example in which
A B ,= A B.
3. Let (X, ) be a topological space. Prove that is the nite-closed topology on X if and
only if (i) (X, ) is a T
1
-space, and (ii) every innite subset of X is dense in X.
4. A topological space (X, ) is said to be separable if it has a dense subset which is countable.
Determine which of the following spaces are separable:
(i) the set R with the usual topology;
(ii) a countable set with the discrete topology;
(iii) a countable set with the nite-closed topology;
(iv) (X, ) where X is nite;
(v) (X, ) where is nite;
(vi) an uncountable set with the discrete topology;
(vii) an uncountable set with the nite-closed topology;
(viii) a space (X, ) satisfying the second axiom of countability.
3.2. NEIGHBOURHOODS 63
5. Let (X, ) be any topological space and A any subset of X. The largest open set contained
in A is called the interior of A and is denoted by Int(A). [It is the union of all open sets in
X which lie wholly in A.]
(i) Prove that in R, Int([0, 1]) = (0, 1).
(ii) Prove that in R, Int((3, 4)) = (3, 4).
(iii) Show that if A is open in (X, ) then Int(A) = A.
(iv) Verify that in R, Int(3) = .
(v) Show that if (X, ) is an indiscrete space then, for all proper subsets A of X, Int(A) = .
(vi) Show that for every countable subset A of R, Int(A) = .
6. Show that if A is any subset of a topological space (X, ), then Int(A) = X (X A). (See
Exercise 5 above for the denition of Int.)
7. Using Exercise 6 above, verify that A is dense in (X, ) if and only if Int(X A) = .
8. Using the denition of Int in Exercise 5 above, determine which of the following statements
are true for arbitrary subsets A
1
and A
2
of a topological space (X, )?
(i) Int(A
1
A
2
) = Int(A
1
) Int(A
2
),
(ii) Int(A
1
A
2
) = Int(A
1
) Int(A
2
),
(iii) A
1
A
2
= A
1
A
2
.
(If your answer to any part is true you must write a proof. If your answer is false you
must give a concrete counterexample.)
9.* Let S be a dense subset of a topological space (X, ). Prove that for every open subset U
of X, S U = U.
10. Let S and T be dense subsets of a space (X, ). If T is also open, deduce from Exercise 9
above that S T is dense in X.
11. Let B = [a, b) : a R, b Q, a < b. Prove each of the following statements.
(i) B is a basis for a topology
1
on R. (The space (R,
1
) is called the Sorgenfrey line.)
(ii) If is the Euclidean topology on R, then
1
.
(iii) For all a, b R with a < b, [a, b) is a clopen set in (R,
1
).
(iv) The Sorgenfrey line is a separable space.
(v)* The Sorgenfrey line does not satisfy the second axiom of countability.
3.3 Connectedness
3.3.1 Remark. We record here some denitions and facts you should already know. Let S
be any set of real numbers. If there is an element b in S such that x b, for all x S, then b is
said to be the greatest element of S. Similarly if S contains an element a such that a x, for
all x S, then a is called the least element of S. A set S of real numbers is said to be bounded
above if there exists a real number c such that x c, for all x S, and c is called an upper
bound for S. Similarly the terms bounded below and lower bound are dened. A set which
is bounded above and bounded below is said to be bounded.
Least Upper Bound Axiom: Let S be a non-empty set of real numbers. If S is bounded above,
then it has a least upper bound.
The least upper bound, also called the supremum of S, denoted by sup(S), may or may not
belong to the set S. Indeed, the supremum of S is an element of S if and only if S has a greatest
element. For example, the supremum of the open interval S = (1, 2) is 2 but 2 / (1, 2), while the
supremum of [3, 4] is 4 which does lie in [3, 4] and 4 is the greatest element of [3, 4]. Any set
S of real numbers which is bounded below has a greatest lower bound which is also called the
inmum and is denoted by inf(S).
3.3. CONNECTEDNESS 65
3.3.2 Lemma. Let S be a subset of R which is bounded above and let p be the supremum
of S. If S is a closed subset of R, then p S.
Proof. Suppose p R S. As R S is open there exist real numbers a and b with a < b such
that p (a, b) RS. As p is the least upper bound for S and a < p, it is clear that there exists
an x S such that a < x. Also x < p < b, and so x (a, b) R S. But this is a contradiction,
since x S. Hence our supposition is false and p S.
3.3.3 Proposition. Let T be a clopen subset of R. Then either T = R or T = .
Proof. Suppose T ,= R and T ,= . Then there exists an element x T and an element
z R T. Without loss of generality, assume x < z. Put S = T [x, z]. Then S, being the
intersection of two closed sets, is closed. It is also bounded above, since z is obviously an upper
bound. Let p be the supremum of S. By Lemma 3.3.2, p S. Since p [x, z], p z. As
z R S, p ,= z and so p < z.
Now T is also an open set and p T. So there exist a and b in R with a < b such that
p (a, b) T. Let t be such that p < t < min(b, z), where min(b, z) denotes the smaller of b and
z. So t T and t [p, z]. Thus t T [x, z] = S. This is a contradiction since t > p and p is the
supremum of S. Hence our supposition is false and consequently T = R or T = .
3.3.4 Denition. Let (X, ) be a topological space. Then it is said to be connected if
the only clopen subsets of X are X and .
So restating Proposition 3.3.3 we obtain:
3.3.5 Proposition. The topological space R is connected.
3.3.6 Example. If (X, ) is any discrete space with more than one element, then (X, ) is
not connected as each singleton set is clopen.
3.3.7 Example. If (X, ) is any indiscrete space, then it is connected as the only clopen sets
are X and . (Indeed the only open sets are X and .)
3.3.8 Example. If X = a, b, c, d, e and
= X, , a, c, d, a, c, d, b, c, d, e,
then (X, ) is not connected as b, c, d, e is a clopen subset.
3.3.9 Remark. From Denition 3.3.4 it follows that a topological space (X, ) is not
connected (that is, it is disconnected) if and only if there are non-empty open sets A and B
such that A B = and A B = X.
1
(See Exercises 3.3 #3.)
We conclude this section by recording that R
2
(and indeed, R
n
, for each n 1) is a connected
space. However the proof is delayed to Chapter 5.
Connectedness is a very important property about which we shall say a lot more.
Exercises 3.3
1. Let S be a set of real numbers and T = x : x S.
(a) Prove that the real number a is the inmum of S if and only if a is the supremum of
T.
(b) Using (a) and the Least Upper Bound Axiom prove that every non-empty set of real
numbers which is bounded below has a greatest lower bound.
1
Most books use this property to dene connectedness.
3.4. POSTSCRIPT 67
2. For each of the following sets of real numbers nd the greatest element and the least upper
bound, if they exist.
(i) S = R.
(ii) S = Z = the set of all integers.
(iii) S = [9, 10).
(iv) S = the set of all real numbers of the form 1
3
n
2
, where n is a positive integer.
(v) S = (, 3].
3. Let (X, ) be any topological space. Prove that (X, ) is not connected if and only if it
has proper non-empty disjoint open subsets A and B such that A B = X.
4. Is the space (X, ) of Example 1.1.2 connected?
5. Let (X, ) be any innite set with the nite-closed topology. Is (X, ) connected?
6. Let (X, ) be an innite set with the countable-closed topology. Is (X, ) connected?
7. Which of the topological spaces of Exercises 1.1 #9 are connected?
3.4 Postscript
In this chapter we have introduced the notion of limit point and shown that a set is closed if and
only if it contains all its limit points. Proposition 3.1.8 then tells us that any set A has a smallest
closed set A which contains it. The set A is called the closure of A.
A subset A of a topological space (X, ) is said to be dense in X if A = X. We saw that Q is
dense in R and the set P of all irrational numbers is also dense in R. We introduced the notion of
neighbourhood of a point and the notion of connected topological space. We proved an important
result, namely that R is connected. We shall have much more to say about connectedness later.
In the exercises we introduced the notion of interior of a set, this being complementary to
that of closure of a set.
Chapter 4
Homeomorphisms
Introduction
In each branch of mathematics it is essential to recognize when two structures are equivalent.
For example two sets are equivalent, as far as set theory is concerned, if there exists a bijective
function which maps one set onto the other. Two groups are equivalent, known as isomorphic, if
there exists a a homomorphism of one to the other which is one-to-one and onto. Two topological
spaces are equivalent, known as homeomorphic, if there exists a homeomorphism of one onto the
other.
4.1 Subspaces
4.1.1 Denition. Let Y be a non-empty subset of a topological space (X, ). The
collection
Y
= O Y : O of subsets of Y is a topology on Y called the subspace
topology (or the relative topology or the induced topology or the topology induced on Y
by ). The topological space (Y,
Y
) is said to be a subspace of (X, ).
Of course you should check that T
Y
is indeed a topology on Y .
68
4.1. SUBSPACES 69
4.1.2 Example. Let X = a, b, c, d, e, f,
= X, , a, c, d, a, c, d, b, c, d, e, f
, and Y = b, c, e. Then the subspace topology on Y is
Y
= Y, , c.
4.1.3 Example. Let X = a, b, c, d, e,
= X, , a, c, d, a, c, d, b, c, d, e,
and Y = a, d, e. Then the induced topology on Y is
Y
= Y, , a, d, a, d, d, e.
4.1.4 Example. Let B be a basis for the topology on X and let Y be a subset of X. Then
it is not hard to show that the collection B
Y
= B Y : B B is a basis for the subspace
topology
Y
on Y . [Exercise: verify this.]
So let us consider the subset (1, 2) of R. A basis for the induced topology on (1, 2) is the
collection (a, b) (1, 2) : a, b R, a < b; that is, (a, b) : a, b R, 1 a < b 2 is a basis for
the induced topology on (1, 2).
4.1.5 Example. Consider the subset [1, 2] of R. A basis for the subspace topology on [1, 2]
is
(a, b) [1, 2] : a, b R, a < b;
that is,
(a, b) : 1 a < b 2 [1, b) : 1 < b 2 (a, 2] : 1 a < 2 [1, 2]
is a basis for .
But here we see some surprising things happening; e.g. [1, 1
1
2
) is certainly not an open set in
R, but [1, 1
1
2
) = (0, 1
1
2
) [1, 2], is an open set in the subspace [1, 2].
Also (1, 2] is not open in R but is open in [1, 2]. Even [1, 2] is not open in R, but is an open
set in [1, 2].
So whenever we speak of a set being open we must make perfectly clear in what space or
what topology it is an open set.
70 CHAPTER 4. HOMEOMORPHISMS
4.1.6 Example. Let Z be the subset of R consisting of all the integers. Prove that the
topology induced on Z by the euclidean topology on R is the discrete topology.
Proof.
To prove that the induced topology,
Z
, on Z is discrete, it suces, by Proposition
1.1.9, to show that every singleton set in Z is open in
Z
; that is, if n Z then
n
Z
.
Let n Z. Then n = (n1, n+1) Z. But (n1, n+1) is open in R and therefore n is
open in the induced topology on Z. Thus every singleton set in Z is open in the induced topology
on Z. So the induced topology is discrete.
Notation. Whenever we refer to
Q = the set of all rational numbers,
Z = the set of all integers,
N = the set of all positive integers,
P = the set of all irrational numbers,
(a, b), [a, b], [a, b), (, a), (, a], (a, ), or [a, )
as topological spaces without explicitly saying what the topology is, we mean the topology induced
as a subspace of R. (Sometimes we shall refer to the induced topology on these sets as the usual
topology.)
Exercises 4.1
1. Let X = a, b, c, d, e and = X, , a, a, b, a, c, d, a, b, c, d, a, b, e. List the
members of the induced topologies
Y
on Y = a, c, e and
Z
on Z = b, c, d, e.
4.1. SUBSPACES 71
2. Describe the topology induced on the set N of positive integers by the euclidean topology
on R.
3. Write down a basis for the usual topology on each of the following:
(i) [a, b), where a < b;
(ii) (a, b], where a < b;
(iii) (, a];
(iv) (, a);
(v) (a, );
(vi) [a, ).
[Hint: see Examples 4.1.4 and 4.1.5.]
4. Let A B X and X have the topology . Let
B
be the subspace topology on B.
Further let
1
be the topology induced on A by , and
2
be the topology induced on A
by
B
. Prove that
1
= T
2
. (So a subspace of a subspace is a subspace.)
5. Let (Y,
Y
) be a subspace of a space (X, ). Show that a subset Z of Y is closed in (Y,
Y
)
if and only if Z = A Y , where A is a closed subset of (X, ).
6. Show that every subspace of a discrete space is discrete.
7. Show that every subspace of an indiscrete space is indiscrete.
8. Show that the subspace [0, 1] [3, 4] of R has at least 4 clopen subsets. Exactly how many
clopen subsets does it have?
9. Is it true that every subspace of a connected space is connected?
10. Let (Y,
Y
) be a subspace of (X, ). Show that
Y
if and only if Y .
[Hint: Remember Y
Y
.]
11. Let A and B be connected subspaces of a topological space (X, ). If A B ,= , prove
that the subspace A B is connected.
12. Let (Y,
1
) be a subspace of a T
1
-space (X, ). Show that (Y,
1
) is also a T
1
-space.
13. A topological space (X, ) is said to be Hausdor (or a T
2
-space) if given any pair of distinct
points a, b in X there exist open sets U and V such that a U, b V , and U V = .
(i) Show that R is Hausdor.
(ii) Prove that every discrete space is Hausdor.
(iii) Show that any T
2
-space is also a T
1
-space.
(iv) Show that Z with the nite-closed topology is a T
1
-space but is not a T
2
-space.
(v) Prove that any subspace of a T
2
-space is a T
2
-space.
14. Let (Y,
1
) be a subspace of a topological space (X, ). If (X, ) satises the second axiom
of countability, show that (Y,
1
) also satises the second axiom of countability.
15. Let a and b be in R with a < b. Prove that [a, b] is connected.
[Hint: In the statement and proof of Proposition 3.3.3 replace R everywhere by [a, b].]
16. Let Q be the set of all rational numbers with the usual topology and let P be the set of all
irrational numbers with the usual topology.
(i) Prove that neither Q nor P is a discrete space.
(ii) Is Q or P a connected space?
(iii) Is Q or P a Hausdor space?
(iv) Does Q or P have the nite-closed topology?
17. A topological space (X, ) is said to be a regular space if for any closed subset A of X
and any point x X A, there exist open sets U and V such that x U, A V , and
U V = . If (X, ) is regular and a T
1
-space, then it is said to be a T
3
-space. Prove the
following statements.
(i) Every subspace of a regular space is a regular space.
(ii) The spaces R, Z, Q, P, and R
2
are regular spaces.
(iii) If (X, ) is a regular T
1
-space, then it is a T
2
-space.
4.2. HOMEOMORPHISMS 73
(iv) The Sorgenfrey line is a regular space.
(v)* Let X be the set, R, of all real numbers and S =
1
n
: n N. Dene a set C R to
be closed if C = AT, where A is closed in the euclidean topology on R and T is any
subset of S. The complements of these closed sets form a topology on R which is
Hausdor but not regular.
4.2 Homeomorphisms
We now turn to the notion of equivalent topological spaces. We begin by considering an example:
X = a, b, c, d, e, Y = g, h, i, j, k,
= X, , a, c, d, a, c, d, b, c, d, e,
and
1
= Y, , g, i, j, g, i, j, h, i, j, k.
It is clear that in an intuitive sense (X, ) is equivalent to (Y,
1
). The function f : X Y
dened by f(a) = g, f(b) = h, f(c) = i, f(d) = j, and f(e) = k, provides the equivalence. We
now formalize this.
4.2.1 Denition. Let (X, ) and (Y,
1
) be topological spaces. Then they are said to
be homeomorphic if there exists a function f : X Y which has the following properties:
(i) f is one-to-one (that is f(x
1
) = f(x
2
) implies x
1
= x
2
),
(ii) f is onto (that is, for any y Y there exists an x X such that f(x) = y),
(iii) for each U
1
, f
1
(U) , and
(iv) for each V , f(V )
1
.
Further, the map f is said to be a homeomorphism between (X, ) and (Y,
1
). We write
(X, )

= (Y,
1
).
We shall show that
= is an equivalence relation and use this to show that all open intervals
(a, b) are homeomorphic to each other. Example 4.2.2 is the rst step, as it shows that
= is a
transitive relation.
4.2.2 Example. Let (X, ), (Y,
1
) and (Z,
2
) be topological spaces. If (X, )

= (Y,
1
)
and (Y,
1
)

= (Z,
2
), prove that (X, )

= (Z, T
2
).
Proof.
We are given that (X, )

= (Y,
1
); that is, there exists a homeomorphism f : (X, )
(Y,
1
). We are also given that (Y,
1
)

= (Z,
2
); that is, there exists a homeomorphism
g : (Y,
1
) (Z,
2
).
We are required to prove that (X, )

= (Z,
2
); that is, we need to nd a
homeomorphism h : (X, ) (Z,
2
). We will prove that the composite map
g f : X Z is the required homeomorphism.
As (X, )

= (Y,
1
) and (Y,
1
)

= (Z,
2
), there exist homeomorphisms f : (X, T ) (Y,
1
)
and g : (Y,
1
) (Z,
2
). Consider the composite map g f : X Z. [Thus g f(x) = g(f(x)),
for all x X.] It is a routine task to verify that g f is one-to-one and onto. Now let U
2
.
Then, as g is a homeomorphism g
1
(U)
1
. Using the fact that f is a homeomorphism we
obtain that f
1
(g
1
(U)) . But f
1
(g
1
(U)) = (g f)
1
(U). So g f has property (iii) of
Denition 4.2.1. Next let V . Then f(V ) T
1
and so g(f(V ))
2
; that is g f(V )
2
and we see that g f has property (iv) of Denition 4.2.1. Hence g f is a homeomorphism.
4.2.3 Remark. Example 4.2.2 shows that
= is a transitive relation. Indeed it is easily

veried that it is an equivalence relation; that is,
(i) (X, )

= (X, ) [Reexive];
(ii) (X, )

= (Y,
1
) implies (Y,
1
)

= (X, ) [Symmetric];
[Observe that if f : (X, ) (Y,
1
) is a homeomorphism, then its inverse
f
1
: (Y,
1
) (X, ) is also a homeomorphism.]
(iii) (X, )

= (Y,
1
) and (Y,
1
)

= (Z,
2
) implies (X, )

= (Z,
2
) [Transitive].
The next three examples show that all open intervals in R are homeomorphic. Length is
certainly not a topological property. In particular, an open interval of nite length, such as
(0, 1), is homeomorphic to one of innite length, such as (, 1). Indeed all open intervals are
homeomorphic to R.
4.2.4 Example. Prove that any two non-empty open intervals (a, b) and (c, d) are homeomorphic.
Outline Proof.
By Remark 4.2.3 it suces to show that (a, b) is homeomorphic to (0, 1) and (c, d) is
homeomorphic to (0, 1). But as a and b are arbitrary (except that a < b), if (a, b) is
homeomorphic to (0, 1) then (c, d) is also homeomorphic to (0, 1). To prove that (a, b)
is homeomorphic to (0, 1) it suces to nd a homeomorphism f : (0, 1) (a, b).
Let a, b R with a < b and consider the function f : (0, 1) (a, b) given by
f(x) = a(1 x) +bx.
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
a
b
0 1
Clearly f : (0, 1) (a, b) is one-to-one and onto. It is also clear from the diagram that the image
under f of any open interval in (0, 1) is an open interval in (a, b); that is,
f(open interval in (0, 1)) = an open interval in (a, b).
But every open set in (0, 1) is a union of open intervals in (0, 1) and so
f(open set in (0, 1)) = f(union of open intervals in (0, 1))
= union of open intervals in (a, b)
= open set in (a, b).
So condition (iv) of Denition 4.2.1 is satised. Similarly, we see that f
1
(open set in (a, b)) is
an open set in (0, 1). So condition (iii) of Denition 4.2.1 is also satised.
[Exercise: write out the above proof carefully.]
Hence f is a homeomorphism and (0, 1)

= (a, b), for all a, b R with a < b.
From the above it immediately follows that (a, b)

= (c, d), as required.
4.2.5 Example. Prove that the space R is homeomorphic to the open interval (1, 1) with
the usual topology.
Outline Proof. Dene f : (1, 1) R by
f(x) =
x
1 [ x [
.
It is readily veried that f is one-to-one and onto, and a diagrammatic argument like that in
Example 4.2.2 indicates that f is a homeomorphism.
...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1 1
[Exercise: write out a proof that f is a homeomorphism.]
4.2.6 Example. Prove that every open interval (a, b), with a < b, is homeomorphic to R.
Proof. This follows immediately from Examples 4.2.5 and 4.2.4 and Remark 4.2.3.
4.2.7 Remark. It can be proved in a similar fashion that any two intervals [a, b] and [c, d],
with a < b and c < d, are homeomorphic.
Exercises 4.2
1. (i) If a, b, c, and d are real numbers with a < b and c < d, prove that [a, b]

= [c, d].
(ii) If a and b are any real numbers, prove that
(, a]

= (, b]

= [a, )

= [b, ).
(iii) If c, d, e, and f are any real numbers with c < d and e < f, prove that
[c, d)

= [e, f)

= (c, d]

= (e, f].
(iv) Deduce that for any real numbers a and b with a < b,
[0, 1)

= (, a]

= [a, )

= [a, b)

= (a, b].
2. Prove that Z

= N
3. Let m and c be non-zero real numbers and X the subspace of R
2
given by X = x, y) : y =
mx +c. Prove that X is homeomorphic to R.
4. (i) Let X
1
and X
2
be the closed rectangular regions in R
2
given by
X
1
= x, y) : [x[ a
1
and [y[ b
1
and X
2
= x, y) : [x[ a
2
and [y[ b
2
where a
1
, b
1
, a
2
, and b
2
are positive real numbers. If X
1
and X
2
are given the induced
topologies from R
2
, show that X
1

= X
2
.
(ii) Let D
1
and D
2
be the closed discs in R
2
given by
D
1
= x, y) : x
2
+y
2
c
1
and D
2
= x, y) : x
2
+y
2
c
2
where c
1
and c
2
are positive real numbers. Prove that the topological space D
1

= D
2
,
where D
1
and D
2
have their subspace topologies.
(iii) Prove that X
1

= D
1
.
4.3. NON-HOMEOMORPHIC SPACES 79
5. Let X
1
and X
2
be subspaces of R given by X
1
= (0, 1) (3, 4) and X
2
= (0, 1) (1, 2). Is
X
1

= X
2
? (Justify your answer.)
6. (Group of Homeomorphisms) Let (X, ) be any topological space and G the set of all
homeomorphisms of X into itself.
(i) Show that G is a group under the operation of composition of functions.
(ii) If X = [0, 1], show that G is innite.
(iii) If X = [0, 1], is G an abelian group?
7. Let (X, ) and (Y,
1
) be homeomorphic topological spaces. Prove that
(i) If (X, ) is a T
0
-space, then (Y,
1
) is a T
0
-space.
(ii) If (X, ) is a T
1
-space, then (Y,
1
) is a T
1
-space.
(iii) If (X, ) is a Hausdor space, then (Y,
1
) is a Hausdor space.
(iv) If (X, ) satises the second axiom of countability, then (Y,
1
) satises the second
(v) If (X, ) is a separable space, then (Y,
1
) is a separable space.
8.* Let (X, ) be a discrete topological space. Prove that (X, ) is homeomorphic to a subspace
of R if and only if X is countable.
4.3 Non-Homeomorphic Spaces
To prove two topological spaces are homeomorphic we have to nd a homeomorphism between
them.
But, to prove that two topological spaces are not homeomorphic is often much harder as we
have to show that no homeomorphism exists. The following example gives us a clue as to how
we might go about showing this.
4.3.1 Example. Prove that [0, 2] is not homeomorphic to the subspace [0, 1] [2, 3] of R.
Proof. Let (X, ) = [0, 2] and (Y,
1
) = [0, 1] [2, 3]. Then
[0, 1] = [0, 1] Y [0, 1] is closed in (Y,
1
)
and [0, 1] = (1, 1
1
2
) Y [0, 1] is open in (Y,
1
).
Thus Y is not connected, as it has [0, 1] as a proper non-empty clopen subset.
Suppose that (X, )

= (Y,
1
). Then there exists a homeomorphism f : (X, ) (Y,
1
).
So f
1
([0, 1]) is a clopen subset of X, and hence X is not connected. This is false as [0, 2] = X
is connected. (See Exercises 4.1 #15.) So we have a contradiction and thus (X, ) ,
= (Y,
1
).
What do we learn from this?
4.3.2 Proposition. Any topological space homeomorphic to a connected space is
connected.
Proposition 4.3.2 gives us one way to try to show two topological spaces are not homeomorphic
. . . by nding a property preserved by homeomorphisms which one space has and the other
does not.
Amongst the exercises we have met many properties preserved by homeomorphisms:
(i) T
0
-space;
(ii) T
1
-space;
(iii) T
2
-space or Hausdor space;
(iv) regular space;
(v) T
3
-space;
(vi) satisfying the second axiom of countability;
(vii) separable space. [See Exercises 4.2 #7.]
There are also others:
(viii) discrete space;
(ix) indiscrete space;
(x) nite-closed topology;
(xi) countable-closed topology.
So together with connectedness we know twelve properties preserved by homeomorphisms.
Also two spaces (X, ) and (Y,
1
) cannot be homeomorphic if X and Y have dierent cardinalities
(e.g. X is countable and Y is uncountable) or if and
1
have dierent cardinalities.
Nevertheless when faced with a specic problem we may not have the one we need. For
example, show that (0, 1) is not homeomorphic to [0, 1] or show that R is not homeomorphic to
R
2
. We shall see how to show that these spaces are not homeomorphic shortly.
Before moving on to this let us settle the following question: which subspaces of R are
connected?
4.3.3 Denition. A subset S of R is said to be an interval if it has the following property:
if x S, z S, and y R are such that x < y < z, then y S.
4.3.4 Remarks. Note that each singleton set x is an interval.
(ii) Every interval has one of the following forms: a, [a, b], (a, b), [a, b), (a, b], (, a), (, a],
(a, ), [a, ), (, ).
(iii) It follows from Example 4.2.6, Remark 4.2.7, and Exercises 4.2 #1, that every interval is
homeomorphic to (0, 1), [0, 1], [0, 1), or 0. In Exercises 4.3 #1 we are able to make an
even stronger statement.
4.3.5 Proposition. A subspace S of R is connected if and only if it is an interval.
Proof. That all intervals are connected can be proved in a similar fashion to Proposition 3.3.3
by replacing R everywhere in the proof by the interval we are trying to prove connected.
Conversely, let S be connected. Suppose x S, z S, x < y < z, and y / S. Then
(, y) S = (, y] S is an open and closed subset of S. So S has a clopen subset, namely
(, y) S. To show that S is not connected we have to verify only that this clopen set is proper
and non-empty. It is non-empty as it contains x. It is proper as z S but z / (, y) S. So S
is not connected. This is a contradiction. Therefore S is an interval.
We now see a reason for the name connected. Subspaces of R such as [a, b], (a, b), etc.
are connected, while subspaces like
X = [0, 1] [2, 3] [5, 6]
which is a union of disconnected pieces, are not connected.
Now let us turn to the problem of showing that (0, 1) ,
= [0, 1]. Firstly, we present a seemingly

trivial observation.
4.3.6 Remark. Let f : (X, ) (Y,
1
) be a homeomorphism. Let a X, so that X a
is a subspace of X and has induced topology
2
. Also Y f(a) is a subspace of Y and has
induced topology
3
. Then (X a,
2
) is homeomorphic to (Y f(a),
3
).
Outline Proof. Dene g : X a Y f(a) by g(x) = f(x), for all x X a. Then it is
easily veried that g is a homeomorphism. (Write down a proof of this.)
As an immediate consequence of this we have:
4.3.7 Corollary. If a, b, c, and d are real numbers with a < b and c < d, then
(i) (a, b) ,
= [c, d),
(ii) (a, b) ,
= [c, d], and

(iii) [a, b) ,
= [c, d].
Proof. (i) Let (X, ) = [c, d) and (Y,
1
) = (a, b). Suppose that (X, )

= (Y,
1
). Then
X c

= Y y, for some y Y . But, X c = (c, d) is an interval, and so is connected,
while no matter which point we remove from (a, b) the resultant space is disconnected. Hence by
Proposition 4.3.2,
X c ,
= Y y, for each y Y.
This is a contradiction. So [c, d) ,
= (a, b).
(ii) [c, d] c is connected, while (a, b) y is disconnected for all y (a, b). Thus
(a, b) ,
= [c, d].
(iii) Suppose that [a, b)

= [c, d]. Then [c, d] c

= [a, b)y for some y [a, b). Therefore
([c, d] c) d

= ([a, b) y) z, for some z [a, b) y; that is, (c, d)

= [a, b) y, z, for
some distinct y and z in [a, b). But (c, d) is connected, while [a, b) y, z, for any two distinct
points y and z in [a, b), is disconnected. So we have a contradiction. Therefore [a, b) ,
= [c, d].
Exercises 4.3
1. Deduce from the above that every interval is homeomorphic to one and only one of the
following spaces:
0; (0, 1); [0, 1]; [0, 1).
2. Deduce from Proposition 4.3.5 that every countable subspace of R with more than one
point is disconnected. (In particular, Z and Q are disconnected.)
3. Let X be the unit circle in R
2
; that is, X = x, y) : x
2
+ y
2
= 1 and has the subspace
topology.
(i) Show that X 1, 0) is homeomorphic to the open interval (0, 1).
(ii) Deduce that X ,
= (0, 1) and X ,
= [0, 1].
(iii)] Observing that for every point a X, the subspace X a is connected, show
that X ,
= [0, 1).
(iv) Deduce that X is not homeomorphic to any interval.
4. Let Y be the subspace of R
2
given by
Y = x, y) : x
2
+y
2
= 1 x, y) : (x 2)
2
+y
2
= 1
(i) Is Y homeomorphic to the space X in Exercise 3 above?
(ii) Is Y homeomorphic to an interval?
5. Let Z be the subspace of R
2
given by
Z = x, y) : x
2
+y
2
= 1 x, y) : (x 3/2)
2
+y
2
= 1.
Show that
(i) Z is not homeomorphic to any interval, and
(ii) Z is not homeomorphic to X or Y , the spaces described in Exercises 3 and 4 above.
6. Prove that the Sorgenfrey line is not homeomorphic to R, R
2
, or any subspace of either of
these spaces.
7. (i) Prove that the topological space in Exercises 1.1 #5 (i) is not homeomorphic to the
space in Exercises 1.1 #9 (ii).
(ii)* In Exercises 1.1 #5, is (X,
1
)

= (X,
2
)?
(iii)* In Exercises 1.1 # 9, is (X,
2
)

= (X,
9
)?
8. Let (X, ) be a topological space, where X is an innite set. Prove each of the following
statements (originally proved by John Ginsburg and Bill Sands).
(i)* (X, ) has a subspace homeomorphic to (N,
1
), where either
1
is the indiscrete
topology or (N,
1
) is a T
0
-space.
(ii)** Let (X, ) be a T
1
-space. Then (X, ) has a subspace homeomorphic to (N,
2
), where
2
is either the nite-closed topology or the discrete topology.
(iii) Deduce from (ii), that any innite Hausdor space contains an innite discrete subspace
and hence a subspace homeomorphic to N with the discrete topology.
(iv)** Let (X, ) be a T
0
-space which is not a T
1
-space. Then the space (X, ) has a
subspace homeomorphic to (N,
1
), where
3
consists of N, ,and all of the sets
1, 2, . . . , n, n N or
3
consists of N, , and all of the sets n, n + 1, . . . , n N.
(v) Deduce from the above that every innite topological space has a subspace homeomorphic
to (N,
4
) where
4
is the indiscrete topology, the discrete topology, the nite-closed
topology, or one of the two topologies described in (iv), known as the initial segment
topology and the nal segment topology, respectively. Further, no two of these ve
topologies on N are homeomorphic.
1
) be topological spaces. A map f : X Y is said to be a local
homeomorphism if each point x X has an open neighbourhood U such that f maps U
homeomorphically onto an open subspace V of (Y,
1
); that is, if the topology induced on U
by is
2
and the topology induced on V = f(U) by
1
is
3
, then f is a homeomorphism
of (U,
2
) onto (V,
3
). The topological space (X, ) is said to be locally homeomorphic
to (Y,
1
) if there exists a local homeomorphism of (X, ) into (Y,
1
).
(i) If (X, ) and (Y,
1
) are homeomorphic topological spaces, verify that (X, ) is locally
homeomorphic to (Y,
1
).
(ii) If (X, ) is an open subspace of (Y,
1
), prove that (X, ) is locally homeomorphic to
(Y,
1
).
(iii)* Prove that if f : (X, ) (Y,
1
) is a local homeomorphism, then f maps every open
subset of (X, ) onto an open subset of (Y,
1
).
4.4. POSTSCRIPT 87
4.4 Postscript
There are three important ways of creating new topological spaces from old ones: forming
subspaces, products, and quotient spaces. We examine all three in due course. Forming subspaces
was studied in this section. This allowed us to introduce the important spaces Q, [a, b], (a, b), etc.
We dened the central notion of homeomorphism. We noted that
= is an equivalence
relation. A property is said to be topological if it is preserved by homeomorphisms; that is,
if (X, T )

= (Y,
1
) and (X, ) has the property then (Y, T
1
) must also have the property.
Connectedness was shown to be a topological property. So any space homeomorphic to a
connected space is connected. (A number of other topological properties were also identied.)
We formally dened the notion of an interval in R, and showed that the intervals are precisely
the connected subspaces of R.
Given two topological spaces (X, ) and (Y,
1
) it is an interesting task to show whether
they are homeomorphic or not. We proved that every interval in R is homeomorphic to one and
only one of [0, 1], (0, 1), [0, 1), and 0. In the next section we show that R is not homeomorphic
to R
2
. A tougher problem is to show that R
2
is not homeomorphic to R
3
. This will be done later
via the Jordan curve theorem. Still the cr`eme de la cr`eme is the fact that R
n

= R
m
if and only if
n = m. This is best approached via algebraic topology, which is only touched upon in this book.
Exercises 4.2 #6 introduced the notion of group of homeomorphisms, which is an interesting
and important topic in its own right.
Chapter 5
Continuous Mappings
Introduction
In most branches of pure mathematics we study what in category theory are called objects and
arrows. In linear algebra the objects are vector spaces and the arrows are linear transformations.
In group theory the objects are groups and the arrows are homomorphisms, while in set theory
the objects are sets and the arrows are functions. In topology the objects are the topological
spaces. We now introduce the arrows . . . the continuous mappings.
5.1 Continuous Mappings
Of course we are already familiar
1
with the notion of a continuous function from R into R.
A function f : R R is said to be continuous if for each a R and each positive real
number , there exists a positive real number such that [ x a [< implies [ f(x) f(a) [< .
It is not at all obvious how to generalize this denition to general topological spaces where we
do not have absolute value or subtraction. So we shall seek another (equivalent) denition
of continuity which lends itself more to generalization.
It is easily seen that f : R R is continuous if and only if for each a R and each interval
(f(a) , f(a) + ), for > 0, there exists a > 0 such that f(x) (f(a) , f(a) + ) for all
x (a , a +).
This denition is an improvement since it does not involve the concept absolute value but
it still involves subtraction. The next lemma shows how to avoid subtraction.
1
The early part of this section assumes that you have some knowledge of real analysis and, in particular, the
denition of continuity. If this is not the case, then proceed directly to Denition 5.1.3.
88
5.1. CONTINUOUS MAPPINGS 89
5.1.1 Lemma. Let f be a function mapping R into itself. Then f is continuous if and
only if for each a R and each open set U containing f(a), there exists an open set V
containing a such that f(V ) U.
Proof. Assume that f is continuous. Let a R and let U be any open set containing f(a).
Then there exist real numbers c and d such that f(a) (c, d) U. Put equal to the smaller of
the two numbers d f(a) and f(a) c, so that
(f(a) , f(a) +) U.
As the mapping f is continuous there exists a > 0 such that f(x) (f(a) , f(a) + ) for all
x (a , a +). Let V be the open set (a , a +). Then a V and f(V ) U, as required.
Conversely assume that for each a R and each open set U containing f(a) there exists an
open set V containing a such that f(V ) U. We have to show that f is continuous. Let a R
and be any positive real number. Put U = (f(a) , f(a) +). So U is an open set containing
f(a). Therefore there exists an open set V containing a such that f(V ) U. As V is an open set
containing a, there exist real numbers c and d such that a (c, d) V . Put equal to the smaller
of the two numbers d a and a c, so that (a , a + ) V . Then for all x (a , a + ),
f(x) f(V ) U, as required. So f is continuous.
We could use the property described in Lemma 5.1.1 to dene continuity, however the
following lemma allows us to make a more elegant denition.
90 CHAPTER 5. CONTINUOUS MAPPINGS
5.1.2 Lemma. Let f be a mapping of a topological space (X, ) into a topological space
(Y,

). Then the following two conditions are equivalent:
(i) for each U

, f
1
(U) ,
(ii) for each a X and each U

with f(a) U, there exists a V such that a V
and f(V ) U.
Proof. Assume that condition (i) is satised. Let a X and U
with f(a) U. Then

f
1
(U) . Put V = f
1
(U), and we have that a V, V , and f(V ) U. So condition (ii)
is satised.
Conversely, assume that condition (ii) is satised. Let U

. If f
1
(U) = then clearly
f
1
(U) . If f
1
(U) ,= , let a f
1
(U). Then f(a) U. Therefore there exists a V such
that a V and f(V ) U. So for each a f
1
(U) there exists a V such that a V f
1
(U).
By Corollary 3.2.9 this implies that f
1
(U) . So condition (i) is satised.
Putting together Lemmas 5.1.1 and 5.1.2 we see that f : R R is continuous if and only if
for each open subset U of R, f
1
(U) is an open set.
This leads us to dene the notion of a continuous function between two topological spaces
as follows:
5.1.3 Denition. Let (X, ) and (Y,
1
) be topological spaces and f a function from X
into Y . Then f : (X, ) (Y,
1
) is said to be a continuous mapping if for each U
1
,
f
1
(U) .
From the above remarks we see that this denition of continuity coincides with the usual
denition when (X, ) = (Y,
1
) = R.
Let us go through a few easy examples to see how nice this denition of continuity is to
apply in practice.
5.1.4 Example. Consider f : R R given by f(x) = x, for all x R; that is, f is the identity
function. Then for any open set U in R, f
1
(U) = U and so is open. Hence f is continuous.
5.1.5 Example. Let f : R R be given by f(x) = c, for c a constant, and all x R. Then
let U be any open set in R. Clearly f
1
(U) = R if c U and if c , U. In both cases, f
1
(U) is
open. So f is continuous.
5.1.6 Example. Consider f : R R dened by
f(x) =
_
x 1, if x 3
1
2
(x + 5), if x > 3.
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................
1 2 3 4 5
1
2
3
4
5
Recall that a mapping is continuous if and only if the inverse image of every open set
is an open set.
Therefore, to show f is not continuous we have to nd only one set U such that
f
1
(U) is not open.
Then f
1
((1, 3)) = (2, 3], which is not an open set. Therefore f is not continuous.
Note that Lemma 5.1.2 can now be restated in the following way.
2
5.1.7 Proposition. Let f be a mapping of a topological space (X, ) into a space (Y,

).
Then f is continuous if and only if for each x X and each U

with f(x) U, there
exists a V such that x V and f(V ) U.
5.1.8 Proposition. Let (X, ), (Y,
1
) and (Z,
2
) be topological spaces. If f : (X, )
(Y,
1
) and g : (Y, T
1
) (Z,
2
) are continuous mappings, then the composite function
g f : (X, ) (Z,
2
) is continuous.
Proof.
To prove that the composite function g f : (X, ) (Z,
2
) is continuous, we have to
show that if U
2
, then (g f)
1
(U) .
But (g f)
1
(U) = f
1
(g
1
(U)).
Let U be open in (Z,
2
). Since g is continuous, g
1
(U) is open in
1
. Then f
1
(g
1
(U)) is
open in as f is continuous. But f
1
(g
1
(U)) = (g f)
1
(U). Thus g f is continuous.
The next result shows that continuity can be described in terms of closed sets instead of
open sets if we wish.
5.1.9 Proposition. Let (X, ) and (Y,
1
) be topological spaces. Then f : (X, )
(Y,
1
) is continuous if and only if for every closed subset S of Y, f
1
(S) is a closed subset
of X.
Proof. This results follows immediately once you recognize that
f
1
(complement of S) = complement of f
1
(S).
2
If you have not read Lemma 5.1.2 and its proof you should do so now.
5.1.10 Remark. There is a relationship between continuous maps and homeomorphisms: if
f : (X, ) (Y,
1
) is a homeomorphism then it is a continuous map. Of course not every
continuous map is a homeomorphism.
However the following proposition, whose proof follows from the denitions of continuous
and homeomorphism tells the full story.

) be topological spaces and f a function from
X into Y . Then f is a homeomorphism if and only if
(i) f is continuous,
(ii) f is one-to-one and onto; that is, the inverse function f
1
: Y X exists, and
(iii) f
1
is continuous.
A useful result is the following proposition which tells us that the restriction of a continuous
map is a continuous map. Its routine proof is left to the reader see also Exercise Set 5.1 #8.
1
) be topological spaces, f : (X, ) (Y,
1
)
a continuous mapping, A a subset of X, and
2
the induced topology on A. Further let
g : (A,
2
) (Y,
1
) be the restriction of f to A; that is, g(x) = f(x), for all x A. Then g
is continuous.
Exercises 5.1
1. (i) Let f : (X, ) (Y,
1
) be a constant function. Show that f is continuous.
(ii) Let f : (X, ) (X, ) be the identity function. Show that f is continuous.
2. Let f : R R be given by
f(x) =
_
1, x 0
1, x > 0.
(i) Prove that f is not continuous using the method of Example 5.1.6.
(ii) Find f
1
1 and, using Proposition 5.1.9, deduce that f is not continuous.
3. Let f : R R be given by
f(x) =
_
x, x 1
x + 2, x > 1.
Is f continuous? (Justify your answer.)
4. Let (X, ) be the subspace of R given by X = [0, 1] [2, 4]. Dene f : (X, ) R by
f(x) =
_
1, if x [0, 1]
2, if x [2, 4].
Prove that f is continuous. (Does this surprise you?)
1
) be topological spaces and B
1
a basis for the topology
1
. Show that
a map f : (X, ) (Y,
1
) is continuous if and only if f
1
(U) , for every U B
1
.
1
) be topological spaces and f a mapping of X into Y . If (X, ) is a
discrete space, prove that f is continuous.
1
) be topological spaces and f a mapping of X into Y . If (Y,
1
) is an
indiscrete space, prove that f is continuous.
1
) be topological spaces and f : (X, ) (Y,
1
) a continuous mapping.
Let A be a subset of X,
2
the induced topology on A, B = f(A),
3
the induced topology
on B and g : (A,
2
) (B, T
3
) the restriction of f to A. Prove that g is continuous.
5.2. INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM 95
9. Let f be a mapping of a space (X, ) into a space (Y,

). Prove that f is continuous if
and only if for each x X and each neighbourhood N of f(x) there exists a neighbourhood
M of x such that f(M) N.
10. Let
1
and
2
be two topologies on a set X. Then
1
is said to be a ner topology than
T
2
(and
2
is said to be a coarser topology than T
1
) if
1

2
. Prove that
(i) the Euclidean topology R is ner than the nite-closed topology on R;
(ii) the identity function f : (X,
1
) (X,
2
) is continuous if and only if
1
is a ner
topology than
2
.
11. Let f : R R be a continuous function such that f(q) = 0 for every rational number q.
Prove that f(x) = 0 for every x R.
12. Let (X, ) and (Y,
1
1
) a continuous map. If
f is one-to-one, prove that
(i) (Y,
1
) Hausdor implies (X, ) Hausdor.
(ii) (Y,
1
) a T
1
-space implies (X, ) is a T
1
-space.
13. Let (X, ) and (Y,
1
) be topological spaces and let f be a mapping of (X, ) into (Y,
1
).
Prove that f is continuous if and only if for every subset A of X, f(A) f(A).
[Hint: Use Proposition 5.1.9.]
5.2 Intermediate Value Theorem
1
1
)
surjective and continuous. If (X, ) is connected, then (Y,
1
) is connected.
Proof. Suppose (Y,
1
) is not connected. Then it has a clopen subset U such that U ,= and
U ,= Y . Then f
1
(U) is an open set, since f is continuous, and also a closed set, by Proposition
5.1.9; that is, f
1
(U) is a clopen subset of X. Now f
1
(U) ,= as f is surjective and U ,= .
Also f
1
(U) ,= X, since if it were U would equal Y , by the surjectivity of f. Thus (X, ) is not
connected. This is a contradiction. Therefore (Y,
1
) is connected.
5.2.2 Remarks. (i) The above proposition would be false if the condition surjective were
dropped. (Find an example of this.)
(ii) Simply put, Proposition 5.2.1 says: any continuous image of a connected set is connected.
(iii) Proposition 5.2.1 tells us that if (X, ) is a connected space and (Y,
) is not connected
(i.e. disconnected) then there exists no mapping of (X, ) onto (Y,
) which is continuous.
For example, while there are an innite number of mappings of R onto Q (or onto Z),
none of them are continuous. Indeed in Exercise Set 5.2 # 10 we observe that the only
continuous mappings of R into Q (or into Z) are the constant mappings.
The following strengthened version of the notion of connectedness is often useful.
5.2.3 Denition. A topological space (X, ) is said to be path-connected (or pathwise
connected if for each pair of distinct points a and b of X there exists a continuous mapping
f : [0, 1] (X, ), such that f(0) = a and f(1) = b. The mapping f is said to be a path
joining a to b.
5.2.4 Example. It is readily seen that every interval is path-connected.
5.2.5 Example. For each n 1, R
n
is path-connected.
5.2.6 Proposition. Every path-connected space is connected.
Proof. Let (X, ) be a path-connected space and suppose that it is not connected.
Then it has a proper non-empty clopen subset U. So there exist a and b such that a U
and b X U. As (X, ) is path-connected there exists a continuous function f : [0, 1] (X, )
such that f(0) = a and f(1) = b.
However, f
1
(U) is a clopen subset of [0, 1]. As a U, 0 f
1
(U) and so f
1
(U) ,= . As
b , U, 1 , f
1
(U) and thus f
1
(U) ,= [0, 1]. Hence f
1
(U) is a proper non-empty clopen subset
of [0, 1], which contradicts the connectedness of [0, 1].
Consequently (X, ) is connected.
5.2.7 Remark. The converse of Proposition 5.2.6 is false; that is, not every connected space
is path-connected. An example of such a space is the following subspace of R
2
:
X = x, y) : y = sin(1/x), 0 < x 1 0, y) : 1 y 1.
[Exercise Set 5.2 #6 shows that X is connected. That X is not path-connected can be seen by
showing that there is no path joining 0, 0) to, say, the point 1/, 0). Draw a picture and try to
convince yourself of this.]
We can now show that R ,
= R
2
.
5.2.8 Example. Clearly R
2
0, 0) is path-connected and hence, by Proposition 5.2.6, is
connected. However R a, for any a R, is disconnected. Hence R ,
= R
2
.
We now present the Weierstrass Intermediate Value Theorem which is a beautiful application
of topology to the theory of functions of a real variable. The topological concept crucial to the
result is that of connectedness.
5.2.9 Theorem. (Weierstrass Intermediate Value Theorem) Let f : [a, b] R be
continuous and let f(a) ,= f(b). Then for every number p between f(a) and f(b) there is a
point c [a, b] such that f(c) = p.
Proof. As [a, b] is connected and f is continuous, Proposition 5.2.1 says that f([a, b]) is
connected. By Proposition 4.3.5 this implies that f([a, b]) is an interval. Now f(a) and f(b) are
in f([a, b]). So if p is between f(a) and f(b), p f([a, b]), that is, p = f(c), for some c [a, b].
5.2.10 Corollary. If f : [a, b] R is continuous and such that f(a) > 0 and f(b) < 0,
then there exists an x [a, b] such that f(x) = 0.
5.2.11 Corollary. (Fixed Point Theorem) Let f be a continuous mapping of [0, 1] into
[0, 1]. Then there exists a z [0, 1] such that f(z) = z. (The point z is called a xed point.)
Proof. If f(0) = 0 or f(1) = 1, the result is obviously true. Thus it suces to consider the
case when f(0) > 0 and f(1) < 1.
Let g : [0, 1] R be dened by g(x) = x f(x). Clearly g is continuous, g(0) = f(0) < 0,
and g(1) = 1 f(1) > 0. Consequently, by Corollary 5.2.10, there exists a z [0, 1] such that
g(z) = 0; that is, z f(z) = 0 or f(z) = z.
5.2.12 Remark. Corollary 5.2.11 is a special case of a very important theorem called the
Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem which says that if you map an n-dimensional cube continuously
into itself then there is a xed point. [There are many proofs of this theorem, but most depend
on methods of algebraic topology. An unsophisticated proof is given on pp. 238239 of the book
Introduction to Set Theory and Topology, by K. Kuratowski (Pergamon Press, 1961).]
Exercises 5.2
1. Prove that a continuous image of a path-connected space is path-connected.
2. Let f be a continuous mapping of the interval [a, b] into itself, where a and b R and a < b.
Prove that there is a xed point.
3. (i) Give an example which shows that Corollary 5.2.11 would be false if we replaced [0, 1]
everywhere by (0, 1).
(ii) A topological space (X, ) is said to have the xed point property if every continuous
mapping of (X, ) into itself has a xed point. Show that the only intervals having the
xed point property are the closed intervals.
(iii) Let X be a set with at least two points. Prove that the discrete space (X, ) and the
indiscrete space (X,

) do not have the xed-point property.
(iv) Does a space which has the nite-closed topology have the xed-point property?
(v) Prove that if the space (X, ) has the xed-point property and (Y,
1
) is a space
homeomorphic to (X, ), then (Y,
1
) has the xed-point property.
4. Let A
j
: j J be a family of connected subspaces of a topological space (X, ). If
jJ
A
j
,= , show that
jJ
A
j
is connected.
5. Let A be a connected subspace of a topological space (X, ). Prove that A is also connected.
Indeed, show that if A B A, then B is connected.
6. (i) Show that the subspace Y = x, y) : y = sin (1/x) , 0 < x 1 of R
2
is connected.
[Hint: Use Proposition 5.2.1.]
(ii) Verify that Y = Y 0, y) : 1 y 1
(iii) Using Exercise 5, observe that Y is connected.
7. Let E be the set of all points in R
2
having both coordinates rational. Prove that the space
R
2
E is path-connected.
8.* Let C be any countable subset of R
2
. Prove that the space R
2
C is path-connected.
9. Let (X, ) be a topological space and a any point in X. The component in X of a, C
X
(a),
is dened to be the union of all connected subsets of X which contain a. Show that
(i) C
X
(a) is connected. (Use Exercise 4 above.)
(ii) C
X
(a) is the largest connected set containing a.
(iii) C
X
(a) is closed in X. (Use Exercise 5 above.)
10. A topological space (X, ) is said to be totally disconnected if every non-empty connected
subset is a singleton set. Prove the following statements.
(i) (X, ) is totally disconnected if and only if for each a X, C
X
(a) = a. (See the
notation in Exercise 9.)
(ii) The set Q of all rational numbers with the usual topology is totally disconnected.
(iii) If f is a continuous mapping of R into Q, prove that there exists a c Q such that
f(x) = c, for all x R.
(iv) Every subspace of a totally disconnected space is totally disconnected.
(v) Every countable subspace of R
2
is totally disconnected.
(vi) The Sorgenfrey line is totally disconnected.
11. (i) Using Exercise 9, dene, in the natural way, the path-component of a point in a
topological space.
(ii) Prove that, in any topological space, every path-component is a path-connected space.
(iii) If (X, ) is a topological space with the property that every point in X has a
neighbourhood which is path-connected, prove that every path-component is an open
set. Deduce that every path-component is also a closed set.
(iv) Using (iii), show that an open subset of R
2
is connected if and only if it is path-
connected.
12.* Let A and B be subsets of a topological space (X, ). If A and B are both open or both
closed, and A B and A B are both connected, show that A and B are connected.
13. A topological space (X, ) is said to be zero-dimensional if there is a basis for the topology
consisting of clopen sets. Prove the following statements.
(i) Q and P are zero-dimensional spaces.
(ii) A subspace of a zero-dimensional space is zero-dimensional.
(iii) A zero-dimensional Hausdor space is totally disconnected. (See Exercise 10 above.)
(iv) Every indiscrete space is zero-dimensional.
(v) Every discrete space is zero-dimensional.
(vi) Indiscrete spaces with more than one point are not totally disconnected.
(vii) A zero-dimensional T
0
-space is Hausdor.
(viii)* A subspace of R is zero-dimensional if and only if it is totally disconnectd.
14. Show that every local homeomorphism is a continuous mapping. (See Exercises 4.3#9.)
5.3. POSTSCRIPT 101
5.3 Postscript
In this chapter we said that a mapping
3
between topological spaces is called continuous if it
has the property that the inverse image of every open set is an open set. This is an elegant
denition and easy to understand. It contrasts with the one we meet in real analysis which was
mentioned at the beginning of this section. We have generalized the real analysis denition, not
for the sake of generalization, but rather to see what is really going on.
The Weierstrass Intermediate Value Theorem seems intuitively obvious, but we now see it
follows from the fact that R is connected and that any continuous image of a connected space is
connected.
We introduced a stronger property than connected, namely path-connected. In many cases
it is not sucient to insist that a space be connected, it must be path-connected. This property
plays an important role in algebraic topology.
We shall return to the Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem in due course. It is a powerful theorem.
Fixed point theorems play important roles in various branches of mathematics including topology,
functional analysis, and dierential equations. They are still a topic of research activity today.
In Exercises 5.2 #9 and #10 we met the notions of component and totally disconnected.
Both of these are important for an understanding of connectedness.
3
Warning: Some books use the terms mapping and map to mean continuous mapping. We do not.
Chapter 6
Metric Spaces
Introduction
The most important class of topological spaces is the class of metric spaces. Metric spaces
provide a rich source of examples in topology. But more than this, most of the applications of
topology to analysis are via metric spaces.
The notion of metric space was introduced in 1906 by Maurice Frechet and developed and
named by Felix Hausdor in 1914 (Hausdor [90]).
6.1 Metric Spaces
6.1.1 Denition. Let X be a non-empty set and d a real-valued function dened on
X X such that for a, b X:
(i) d(a, b) 0 and d(a, b) = 0 if and only if a = b;
(ii) d(a, b) = d(b, a); and
(iii) d(a, c) d(a, b) +d(b, c), [the triangle inequality] for all a, b and c in X.
Then d is said to be a metric on X, (X, d) is called a metric space and d(a, b) is referred to
as the distance between a and b.
102
6.1. METRIC SPACES 103
6.1.2 Example. The function d : R R R given by
d(a, b) = [a b[, a, b R
is a metric on the set R since
(i) [a b[ 0, for all a and b in R, and [a b[ = 0 if and only if a = b,
(ii) [a b[ = [b a[, and
(iii) [a c[ [a b[ +[b c[. (Deduce this from [x +y[ [x[ +[y[.)
We call d the euclidean metric on R.
6.1.3 Example. The function d : R
2
R
2
R given by
d(a
1
, a
2
), b
1
, b
2
)) =
_
(a
1
b
1
)
2
+ (a
2
b
2
)
2
is a metric on R
2
called the euclidean metric on R
2
.
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(a
1
, a
2
)
(b
1
, b
2
)
.............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.............................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.4 Example. Let X be a non-empty set and d the function from X X into R dened by
d(a, b) =
_
0, if a = b
1, if a ,= b.
Then d is a metric on X and is called the discrete metric.
104 CHAPTER 6. METRIC SPACES
Many important examples of metric spaces are function spaces". For these the set X on
which we put a metric is a set of functions.
6.1.5 Example. Let C[0, 1] denote the set of continuous functions from [0, 1] into R. A metric
is dened on this set by
d(f, g) =
_
1
0
[f(x) g(x)[ dx
where f and g are in C[0, 1].
A moments thought should tell you that d(f, g) is precisely the area of the region which lies
between the graphs of the functions and the lines x = 0 and x = 1, as illustrated below.

6.1.6 Example. Again let C[0, 1] be the set of all continuous functions from [0, 1] into R.
Another metric is dened on C[0, 1] as follows:
d
(f, g) = sup[f(x) g(x)[ : x [0, 1].

Clearly d
(f, g) is just the largest vertical gap between the graphs of the functions f and g.
6.1.7 Example. We can dene another metric on R

2
by putting
d
(a
1
, a
2
), b
1
, b
2
)) = max[a
1
b
1
[, [a
2
b
2
[
where maxx, y equals the larger of the two numbers x and y.
6.1.8 Example. Yet another metric on R
2
is given by
d
1
(a
1
, a
2
), b
1
, b
2
)) = [a
1
b
1
[ +[a
2
b
2
[.
A rich source of examples of metric spaces is the family of normed vector spaces.
6.1.9 Example. Let V be a vector space over the eld of real or complex numbers. A norm
| | on V is a map : V R such that for all a, b V and in the eld
(i) | a | 0 and | a |= 0 if and only if a = 0,
(ii) | a +b | | a | + | b |, and
(iii) | a |= [[ | a |.
A normed vector space (V, | |) is a vector space V with a norm | |.
Let (V, | |) be any normed vector space. Then there is a corresponding metric, d, on the set
V given by d(a, b) =| a b |, for a and b in V .
It is easily checked that d is indeed a metric. So every normed vector space is also a metric
space in a natural way.
For example, R
3
is a normed vector space if we put
| x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) |=
_
x
2
1
+x
2
2
+x
2
3
, for x
1
, x
2
, and x
3
in R.
So R
3
becomes a metric space if we put
d(a
1
, b
1
, c
1
), a
2
, b
2
, c
2
)) = | (a
1
a
2
, b
1
b
2
, c
1
c
2
) |
=
_
(a
1
a
2
)
2
+ (b
1
b
2
)
2
+ (c
1
c
2
)
2
.
Indeed R
n
, for any positive integer n, is a normed vector space if we put
| x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) |=
_
x
2
1
+x
2
2
+ +x
2
n
.
So R
n
becomes a metric space if we put
d(a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
), b
1
, b
2
, . . . , b
n
)) = | a
1
b
1
, a
2
b
2
, . . . , a
n
b
n
) |
=
_
(a
1
b
1
)
2
+ (a
2
b
2
)
2
+ + (a
n
b
n
)
2
.

In a normed vector space (N, | |) the open ball with centre a and radius r is dened to be
the set
B
r
(a) = x : x N and | x a |< r.
This suggests the following denition for metric spaces:
6.1.10 Denition. Let (X, d) be a metric space and r any positive real number. Then
the open ball about a X of radius r is the set B
r
(a) = x : x X and d(a, x) < r.
6.1.11 Example. In R with the euclidean metric B
r
(a) is the open interval (a r, a +r).
6.1.12 Example. In R
2
with the euclidean metric, B
r
(a) is the open disc with centre a and
radius r.

2
with the metric d
given by
d
(a
1
, a
2
), b
1
, b
2
) = max[a
1
b
1
[, [a
2
b
2
[,
the open ball B
1
(0, 0)) looks like
2
with the metric d
1
given by
d
1
(a
1
, a
2
), b
1
, b
2
)) = [a
1
b
1
[ +[a
2
b
2
[,
the open ball B
1
(0, 0)) looks like

The proof of the following Lemma is quite easy (especially if you draw a diagram) and so is
left for you to supply.
6.1.15 Lemma. Let (X, d) be a metric space and a and b points of X. Further, let
1
and
2
be positive real numbers. If c B
1
(a) B
2
(b), then there exists a > 0 such that
B
(c) B
1
(a) B
2
(b).
The next Corollary follows in a now routine way from Lemma 6.1.15.
6.1.16 Corollary. Let (X, d) be a metric space and B
1
and B
2
open balls in (X, d). Then
B
1
B
2
is a union of open balls in (X, d).
Finally we are able to link metric spaces with topological spaces.
6.1.17 Proposition. Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then the collection of open balls in
(X, d) is a basis for a topology on X.
[The topology is referred to as the topology induced by the metric d, and (X, ) is called the
induced topological space or the corresponding topological space or the associated topological
space.]
Proof. This follows from Proposition 2.2.8 and Corollary 6.1.16.
6.1.18 Example. If d is the euclidean metric on R then a basis for the topology induced
by the metric d is the set of all open balls. But B
(a) = (a , a + ). From this it is readily

seen that is the euclidean topology on R. So the euclidean metric on R induces the euclidean
topology on R.
6.1.19 Example. From Exercises 2.3 #1 (ii) and Example 6.1.12, it follows that the euclidean
metric on the set R
2
induces the euclidean topology on R
2
.
6.1.20 Example. From Exercises 2.3 #1 (i) and Example 6.1.13 it follows that the metric d
also induces the euclidean topology on the set R

2
.
It is left as an exercise for you to prove that the metric d
1
of Example 6.1.14 also induces
the euclidean topology on R
2
.
6.1.21 Example. If d is the discrete metric on a set X then for each x X, B1
2
(x) = x.
So all the singleton sets are open in the topology induced on X by d. Consequently, is the
discrete topology.
We saw in Examples 6.1.19, 6.1.20, and 6.1.14 three dierent metrics on the same set which
induce the same topology.
6.1.22 Denition. Metrics on a set X are said to be equivalent if they induce the same
topology on X.
So the metrics d, d
, and d
1
, of Examples 6.1.3, 6.1.13, and 6.1.14 on R
2
are equivalent.
6.1.23 Proposition. Let (X, d) be a metric space and the topology induced on X by
the metric d. Then a subset U of X is open in (X, ) if and only if for each a U there
exists an > 0 such that the open ball B
(a) U.
Proof. Assume that U . Then, by Propositions 2.3.2 and 6.1.17, for any a U there exists
a point b X and a > 0 such that
a B
(b) U.
Let = d(a, b). Then it is readily seen that
a B
(a) U.
Conversely, assume that U is a subset of X with the property that for each a U there exists an
a
> 0 such that B
a
(a) U. Then, by Propositions 2.3.3 and 6.1.17, U is an open set.
We have seen that every metric on a set X induces a topology on the set X. However, we
shall now show that not every topology on a set is induced by a metric. First, a denition which
you have already met in the exercises. (See Exercises 4.1 #13. )
6.1.24 Denition. A topological space (X, ) is said to be a Hausdor space (or a
T
2
-space) if for each pair of distinct points a and b in X, there exist open sets U and V such
that a U, b V , and U V = .
Of course R, R
2
and all discrete spaces are examples of Hausdor spaces, while any set with
at least 2 elements and which has the indiscrete topology is not a Hausdor space. With a little
thought we see that Z with the nite-closed topology is also not a Hausdor space. (Convince
yourself of all of these facts.)
6.1.25 Proposition. Let (X, d) be any metric space and the topology induced on X
by d. Then (X, ) is a Hausdor space.
Proof. Let a and b be any points of X, with a ,= b. Then d(a, b) > 0. Put = d(a, b). Consider
the open balls B
/2
(a) and B
/2
(b). Then these are open sets in (X, ) with a B
/2
(a) and
b B
/2
(b). So to show is Hausdor we have to prove only that B
/2
(a) B
/2
(b) = .
Suppose x B
/2
(a) B
/2
(b). Then d(x, a) <

2
and d(x, b) <

2
. Hence
d(a, b) d(a, x) +d(x, b)
<

2
+

2
= .
This says d(a, b) < , which is false. Consequently there exists no x in B
/2
(a) B
/2
(b); that is,
B
/2
(a) B
/2
(b) = , as required.
6.1.26 Remark. Putting Proposition 6.1.25 together with the comments which preceded it,
we see that an indiscrete space with at least two points has a topology which is not induced by
any metric. Also Z with the nite-closed topology is such that is not induced by any metric
on Z.
6.1.27 Denition. A space (X, ) is said to be metrizable if there exists a metric d on
the set X with the property that is the topology induced by d.
So, for example, the set Z with the nite-closed topology is not a metrizable space.
Warning. One should not be misled by Proposition 6.1.25 into thinking that every Hausdor
space is metrizable. Later on we shall be able to produce (using innite products) examples of
Hausdor spaces which are not metrizable. [Metrizability of topological spaces is quite a technical
topic. For necessary and sucient conditions for metrizability see Theorem 9.1, page 195, of the
book Dugundji [61].]
Exercises 6.1
1. Prove that the metric d
1
of Example 6.1.8 induces the euclidean topology on R
2
.
2. Let d be a metric on a non-empty set X.
(i) Show that the function e dened by e(a, b) = min1, d(a, b) where a, b X, is also a
metric on X.
(ii) Prove that d and e are equivalent metrics.
(iii) A metric space (X, d) is said to be bounded, and d is said to be a bounded metric, if
there exists a positive real number M such that d(x, y) < M, for all x, y X. Using
(ii) deduce that every metric is equivalent to a bounded metric.
3. (i) Let d be a metric on a non-empty set X. Show that the function e dened by
e(a, b) =
d(a, b)
1 +d(a, b)
where a, b X, is also a metric on X.
(ii) Prove that d and e are equivalent metrics.
4. Let d
1
and d
2
be metrics on sets X and Y respectively. Prove that
(i) d is a metric on X Y , where
d(x
1
, y
1
), x
2
, y
2
)) = maxd
1
(x
1
, x
2
), d
2
(y
1
, y
2
).
(ii) e is a metric on X Y , where
e(x
1
, y
1
), x
2
, y
2
)) = d
1
(x
1
, x
2
) +d
2
(y
1
, y
2
).
(iii) d and e are equivalent metrics.
5. Let (X, d) be a metric space and the corresponding topology on X. Fix a X. Prove
that the map f : (X, ) R dened by f(x) = d(a, x) is continuous.
6. Let (X, d) be a metric space and the topology induced on X by d. Let Y be a subset of
X and d
1
the metric on Y obtained by restricting d; that is, d
1
(a, b) = d(a, b) for all a and
b in Y . If
1
is the topology induced on Y by d
1
and
2
is the subspace topology on Y
(induced by on X), prove that
1
=
2
. [This shows that every subspace of a metrizable
space is metrizable.]
7. (i) Let
1
be the set of all sequences of real numbers
x = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . )
with the property that the series
n=1
[x
n
[ is convergent. If we dene
d
1
(x, y) =
n=1
[x
n
y
n
[
for all x and y in
1
, prove that (
1
, d
1
) is a metric space.
(ii) Let
2
be the set of all sequences of real numbers
x = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . )
with the property that the series
n=1
x
2
n
is convergent. If we dene
d
2
(x, y) =
_

n=1
[x
n
y
n
[
2
_1
2
for all x and y in
2
, prove that (
2
, d
2
(iii) Let
denote the set of bounded sequences of real numbers x = (x

1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . ).
If we dene
d
(x, y) = sup[x
n
y
n
[ : n N
where x, y
, prove that (
, d
(iv) Let c
0
be the subset of
consisting of all those sequences which converge to zero and

let d
0
be the metric on c
0
obtained by restricting the metric d
on
as in Exercise 6.
Prove that c
0
is a closed subset of (
, d
).
(v) Prove that each of the spaces (
1
, d
1
), (
2
, d
2
), and (c
0
, d
0
(vi)* Is (
, d
) a separable space?
(vii) Show that each of the above metric spaces is a normed vector space in a natural way.
8. Let f be a continuous mapping of a metrizable space (X, ) onto a topological space (Y,
1
).
Is (Y,
1
) necessarily metrizable? (Justify your answer.)
9. A topological space (X, ) is said to be a normal space if for each pair of disjoint closed
sets A and B, there exist open sets U and V such that A U, B V , and U V = .
Prove that
(i) Every metrizable space is a normal space.
(ii) Every space which is both a T
1
-space and a normal space is a Hausdor space. [A
normal space which is also Hausdor is called a T
4
-space.]
10. Let (X, d) and (Y, d
1
) be metric spaces. Then (X, d) is said to be isometric to (Y, d
1
) if there
exists a surjective mapping f : (X, d) (Y, d
1
) such that for all x
1
and x
2
in X,
d(x
1
, x
2
) = d
1
(f(x
1
), f(x
2
)).
Such a mapping f is said to be an isometry. Prove that every isometry is a homeomorphism
of the corresponding topological spaces. (So isometric metric spaces are homeomorphic!)
11. A topological space (X, ) is said to satisfy the rst axiom of countability or be rst
countable if for each x X there exists a countable family U
i
(x) of open sets containing
x with the property that every open set V containing x has (at least) one of the U
i
(x) as
a subset. The countable family U
i
(x) is said to be a countable base at x. Prove the
following:
(i) Every metrizable space satises the rst axiom of countability.
(ii) Every topological space satisfying the second axiom of countability also satises the
rst axiom of countability.
12. Let X be the set (R N) 1. Dene a function f : R X by
f(x) =
_
x, if x R N
1, if x N.
Further, dene a topology on X by
= U : U X and f
1
(U) is open in the euclidean topology on R.
Prove the following:
(i) f is continuous.
(ii) Every open neighbourhood of 1 in (X, ) is of the form (U N) 1, where U is open
in R.
(iii) (X, ) is not rst countable.
[Hint. Suppose (U
1
N)1, (U
2
N)1, . . . , (U
n
N)1, . . . is a countable base at
1. Show that for each positive integer n, we can choose x
n
U
n
N such that x
n
> n.
Verify that the set U = R
n=1
x
n
is open in R. Deduce that V = (U N) 1 is
an open neighbourhood of 1 which contains none of the sets (U
n
N) 1, which is a
contradiction. So (X, ) is not rst countable.]
(iv) (X, ) is a Hausdor space.
(v) A Hausdor continuous image of R is not necessarily rst countable.
13. A subset S of a metric space (X, d) is said to be totally bounded if for each > 0, there
exist x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
in X, such that S
n
i=1
B
(x
i
); that is, S can be covered by a nite
number of open balls of radius .
(i) Show that every totally bounded metric space is a bounded metric space. (See Exercise
2 above.)
(ii) Prove that R with the euclidean metric is not totally bounded, but for each a, b R
with a < b, the closed interval [a, b] is totally bounded.
(iii) Let (Y, d) be a subspace of the metric space (X, d
1
) with the induced metric. If (X, d
1
)
is totally bounded, then (Y, d) is totally bounded; that is, every subspace of a totally
bounded metric space is totally bounded.
[Hint. Assume X =
n
i=1
B
(x
i
). If y
i
B
(x
i
) Y , then by the triangle inequality
B
(x
i
) B
2
(y
i
).]
(iv) From (iii) and (ii) deduce that the totally bounded metric space (0, 1) is homeomorphic
to R which is not totally bounded. Thus totally bounded is not a topological property.
(v) From (iii) and (ii) deduce that for each n > 1, R
n
with the euclidean metric is not
totally bounded.
(vi) Noting that for each a, b R, the closed interval is totally bounded, show that a metric
subspace of R is bounded if and only if it is totally bounded.
(vii) Show that for each n > 1, a metric subspace of R
n
is bounded if and only if it is totally
bounded.
14. Show that every totally bounded metric space is separable. (See Exercise 13 above and
Exercises 3.2#4.)
15. A topological space (X, ) is said to be locally euclidean if there exists a positive integer
n such that each point x X has an open neighbourhood homeomorphic to an open ball
about 0 in R
n
with the euclidean metric. A Hausdor locally euclidean space is said to be
a topological manifold.
1
(i) Prove that every non-trivial interval (a, b), a, b R, is locally euclidean.
(ii) Let T be the subset of the complex plane consisting of those complex numbers of
modulus one. Identify the complex plane with R
2
and let T have the subspace topology.
Show that the space T is locally euclidean.
(iii) Show that every topological space locally homeomorphic to R
n
, for any positive integer
n, is locally euclidean. (See Exercises 4.3 #9.)
(iv)* Find an example of a locally euclidean space which is not a topological manifold.
1
There are dierent denitions of topological manifold in the literature (cf. Kunen and Vaughan [129]; Lee [132]).
In particular some denitions require the space to be connected what we call a connected manifold and older
denitions require the space to be metrizable. A Hausdor space in which each point has an open neighbourhood
homeomorphic either to R
n
or to the closed half-space < x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
>: x
i
0, i = 1, 2, . . . , n of R
n
, for some
positive integer n, is said to be a topological manifold with boundary. There is a large literature on manifolds
with more structure, especially dierentiable manifolds (Gadea and Masque [79]; Barden and Thomas [17]), smooth
manifolds (Lee [133]) and Riemannian manifolds or Cauchy-Riemann manifolds or CR-manifolds.
6.2. CONVERGENCE OF SEQUENCES 119
6.2 Convergence of Sequences
You are familiar with the notion of a convergent sequence of real numbers. It is dened as follows.
The sequence x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . of real numbers is said to converge to the real number x if given
any > 0 there exists an integer n
0
such that for all n n
0
, [x
n
x[ < .
It is obvious how this denition can be extended from R with the euclidean metric to any
metric space.
6.2.1 Denitions. Let (X, d) be a metric space and x
1
, . . . , x
n
, . . . a sequence of points
in X. Then the sequence is said to converge to x X if given any > 0 there exists an
integer n
0
0
, d(x, x
n
) < . This is denoted by x
n
x.
The sequence y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
, . . . of points in (X, d) is said to be convergent if there exist a
point y X such that y
n
y.
The next Proposition is easily proved, so its proof is left as an exercise.
6.2.2 Proposition. Let x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . be a sequence of points in a metric space (X, d).
Further, let x and y be points in (X, d) such that x
n
x and x
n
y. Then x = y.
For convenience we say that a subset A of a metric space (X, d) is closed (respectively, open)
in the metric space (X, d) if it is closed (respectively, open) in the topology induced on X by
the metric d.
The following proposition tells us the surprising fact that the topology of a metric space can
be described entirely in terms of its convergent sequences.
6.2.3 Proposition. Let (X, d) be a metric space. A subset A of X is closed in (X, d) if
and only if every convergent sequence of points in A converges to a point in A. (In other
words, A is closed in (X, d) if and only if a
n
x, where x X and a
n
A for all n, implies
x A.)
Proof. Assume that A is closed in (X, d) and let a
n
x, where a
n
A for all positive integers
n. Suppose that x X A. Then, as X A is an open set containing x, there exists an open ball
B
(x) such that x B
(x) X A. Noting that each a

n
A, this implies that d(x, a
n
) > for
each n. Hence the sequence a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
, . . . does not converge to x. This is a contradiction.
So x A, as required.
Conversely, assume that every convergent sequence of points in A converges to a point of
A. Suppose that X A is not open. Then there exists a point y X A such that for each > 0,
B
(y) A ,= . For each positive integer n, let x

n
be any point in B
1/n
(y) A. Then we claim
that x
n
y. To see this let be any positive real number, and n
0
any integer greater than 1/.
Then for each n n
0
,
x
n
B
1/n
(y) B
1/n
0
(y) B
(y).
So x
n
y and, by our assumption, y A. This is a contradiction and so X A is open and thus
A is closed in (X, d).
6.2. CONVERGENCE OF SEQUENCES 121
Having seen that the topology of a metric space can be described in terms of convergent
sequences, we should not be surprised that continuous functions can also be so described.
6.2.4 Proposition. Let (X, d) and (Y, d
1
) be metric spaces and f a mapping of X
into Y . Let and
1
be the topologies determined by d and d
1
, respectively. Then
f : (X, ) (Y,
1
) is continuous if and only if x
n
x f(x
n
) f(x); that is, if
x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . is a sequence of points in (X, d) converging to x, then the sequence of
points f(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
), . . . in (Y, d
1
) converges to f(x).
Proof. Assume that x
n
x f(x
n
) f(x). To verify that f is continuous it suces to show
that the inverse image of every closed set in (Y,
1
) is closed in (X, ). So let A be closed in
(Y,
1
). Let x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . be a sequence of points in f
1
(A) convergent to a point x X. As
x
n
x, f(x
n
) f(x). But since each f(x
n
) A and A is closed, Proposition 6.2.3 then implies
that f(x) A. Thus x f
1
(A). So we have shown that every convergent sequence of points
from f
1
(A) converges to a point of f
1
(A). Thus f
1
(A) is closed, and hence f is continuous.
Conversely, let f be continuous and x
n
x. Let be any positive real number. Then the
open ball B
(f(x)) is an open set in (Y,

1
). As f is continuous, f
1
(B
(f(x)) is an open set in

(X, ) and it contains x. Therefore there exists a > 0 such that
x B
(x) f
1
(B
(f(x))).
As x
n
x, there exists a positive integer n
0
0
, x
n
B
(x). Therefore
f(x
n
) f(B
(x)) B
(f(x)), for all n n

0
.
Thus f(x
n
) f(x).
The Corollary below is easily deduced from Proposition 6.2.4.
6.2.5 Corollary. Let (X, d) and (Y, d
1
) be metric spaces, f a mapping of X into Y , and
and
1
the topologies determined by d and d
1
, respectively. Then f : (X, ) (Y,
1
) is
continuous if and only if for each x
0
X and > 0, there exists a > 0 such that x X
and d(x, x
0
) < d
1
(f(x), f(x
0
)) < .
Exercises 6.2
1. Let C[0, 1] and d be as in Example 6.1.5. Dene a sequence of functions f
1
, f
2
, . . . , f
n
, . . .
in (C[0, 1], d) by
f
n
(x) =
sin(nx)
n
, n = 1, 2, . . . , x [0, 1].
Verify that f
n
f
0
, where f
0
(x) = 0, for all x [0, 1].
2. Let (X, d) be a metric space and x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . a sequence such that x
n
x and x
n
y.
Prove that x = y.
3. (i) Let (X, d) be a metric space, the induced topology on X, and x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . .
a sequence of points in X. Prove that x
n
x if and only if for every open set U x,
there exists a positive integer n
0
such that x
n
U for all n n
0
.
(ii) Let X be a set and d and d
1
equivalent metrics on X. Deduce from (i) that if x
n
x
in (X, d), then x
n
x in (X, d
1
).
4. Write a proof of Corollary 6.2.5.
5. Let (X, ) be a topological space and let x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . be a sequence of points in X.
We say that x
n
x if for each open set U x there exists a positive integer n
0
, such that
x
n
U for all n n
0
. Find an example of a topological space and a sequence such that
x
n
x and x
n
y but x ,= y.
6. (i) Let (X, d) be a metric space and x
n
x where each x
n
X and x X. Let A be the
subset of X which consists of x and all of the points x
n
. Prove that A is closed in
(X, d).
(ii) Deduce from (i) that the set 2 2
1
n
: n = 1, 2, . . . is closed in R.
(iii) Verify that the set 2
1
n
: n = 1, 2, . . . is not closed in R.
6.3. COMPLETENESS 123
7. (i) Let d
1
, d
2
, . . . , d
m
be metrics on a set X and a
1
, a
2
, . . . a
m
positive real numbers. Prove
that d is a metric on X, where d is dened by
d(x, y) =
m
i=1
a
i
d
i
(x, y), for all x, y X.
(ii) If x X and x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . is a sequence of points in X such that x
n
x in each
metric space (X, d
i
) prove that x
n
x in the metric space (X, d).
8. Let X, Y, d
1
, d
2
and d be as in Exercises 6.1 #4. If x
n
x in (X, d
1
) and y
n
y in (Y, d
2
),
prove that
x
n
, y
n
) x, y) in (X Y, d).
9. Let A and B be non-empty sets in a metric space (X, d). Dene
(A, B) = infd(a, b) : a A, b B.
[(A, B) is referred to as the distance between the sets A and B.]
(i) If S is any non-empty subset of (X, d), prove that S = x : x X and (x, S) = 0.
(ii) If S is any non-empty subset of (X, d) then the function f : (X, d) R dened by
f(x) = (x, S), x X
is continuous.
10. (i) For each positive integer n let f
n
be a continuous function of [0, 1] into itself and let
a [0, 1] be such that f
n
(a) = a, for all n. Further let f be a continuous function of
[0, 1] into itself. If f
n
f in (C[0, 1], d
) where d
is the metric of Example 6.1.6, prove

that a is also a xed point of f.
(ii) Show that (i) would be false if d
were replaced by the metric d, of Example 6.1.5.

6.3 Completeness
6.3.1 Denition. A sequence x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . of points in a metric space (X, d) is said
to be a Cauchy sequence if given any real number > 0, there exists a positive integer n
0
,
such that for all integers m n
0
and n n
0
, d(x
m
, x
n
) < .
6.3.2 Proposition. Let (X, d) be a metric space and x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . a sequence of
points in (X, d). If there exists a point a X, such that the sequence converges to a, that
is, x
n
a, then the sequence is a Cauchy sequence.
Proof. Let be any positive real number. Put = /2. As x
n
a, there exists a positive
integer n
0
, such that for all n > n
0
, d(x
n
, a) < .
So let m > n
0
and n > n
0
. Then d(x
n
, a) < and d(x
m
, a) < .
By the triangle inequality for metrics,
d(x
m
, x
n
) d(x
m
, a) +d(x
n
, a)
< +
=
and so the sequence is indeed a Cauchy sequence.
This naturally leads us to think about the converse statement and to ask if every Cauchy
sequence is a convergent sequence. The following example shows that this is not true.
6.3.3 Example. Consider the open interval (0, 1) with the euclidean metric d. It is clear that
the sequence 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001, . . . is a Cauchy sequence but it does not converge to any
point in (0, 1).
6.3.4 Denition. A metric space (X, d) is said to be complete if every Cauchy sequence
in (X, d) converges to a point in (X, d).
We immediately see from Example 6.3.3 that the unit interval (0,1) with the euclidean metric
is not a complete metric space. On the other hand, if X is any nite set and d is the discrete
metric on X, then obviously (X, d) is a complete metric space.
We shall show that R with the euclidean metric is a complete metric space. First we need
to do some preparation.
As a shorthand, we shall denote the sequence x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . , by x
n
.
6.3.5 Denition. If x
n
is any sequence, then the sequence x
n
1
, x
n
2
, . . . is said to be a
subsequence if n
1
< n
2
< n
3
< . . . .
6.3.6 Denitions. Let x
n
be a sequence in R. Then it is said to be an increasing
sequence if x
n
x
n+1
, for all n N. It is said to be a decreasing sequence if x
n
x
n+1
, for
all n N. A sequence which is either increasing or decreasing is said to be monotonic.
Most sequences are of course neither increasing nor decreasing.
6.3.7 Denition. Let x
n
be a sequence in R. Then n
0
N is said to be a peak point
if x
n
x
n
0
, for every n n
0
.
6.3.8 Lemma. Let x
n
be any sequence in R. Then x
n
has a monotonic subsequence.
Proof. Assume rstly that the sequence x
n
has an innite number of peak points. Then
choose a subsequence x
n
k
, where each n
k
is a peak point. This implies, in particular, that
x
n
k
x
n
k+1
, for each k N; that is, x
n
k
is a decreasing subsequence of x
n
; so it is a
monotonic subsequence.
Assume then that there are only a nite number of peak points. So there exists an integer
N, such that there are no peak points n > N. Choose any n
1
> N. Then n
1
is not a peak
point. So there is an n
2
> n
1
with x
n
2
> x
n
1
. Now n
2
> N and so it too is not a peak point.
Hence there is an n
3
> n
2
, with x
n
3
> x
n
2
. Continuing in this way (by mathematical induction),
we produce a subsequence x
n
k
of x
n
with x
n
k
< x
n
k+1
, for all k N; that is, x
n
k
is an
increasing subsequence of x
n
. This completes the proof of the Lemma.
6.3.9 Proposition. Let x
n
be a monotonic sequence in R with the euclidean metric.
Then x
n
converges to a point in R if and only if x
n
is bounded.
Proof. Recall that bounded was dened in Remark 3.3.1.
Clearly if x
n
is unbounded, then it does not converge.
Assume then that x
n
is an increasing sequence which is bounded. By the Least Upper
Bound Axiom, there is a least upper bound L of the set x
n
: n N. If is any positive real
number, then there exists a positive integer N such that d(x
N
, L) < ; indeed, x
N
> L .
But as x
n
is an increasing sequence and L is an upper bound, we have
L < x
n
< L, for all n > N.
That is x
n
L.
The case that x
n
is a decreasing sequence which is bounded is proved in an analogous
fashion, which completes the proof.
As a corollary to Lemma 6.3.8 and Proposition 6.3.9, we obtain immediately the following:
6.3.10 Theorem. (Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem) Every bounded sequence in R with
the euclidean metric has a convergent subsequence.
At long last we are able to prove that R with the euclidean metric is a complete metric space.
6.3.11 Corollary. The metric space R with the euclidean metric is a complete metric
space.
Proof. Let x
n
be any Cauchy sequence in (R, d).
If we show that this arbitrary Cauchy sequence converges in R, we shall have shown
that the metric space is complete. The rst step will be to show that this sequence is
bounded.
As x
n
is a Cauchy sequence, there exists a positive integer N, such that for any n N
and m N, d(x
n
, x
m
) < 1; that is, [x
n
x
m
[ < 1. Put M = [x
1
[ + [x
2
[ + + [x
N
[ + 1. Then
[x
n
[ < M, for all n N; that is, the sequence x
n
is bounded.
So by the Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem 6.3.10, this sequence has a convergent subsequence;
that is, there is an a R and a subsequence x
n
k
with x
n
k
a.
We shall show that not only does the subsequence converge to a, but also that the
sequence x
n
itself converges to a.
Let be any positive real number. As x
n
is a Cauchy sequence, there exists a positive
integer N
0
such that
[x
n
x
m
[ <

2
, for all m N
0
and n N
0
.
Since x
n
k
a, there exists a positive integer N
1
, such that
[x
n
k
a[ <

2
, for all n
k
N
1
.
So if we choose N
2
= maxN
0
, N
1
, combining the above two inequalities yields
[x
n
a[ [x
n
x
n
k
[ +[x
n
k
a[
<

2
+

2
, for n > N
2
and n
k
> N
2
= .
Hence x
n
a, which completes the proof of the Corollary.
6.3.12 Corollary. For each positive integer m, the metric space R
m
with the euclidean
metric is a complete metric space.
Proof. See Exercises 6.3#4.
6.3.13 Proposition. Let (X, d) be a metric space, Y a subset of X, and d
1
the metric
induced on Y by d.
(i) If (X, d) is a complete metric space and Y is a closed subspace of (X, d), then (Y, d
1
)
is a complete metric space.
(ii) If (Y, d
1
) is a complete metric space, then Y is a closed subspace of (X, d).
.
6.3.14 Remark. Example 6.3.3 showed that (0, 1) with the euclidean metric is not a complete
metric space. However, Corollary 6.3.11 showed that R with the euclidean metric is a complete
metric space. And we know that the topological spaces (0, 1) and R are homeomorphic. So
completeness is not preserved by homeomorphism and so is not a topological property.
6.3.15 Denition. A topological space (X, ) is said to be completely metrizable if
there exists a metric d on X such that is the topology on X determined by d and (X, d)
is a complete metric space.
6.3.16 Remark. Note that being completely metrizable is indeed a topological property.
Further, it is easy to verify (see Exercises 6.3#7) that every discrete space and every interval of
R with the induced topology is completely metrizable. So for a, b R with a < b, the topological
spaces R, [a, b], (a, b), [a, b), (a, b], (, a), (, a], (a, ), [a, ), and a with their induced
topologies are all completely metrizable. Somewhat surprisingly we shall see later that even the
space P of all irrational numbers with its induced topology is completely metrizable. Also as (0, 1)
is a completely metrizable subspace of R which is not a closed subset, we see that Proposition
6.3.13(ii) would not be true if complete metric were replaced by completely metrizable.
6.3.17 Denition. A topological space is said to be separable if it has a countable dense
subset.
It was seen in Exercises 3.2#4 that R and every countable topological space is a separable
space. Other examples are given in Exercises 6.1#7.
6.3.18 Denition. A topological space (X, ) is said to be a Polish space if it is separable
and completely metrizable.
It is clear that R is a Polish space. By Exercises 6.3#6, R
n
is a Polish space, for each positive
integer n.
6.3.19 Denition. A topological space (X, ) is said to be a Souslin space if it is
Hausdor and a continuous image of a Polish space. If A is a subset of a topological space
(Y,
1
) such that with the induced topology
2
, the space (A,
2
) is a Souslin space, then
A is said to be an analytic set in (Y,
1
).
Obviously every Polish space is a Souslin space. Exercises 6.1#12 and #11 show that the
converse is false as a Souslin space need not be metrizable. However, we shall see that even
a metrizable Souslin space is not necessarily a Polish space. To see this we note that every
countable topological space is a Souslin space as it is a continuous image of the discrete space N;
one such space is the metrizable space Q which we shall in Example 6.5.8 is not a Polish space.
We know that two topological spaces are equivalent if they are homeomorphic. It is natural
to ask when are two metric spaces equivalent (as metric spaces)? The relevant concept was
introduced in Exercises 6.1#10, namely that of isometric.
6.3.20 Denition. Let (X, d) and (Y, d
1
) be metric spaces. Then (X, d) is said to be
isometric to (Y, d
1
) if there exists a surjective mapping f : X Y such that for all x
1
and
x
2
in X, d(x
1
, x
2
) = d
1
(f(x
1
), f(x
2
)). Such a mapping f is said to be an isometry.
Let d be any metric on R and a any positive real number. If d
1
is dened by d
1
(x, y) = a.d(x, y),
for all x, y R, then it is easily shown that (R, d
1
) is a metric space isometric to (R, d).
It is also easy to verify that any two isometric metric spaces have their associated topological
spaces homeomorphic and every isometry is also a homeomorphism of the associated topological
spaces.
1
) be metric spaces and f a mapping of X into
Y . Let Z = f(X), and d
2
be the metric induced on Z by d
1
. If f : (X, d) (Z, d
2
) is an
isometry, then f is said to be an isometric embedding of (X, d) in (Y, d
1
).
Of course the natural embedding of Q with the euclidean metric in R with the euclidean
metric is an isometric embedding. It is also the case that N with the euclidean metric has a
natural isometric embedding into both R and Q with the euclidean metric.
1
) be metric spaces and f a mapping of X into
Y . If (Y, d
1
) is a complete metric space, f : (X, d) (Y, d
1
) is an isometric embedding and
f(X) is a dense subset of Y in the associated topological space, then (Y, d
1
) is said to be a
completion of (X, d).
Clearly R with the euclidean metric is a completion of Q, the set of rationals with the
euclidean metric. Also R with the euclidean metric is a completion of P, the set of irrationals
with the euclidean metric.
Two questions immediately jump to mind: (1) Does every metric space have a completion?
(2) Is the completion of a metric space unique in some sense? We shall see that the answer to
both questions is yes.
6.3.23 Proposition. Let (X, d) be any metric space. Then (X, d) has a completion.
Outline Proof. We begin by saying that two Cauchy sequences y
n
and z
n
in (X, d) are
equivalent if d(y
n
, z
n
) 0 in R. This is indeed an equivalence relation; that is, it is reexive,
symmetric and transitive. Now let

X be the set of all equivalence classes of equivalent Cauchy
sequences in (X, d). We wish to put a metric on

X.
Let y and z be any two points in

X. Let Cauchy sequences y
n
y and z
n
z. Now
the sequence d(y
n
, z
n
) is a Cauchy sequence in R. (See Exercises 6.3#8.) As R is a complete
metric space, this Cauchy sequence in R converges to some number, which we shall denote by
d
1
( y, z). It is straightforward to show that d
1
( y, z) is not dependent on the choice of the sequence
y
n
in y and z
n
in z.
For each x X, the constant sequence x, x, . . . , x, . . . is a Cauchy sequence in (X, d)
converging to x. Let x denote the equivalence class of all Cauchy sequences converging to
x X. Dene the subset Y of

X to be x : x X. If d
2
is the metric on Y induced by the
metric d
1
on

X, then it is clear that the mapping f : (X, d) (Y, d
2
), given by f(x) = x, is an
isometry.
Now we show that Y is dense in

X. To do this we show that for any given real number > 0,
and z

X, there is an x Y , such that d
1
(z, x) < . Note that z is an equivalence class of Cauchy
sequences. Let x
n
be a Cauchy sequence in this equivalence class z. There exists a positive
integer n
0
, such that for all n > n
0
, d
1
(x
n
, x
n
0
) < . We now consider the constant sequence
x
n
0
, x
n
0
, . . . , x
n
0
, . . . . This lies in the equivalence class x
n
0
, which is in Y . Further, d
1
( x
n
0
, z) < .
So Y is indeed dense in

X.
Finally, we show that (
X, d
1
) is a complete metric space. Let z
n
be a Cauchy sequence
in this space. We are required to show that it converges in

X. As Y is dense, for each positive
integer n, there exists x
n
Y , such that d
1
( x
n
, z
n
) < 1/n. We show that x
n
is a Cauchy
sequence in Y .
Consider a real number > 0. There exists a positive integer N, such that d
1
(z
n
, z
m
) < /2
for n, m > N. Now take a positive integer n
1
, with 1/n
1
< /4. For n, m > n
1
+N, we have
d
1
( x
n
, x
m
) < d
1
( x
n
, z
n
) +d
1
(z
n
, z
m
) +d
1
(z
m
, x
m
) < 1/n +/2 + 1/m < .
So x
n
is a Cauchy sequence in Y . This implies that x
n
is a Cauchy sequence in (X, d). Hence
x
n
z, for some z

X. It is now straightforward to show rst that x
n
z and then that
z
n
z, which completes the proof.
6.3.24 Proposition. Let (A, d
1
) and (B, d
2
) be complete metric spaces. Let X be a subset
of (A, d
1
) with induced metric d
3
, and Y a subset of (B, d
2
) with induced metric d
4
. Further,
let X be dense in (A, d
1
) and Y dense in (B, d
2
). If there is an isometry f : (X, d
3
) (Y, d
4
),
then there exists an isometry g : (A, d
1
) (B, d
2
), such that g(x) = f(x), for all x X.
Outline Proof. Let a A. As X is dense in (A, d
1
), there exists a sequence x
n
a, where each
x
n
X. So x
n
is a Cauchy sequence. As f is an isometry, f(x
n
) is a Cauchy sequence in
(Y, d
4
) and hence also a Cauchy sequence in (B, d
2
). Since (B, d
2
) is a complete metric space,
there exists a b B, such that f(x
n
) b. So we dene g(a) = b.
To show that g is a well-dened map of A into B, it is necessary to verify that if z
n
is any other sequence in X converging to a, then f(z

n
) b. This follows from the fact that
d
1
(x
n
, z
n
) 0 and thus d
2
(f(x
n
), f(z
n
)) = d
4
(f(x
n
), f(z
n
)) 0.
Next we need to show that g : A B is one-to-one and onto. This is left as an exercise as
it is routine.
Finally, let a
1
, a
2
A and x
1n
a
1
and x
2n
a
2
, where each a
1n
and each a
2n
is in X. Then
d
1
(a
1
, a
2
) = lim
n
d
3
(a
1n
, a
2n
) = lim
n
d
4
(f(a
1n
), f(a
2n
)) = d
2
(g(a
1
), g(a
2
))
and so g is indeed an isometry, as required.
Proposition 6.3.24 says that, up to isometry, the completion of a metric spaces is unique.
We conclude this section with another concept. Recall that in Example 6.1.9 we introduced
the concept of a normed vector space. We now dene a very important class of normed vector
spaces.
6.3.25 Denition. Let (N, [[ [[) be a normed vector space and d the associated metric
on the set N. Then (N, [[ [[) is said to be a Banach space if (N, d) is a complete metric
space.
From Proposition 6.3.23 we know that every normed vector space has a completion. However,
the rather pleasant feature is that this completion is in fact also a normed vector space and so is
a Banach space. (See Exercises 6.3#12.)
Exercises 6.3
1. Verify that the sequence x
n
=
n
i=0
1
i!
is a Cauchy sequence in Q with the euclidean metric.
[This sequence does not converge in Q. In R it converges to the number e, which is known
to be irrational. For a proof that e is irrational, indeed transcendental, see Jones et al.
[118].]
2. Prove that every subsequence of a Cauchy sequence is a Cauchy sequence.
3. Give an example of a sequence in R with the euclidean metric which has no subsequence
which is a Cauchy sequence.
4. Using Corollary 6.3.11, prove that, for each positive integer m, the metric space R
m
with
the euclidean metric is a complete metric space.
[Hint. Let < x
1n
, x
2n
, . . . , x
mn
>: n = 1, 2, . . . be a Cauchy sequence in R
m
. Prove
that, for each i = 1, 2, . . . , m, the sequence x
in
: n = 1, 2, . . . in R with the euclidean
metric is a Cauchy sequence and so converges to a point a
i
. Then show that the sequence
< x
1n
, x
2n
, . . . , x
mn
>: n = 1, 2, . . . converges to the point < a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
m
>.]
5. Prove that every closed subspace of a complete metric space is complete and that every
complete metric subspace of a metric space is closed.
6. Prove that for each positive integer n, R
n
is a Polish space.
7. Let a, b R, with a < b. Prove that each discrete space and each of the spaces [a, b], (a, b),
[a, b), (a, b], (, a), (, a], (a, ), [a, ), and a, with its induced topology is a Polish
Space.
8. If (X, d) is a metric space and x
n
and y
n
are Cauchy sequences, prove that d(x
n
, y
n
)
is a Cauchy sequence in R.
9. Fill in the missing details in the proof of Proposition 6.3.23.
10. Fill in the missing details in the proof of Proposition 6.3.24.
11*. Show that each of the spaces (
1
, d
1
), (
2
, d
2
), (c
0
, d
0
), and (
, d
) of Exercises 6.1#7 is
a complete metric space. Indeed, show that each of these spaces is a Banach space in a
natural way.
12*. Let X be any normed vector space. Prove that it is possible to put a normed vector space
structure on

X, the complete metric space constructed in Proposition 6.3.23. So every
normed vector space has a completion which is a Banach space.
13. Let (X, d) be a metric space and S a subset of X. Then the set S is said to be bounded if
there exists a positive integer M such that d(x, y) < M, for all x, y S.
(i) Show that if S is a bounded set in (X, d) and S = X, then (X, d) is a bounded metric
space. (See Exercises 6.1# 2.)
(ii) Let a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
, . . . be a convergent sequence in a metric space (X, d). If the set S
consists of the (distinct) points in this sequence, show that S is a bounded set.
(iii) Let b
1
, b
2
, . . . , b
n
, . . . be a Cauchy sequence in a complete metric space (X, d). If T is
the set of points in this sequence, show that T is a bounded set.
(iv) Is (iii) above still true if we do not insist that (X, d) is complete?
14. Prove that a metric space (X, d) is separable if and only if the associated topological space
(X, ) satises the second axiom of countability. (See Exercises 2.2 #4.)
15. Deduce from Exercise 14 above that if (X, d) is a separable metric space, and d
1
is the metric
induced on a subset Y of X by d, then (Y, d
1
) is separable; in other words every subspace
of a separable metric space is separable. (It should be noted that it is not necessarily true
that a subspace of a separable topological space is separable.)
6.4 Contraction Mappings
In Chapter 5 we had our rst glimpse of a xed point theorem. In this section we shall meet
another type of xed point theorem. This section is very much part of metric space theory rather
than general topology. Nevertheless the topic is important for applications.
6.4. CONTRACTION MAPPINGS 135
6.4.1 Denition. Let f be a mapping of a set X into itself. Then a point x X is said
to be a xed point of f if f(x) = x.
6.4.2 Denition. Let (X, d) be a metric space and f a mapping of X into itself. Then
f is said to be a contraction mapping if there exists an r (0, 1), such that
d(f(x
1
), f(x
2
)) r.d(x
1
, x
2
), for all x
1
, x
2
X.
6.4.3 Proposition. Let f be a contraction mapping of the metric space (X, d). Then f
is a continuous mapping.
6.4.4 Theorem. (Contraction Mapping Theorem or Banach Fixed Point Theorem) Let
(X, d) be a complete metric space and f a contraction mapping of (X, d) into itself. Then f
has precisely one xed point.
Proof. Let x be any point in X and consider the sequence
x, f(x), f
2
(x) = f(f(x)), f
3
(x) = f(f(f(x))), . . . , f
n
(x), . . . .
We shall show this is a Cauchy sequence. Put a = d(x, f(x)). As f is a contraction mapping,
there exists r (0, 1), such that d(f(x
1
), f(x
2
)) r.d(x
1
, x
2
), for all x
1
, x
2
X.
Clearly d(f(x), f
2
(x)) r.d(x, f(x)) = r.a, d(f
2
(x), f
3
(x)) r
2
.d(x, f(x)) = r
2
.a, and by
induction we obtain that, for each k N, d(f
k
x), f
k+1
(x)) r
k
.d(x, f(x)) = r
k
.a.
Let m and n be any positive integers, with n > m. Then
d(f
m
(x), f
n
(x)) = d(f
m
(x), f
m
(f
nm
(x)))
r
m
.d(x, f
nm
(x))
r
m
.[d(x, f(x)) +d(f(x), f
2
(x)) + +d(f
nm1
(x), f
nm
(x))]
r
m
.d(x, f(x))[1 +r +r
2
+ +r
nm1
]
r
m
.a
1 r
.
As r < 1, it is clear that f
n
(x) is a Cauchy sequence. Since (X, d) is complete, there is a z X,
such that f
n
(x) z.
By Proposition 6.4.3, f is continuous and so
f(z) = f
_
lim
n
f
n
(x)
_
= lim
n
f
n+1
(x) = z (6.1)
and so z is indeed a xed point of f.
Finally, let t be any xed point of f. Then
d(t, z) = d(f(t), f(z)) r.d(t, z). (6.2)
As r < 1, this implies d(t, z) = 0 and thus t = z and f has only one xed point.
It is worth mentioning that the Contraction Mapping Theorem provides not only an existence
proof of a xed point but also a construction for nding it; namely, let x be any point in X and
nd the limit of the sequence f
n
(x). This method allows us to write a computer program to
approximate the limit point to any desired accuracy.
6.4. CONTRACTION MAPPINGS 137
Exercises 6.4
1. Prove Proposition 6.4.3.
2. Extend the Contraction Mapping Theorem by showing that if f is a mapping of a complete
metric space (X, d) into itself and f
N
is a contraction mapping for some positive integer N,
then f has precisely one xed point.
3. The Mean Value Theorem says: Let f be a real-valued function on a closed unit interval
[a, b] which is continuous on [a, b] and dierentiable on (a, b). Then there exists a point
c [a, b] such that f(b) f(a) = f
(c)(b a). (Recall that f is said to be dierentiable at a

point s if lim
xs
f(x)f(s)
xs
= f
(s) exists.)
Using the Mean Value Theorem prove the following:
Let f : [a, b] [a, b] be dierentiable. Then f is a contraction if and only if there exists
r (0, 1) such that [f
(x)[ r, for all x [a, b].

4. Using Exercises 3 and 2 above, show that while f : R R given by f(x) = cos x does not
satisfy the conditions of the Contraction Mapping Theorem, it nevertheless has a unique
xed point.
6.5 Baire Spaces
6.5.1 Theorem. (Baire Category Theorem) Let (X, d) be a complete metric space. If
X
1
, X
2
, . . . , X
n
, . . . is a sequence of open dense subsets of X, then the set
n=1
X
n
is also
dense in X.
Proof. It suces to show that if U is any open subset of (X, d), then U
n=1
X
n
,= .
As X
1
is open and dense in X, the set U X
1
is a non-empty open subset of (X, d). Let U
1
be an open ball of radius at most 1, such that U
1
U X
1
.
Inductively dene for each positive integer n > 1, an open ball U
n
of radius at most 1/n such
that U
n
U
n1
X
n
.
For each positive integer n, let x
n
be any point in U
n
. Clearly the sequence x
n
is a Cauchy
sequence. As (X, d) is a complete metric space, this sequence converges to a point x X.
Observe that for every positive integer m, every member of the sequence x
n
is in the closed
set U
m
, and so the limit point x is also in the set U
m
.
Then x U
n
, for all n N. Thus x
n=1
U
n
.
But as U
n=1
X
n

n=1
U
n
x, this implies that U
n=1
X
n
,= , which completes the
proof of the theorem.
In Exercises 3.2 #5 we introduced the notion of interior of a subset of a topological space.
6.5.2 Denition. Let (X, ) be any topological space and A any subset of X. The
largest open set contained in A is called the interior of A and is denoted by Int(A).
6.5.3 Denition. A subset A of a topological space (X, ) is said to be nowhere dense
if the set A has empty interior.
These denitions allow us to rephrase Theorem 6.5.1.
6.5. BAIRE SPACES 139
6.5.4 Corollary. (Baire Category Theorem) Let (X, d) be a complete metric space. If
X
1
, X
2
, . . . , X
n
, . . . is a sequence of subsets of X such that X =
n=1
X
n
, then for at least
one n N, the set X
n
has non-empty interior; that is, X
n
is not nowhere dense.
Proof. Exercises 6.5 #2.
6.5.5 Denition. A topological space (X, d) is said to be a Baire space if for every
sequence X
n
of open dense subsets of X, the set
n=1
X
n
is also dense in X.
6.5.6 Corollary. Every complete metrizable space is a Baire space.
6.5.7 Remarks. It is important to note that Corollary 6.5.6 is a result in topology, rather
than a result in metric space theory.
Note also that there are Baire spaces which are not completely metrizable. (See Exercises
6.5 #4(iv).)
6.5.8 Example. The topological space Q is not a Baire space and so is not completely
metrizable. To see this, note that the set of rational numbers is countable and let
Q = x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . . Each of the sets X
n
= Q x
n
is open and dense in Q, however
n=1
X
n
= . Thus Q does not have the Baire space property.
6.5.9 Remark. You should note that (once we had the Baire Category Theorem) it was harder
to prove that Q is not completely metrizable than the more general result that Q is not a Baire
space.
It is a surprising and important feature not only of topology, but of mathematics generally,
that a more general result is sometimes easier to prove.
6.5.10 Denitions. Let Y be a subset of a topological space (X, ). If Y is a union of
a countable number of nowhere dense subsets of X, then Y is said to be a set of the rst
category or meager in (X, ). If Y is not rst category, it is said to be a set of the second
category in (X, ).
In Exercises 6.5#
The Baire Category Theorem has many applications in analysis, but these lie outside our
study of Topology. However, we shall conclude this section with an important theorem in Banach
space theory, namely the Open Mapping Theorem. This theorem is a consequence of the Baire
Category Theorem.
6.5.11 Proposition. If Y is a rst category subset of a Baire space (X, ), then the
interior of Y is empty.
Proof. As Y is rst category, Y =
n=1
Y
n
, where each Y
n
, n N, is nowhere dense.
Let U be such that U Y . Then U
n=1
Y
n

n=1
Y
n
.
So X U
n=1
(X Y
n
), and each of the sets X Y
n
is open and dense in (X, ). As (X, )
is Baire,
n=1
(X Y
n
) is dense in (X, ). So the closed set X U is dense in (X, ). This implies
X U = X. Hence U = . This completes the proof.
6.5.12 Corollary. If Y is a rst category subset of a Baire space (X, ), then X Y is a
second category set.
Proof. If this were not the case, then the Baire space (X, ) would be a countable union of
nowhere dense sets.
6.5.13 Remark. As Q is a rst category subset of R, it follows from Corollary 6.5.12 that the
set P of irrationals is a second category set.
6.5.14 Denition. Let S be a subset of a real vector space V . The set S is said to be
convex if for each x, y S and every real number 0 < < 1, the point x +(1 )y is in S.
Clearly every subspace of a vector space is convex. Also in any normed vector space, every
open ball and every closed ball is convex.
6.5.15 Theorem. (Open Mapping Theorem) Let (B, [[ [[) and ((B
1
, [[ [[
1
) be Banach
spaces and L : B B
1
a continuous linear (in the vector space sense) mapping of B onto
B
1
. Then L is an open mapping.
Proof. By Exercises 6.5#1(iv), it suces to show that there exists an N N such that
L(B
N
(0)) B
s
(0), for some s > 0.
Clearly B =
n=1
B
n
(0) and as L is surjective we have B
1
= L(B) =
n=1
L(B
n
(0)).
As B
1
is a Banach space, by Corollary 6.5.4 of the Baire Category Theorem, there is an
N N, such that L(B
N
(0)) has non-empty interior.
So there is a z B
1
and t > 0, such that B
t
(z)) L(B
N
(0)).
By Exercises 6.5#3 there is no loss of generality in assuming that z L(B
N
(0)).
But B
t
(z) = B
t
(0) +z, and so
B
t
(0) L(B
N
(0)) z = L(B
N
(0)) z L(B
N
(0)) L(B
N
(0)) L(B
2N
(0)).
which, by the linearity of L, implies that B
t/2
(0) L(B
N
(0)).
We shall show that this implies that B
t/4
(0) L(B
N
(0)).
Let w B
t/2
(0). Then there is an x
1
B
N
(0), such that [[w L(x
1
)[[
1
<
t
4
.
Note that by linearity of the mapping L, for each integer k > 0
B
t/2
(0) L(B
N
(0)) = B
t/(2k)
(0) L(B
N/k
(0)).
So there is an x
2
B
N/2
(0), such that
[[(w L(x
1
)) L(x
2
)[[
1
= [[w L(x
1
) L(x
2
)[[
1
<
t
8
.
Continuing in this way, we obtain by induction a sequence x
m
such that [[x
m
[[ <
N
2
m1
and
[[w L(x
1
+x
2
+ +x
m
)[[
1
= [[w L(x
1
) L(x
2
) L(x
m
)[[
1
<
t
2
m
.
Since B is complete, the series
m=1
x
m
converges to a limit a.
Clearly [[a[[ < 2N and by continuity of L, we have w = L(a) L(B
2N
(0)).
So B
t/2
(0) L(B
2N
(0)) and thus B
t/4
(0) L(B
N
(0)) which completes the proof.
The following Corollary of the Open Mapping Theorem follows immediately and is a very
important special case.
6.5.16 Corollary. A one-to-one continuous linear map of one Banach space onto another
Banach space is a homeomorphism. In particular, a one-to-one continuous linear map of a
Banach space onto itself is a homeomorphism.
Exercises 6.5
1
) be topological spaces. A mapping f : (X, ) (Y,
1
) is said to be
an open mapping if for every open subset A of (X, ), the set f(A) is open in (Y,
1
).
(i) Show that f is an open mapping if and only if for each U and each x U, the set
f(U) is a neighbourhood of f(x).
(ii) Let (X, d) and (Y, d
1
) be metric spaces and f a mapping of X into Y . Prove that f is
an open mapping if and only if for each n N and each x X, f(B
1/n
(x)) B
r
(f(x)),
for some r > 0.
(iii) Let (N, [[ [[) and (N
1
, [[ [[
1
) be normed vector spaces and f a linear mapping of N into
N
1
. Prove that f is an open mapping if and only if for each n N, f(B
1/n
(0)) B
r
(0),
for some r > 0.
(iv) Let (N, [[ [[) and (N
1
, [[ [[
1
) be normed vector spaces and f a linear mapping of N into
N
1
. Prove that f is an open mapping if and only if there exists an s > 0 such that
f(B
s
(0)) B
r
(0), for some r > 0.
2. Using the Baire Category Theorem, prove Corollary 6.5.4.
3. Let A be a subset of a Banach space B. Prove the following are equivalent:
(i) the set A has non-empty interior;
(ii) there exists a z A and t > 0 such that B
t
(z) A;
(ii) there exists a y A and r > 0 such that B
r
(y) A.
4. A point x in a topological space (X, ) is said to be an isolated point if x . Prove
that if (X, ) is a countable T
1
-space with no isolated points, then it is not a Baire space.
5. (i) Using the version of the Baire Category Theorem in Corollary 6.5.4, prove that P is not
an F
-set and Q is not a G
-set in R.
[Hint. Suppose that P =
n=1
F
n
, where each F
n
is a closed subset of R. Then apply
Corollary 6.5.4 to R =
n=1
F
n

qQ
q.]
(ii) Let f : R R be a function mapping R into itself. Then f is said to be continuous
at a point a R if for each open set U containing f(a), there exists an open set V
containing a such that f(V ) U. Prove that the set of points in R at which f is
continuous is a G
-set.
(iii) Deduce from (i) and (ii) that there is no function f : R R which is continuous
precisely at the set of all rational numbers.
6. (i) Let (X, ) be any topological space, and Y and S dense subsets of X. If S is also
open in (X, ), prove that S Y is dense in both X and Y .
(ii) Let
1
be the topology induced on Y by on X. Let X
n
be a sequence of open
dense subsets of Y . Using (i), show that X
n
Y is a sequence of open dense subsets
of (Y,
1
).
(iii) Deduce from Denition 6.5.5 and (ii) above, that if (Y,
1
) is a Baire space, then
(X, ) is also a Baire space. [So the closure of a Baire space is a Baire space.]
(iv) Using (iii), show that the subspace (Z,
2
) of R
2
given by
Z = x, y) : x, y R, y > 0 x, 0) : x Q,
is a Baire space, but is not completely metrizable as the closed subspace x, 0) : x Q
is homeomorphic to Q which is not completely metrizable. This also shows that a closed
subspace of a Baire space is not necessarily a Baire space.
1
1
) be a continuous
open mapping. If (X, ) is a Baire space, prove that (X,
1
) is a Baire space. [So an open
continuous image of a Baire space is a Baire space.]
8. Let (Y,
1
) be an open subspace of the Baire space (X, ). Prove that (Y, ) is a Baire
space. [So an open subspace of a Baire space is a Baire space.]
9. Let (X, ) be a topological space. A function f : (X, ) R is said to be lower
semicontinuous if for each r R, the set f
1
((, r]) is closed in (X, ). A function
f : (X, ) R is said to be upper semicontinuous if for each r R, the set f
1
((, r))
is open in (X, ).
(i) Prove that f is continuous if and only if it is lower semicontinuous and upper
semicontinuous.
(ii) Let (X, ) be a Baire space, I an index set and for each x X, let the set f
i
(x) : i I
be bounded above, where each mapping f
i
: (X, ) R is lower semicontinuous. Using
the Baire Category Theorem prove that there exists an open subset O of (X, ) such
that the set f
i
(x) : x O, i I is bounded above.
[Hint. Let X
n
=
iI
f
1
i
((, n]).]
10. Let B be a Banach space where the dimension of the underlying vector space is countable.
Using the Baire Category Theorem, prove that the dimension of the underlying vector space
is, in fact, nite.
11. Let (N, [[ [[) be a normed vector space and (X, ) a convex subset of (N, [[ [[) with its
induced topology. Show that (X, ) is path-connected, and hence also connected. Deduce
that every open ball in (N, [[ [[) is path-connected as is (N, [[ [[) itself.
6.6 Hausdor Dimension
We begin by warning the reader that this section is signicantly more complicated than most of
the other material to this point. Further, an understanding of this section is not essential to the
understanding of most of what appears in subsequent chapters.
We think of points as 0-dimensional, lines as 1-dimensional, squares as 2-dimensional, cubes
as 3-dimensional etc. So intuitively we think we know what the notion of dimension is. For
arbitrary topological spaces there are competing notions of topological dimension. In nice
spaces, the dierent notions of topological dimension tend to coincide. However, even the well-
behaved euclidean spaces, R
n
, n > 1, have surprises in store for us.
In 1919 Felix Hausdor introduced the notion of Hausdor dimension of a metric space.
A surprising feature of Hausdor dimension is that it can have values which are not integers.
This topic was developed by Abram Samoilovitch Besicovitch a decade or so later, but came
into prominence in the 1970s with the work of Benoit Mandelbrot on what he called fractal
geometry and which spurred the development of chaos theory. Fractals and chaos theory have
been used in a very wide range of disciplines including economics, nance, meteorology, physics,
and physiology.
We begin with a discussion of Hausdor measure (or what some call Hausdor-Besicovitch
measure). Some readers will be familiar with the related notion of Lebesgue measure, however
such an understanding is not essential here.
6.6.1 Denition. Let Y be a subset of a metric space (X, d). Then the number
supd(x, y) : x, y Y is said to be the diameter of the set Y and is denoted diamY .
6.6.2 Denition. Let Y be a subset of a metric space (X, d), I an index set, a positive
real number, and U
i
: i I a family of subsets of X such that Y

iI
U
i
and, for each
i I, diamU
i
< . Then U
i
: i I is said to be an -covering of the set Y .
We are particularly interested in -coverings which are countable. So we are led to ask:
which subsets of a metric space have countable -coverings for all > 0? The next Proposition
provides the answer.
6.6. HAUSDORFF DIMENSION 147
6.6.3 Proposition. Let Y be a subset of a metric space (X, d) and d
1
the induced metric
on Y . Then Y has a countable -covering for all > 0 if and only if (Y, d
1
) is separable.
Proof. Assume that Y has a countable -covering for all > 0. In particular Y has a countable
(1/n)-covering, U
n,i
: i N, for each n N. Let y
n,i
be any point in Y U
n,i
. We shall see that
the countable set y
n,i
: i N, n N is dense in Y. Clearly for each y Y , there exists an i N,
such that d(y, y
n,i
) < 1/n. So let O be any open set intersecting Y non-trivially. Let y O Y .
Then O contains an open ball B centre y of radius 1/n, for some n N. So y
n,i
O, for some
i N. Thus y
n,i
: i N, n N is dense in Y and so Y is separable.
Conversely, assume that Y is separable. Then it has a countable dense subset y
i
: i N.
Indeed, given any y Y and any > 0, there exists a y
i
, i N, such that d(y, y
i
) < /2. So the
family of all U
i
: i N, where U
i
is the open ball centre y
i
and radius /2 is an -covering of Y ,
as required.
We are now able to dene the Hausdor s-dimensional measure of a subset of a metric space.
More precisely, we shall dene this measure for separable subsets of a metric space. Of course, if
(X, d) is a separable metric space, such as R
n
, for any n N, then all of its subsets are separable.
(See Exercises 6.3 #15.)
6.6.4 Denition. Let Y be a separable subset of a metric space (X, d) and s a positive
real number. For each positive real number < 1, put
H
s
(Y ) = inf
_
_
_
iN
(diamU
i
)
s
: U
i
: i N is an -covering of Y
_
_
_
, and
H
s
(Y ) =
_
_
_
lim
0
>0
H
s
(Y ), if the limit exists;

, otherwise.
Then H
s
(Y ) is said to be the s-dimensional Hausdor outer measure of the set Y .
6.6.5 Remark. Note that in Denition 6.6.4, if
1
<
2
, then H
s
1
(Y ) H
s
2
(Y ). So as tends
to 0, either the limit of H
s
(Y ) exists or it tends to . This helps us to understand the denition

of H
s
(Y ).
6.6.6 Remark. It is important to note that if d
1
is the metric induced on Y by the metric d
on X, then H
s
(Y ) depends only on the metric d
1
on Y . In other words if Y is also a subset of
the metric space (Z, d
2
) and d
2
induces the same metric d
1
on Y , then H
s
(Y ) is the same when
considered as a subset of (X, d) or (Y, d
2
). So, for example, the s-dimensional Hausdor outer
measure is the same for the closed interval [0,1] whether considered as a subset of R or of R
2
or
indeed of R
n
, for any positive integer n.
6.6.7 Lemma. Let Y be a separable subset of a metric space (X, d), s and t positive
real numbers with s < t, and a positive real number < 1. Then
(i) H
t
(Y ) H
s
(Y ), and
(ii) H
t
(Y )
ts
H
s
(Y ).
Proof. Part (i) is an immediate consequence of the fact that < 1 and so each diamU
i
< 1,
which implies (diamU
i
)
t
< (diamU
i
)
s
. Part (ii) follows from the fact that diamU
i
< < 1 and so
(diamU
i
)
t
<
ts
(diamU
i
)
s
.
6.6.8 Proposition. Let Y be a separable subset of a metric space (X, d) and s and t
positive real numbers with s < t.
(i) If H
s
(Y ) < , then H
t
(Y ) = 0.
(ii) If 0 ,= H
t
(Y ) < , then H
s
(Y ) = .
Proof. These follow immediately from Denition 6.6.3 and Lemma 6.6.7ii).
6.6.9 Remark. From Proposition 6.6.8 we see that if H
s
(Y ) is nite and non-zero for some
value of s, then for all larger values of s, H
s
(Y ) equals 0 and for all smaller values of s, H
s
(Y )
equals .
Proposition 6.6.8 allows us to dene Hausdor dimension.
6.6.10 Denition. Let Y be a separable subset of a metric space (X, d). Then
dim
H
(Y ) =
_
infs [0, ) : H
s
(Y ) = 0, if H
s
(Y ) = 0 for some s > 0;
, otherwise
is called the Hausdor dimension of the set Y .
We immediately obtain the following Proposition.
6.6.11 Proposition. Let Y be a separable subset of a metric space (X, d). Then
(i) dim
H
(Y ) =
_
_
0, if H
s
(Y ) = 0 for all s;
sups [0, ) : H
s
(Y ) = , if the supremum exists;
, otherwise.
(ii) H
s
(Y ) =
_
0, if s > dim
H
(Y );
, if s < dim
H
(Y ).
The calculation of the Hausdor dimension of a metric space is not an easy exercise. But
here is an instructive example.
6.6.12 Example. Let Y be any nite subset of a metric space (X, d). Then dim
H
(Y ) = 0.
Proof. Put Y = y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
N
, N N. Let O
(i) be the open ball centre y

i
and radius /2.
Then O
i
: i = 1, . . . , N is an -covering of Y . So
H
s
(Y ) = inf
_
_
_
iN
(diamU
i
)
s
: U
i
an open covering of Y
_
_
_
i=1
(diamO
i
)
s
=
s
.N
s+1
/2
s
.
Thus H
s
(Y ) lim
0
>0
s
.N
s+1
/2
s
= 0. So H
s
(Y ) = 0, for all s > 0. Hence dim
H
(Y ) = 0.
The next Proposition is immediate.
6.6.13 Proposition. If (Y
1
, d
1
) and (Y
2
, d
2
) are isometric metric spaces, then
dim
H
(Y
1
) = dim
H
(Y
2
).
6.6.14 Proposition. Let Z and Y be separable subsets of a metric space (X, d). If
Z Y , then dim
H
(Z) dim
H
(Y ).
Proof. Exercise.
6.6.15 Lemma. Let Y =
iN
Y
i
be a separable subset of a metric space (X, d). Then
H
s
(Y )
i=1
H
s
(Y
i
).
Proof. Exercise.
6.6.16 Proposition. Let Y =
iN
Y
i
be a separable subset of a metric space (X, d). Then
dim
H
(Y ) = supdim
H
(Y
i
) : i N.
Proof. It follows immediately from Lemma 6.6.15 that
dim
H
(Y ) supdim
H
(Y
i
) : i N.
However, by Proposition 6.6.14, dim
H
(Y ) dim
H
(Y
i
), for each i N. Putting these two
observations together completes the proof of the Proposition.
6.6.17 Proposition. If Y is a countable subset of a metric space (X, d), then dim
H
(Y ) = 0.
Proof. This follows immediately from Proposition 6.6.16 and Example 6.6.12
In particular, Proposition 6.6.17 tells us that dim
H
(Q) = 0.
6.6.18 Example. Let [a, a + 1], a R be a closed interval in R, where R has the euclidean
metric. Then dim
H
[a, a + 1] = dim
H
[0, 1] = dim
H
(R).
Proof. Let d
a
be the metric induced on [a, a+1] by the euclidean metric on R. Then ([a, a+1], d
a
)
is isometric to ([0, 1], d
0
), and so by Proposition 6.6.13, dim
H
[a, a + 1] = dim
H
[0, 1].
Now observe that R =
a=
[a, a + 1]. So
dim
H
(R) = supdim
H
[a, a + 1] : a = . . . , n, . . . , 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, . . . , n, . . . = dim
H
[0, 1],
as each dim
H
[a, a + 1] = dim
H
[0, 1].
6.6.19 Proposition. Let (X, d
1
) and (Y, d
2
) be separable metric spaces and f : X Y a
surjective function. If there exist positive real numbers a and b, such that for all x
1
, x
2
X,
a.d
1
(x
1
, x
2
) d
2
(f(x
1
), f(x
2
)) b.d
1
(x
1
, x
2
),
then dim
H
(X, d
1
) = dim
H
(Y, d
2
).
Proof. Exercise
6.6.20 Remark. In some cases Proposition 6.6.19 is useful in calculating the Hausdor
dimension of a space. See Exercises 6.6 #7 and #8.
Another useful device in calculating Hausdor dimension is to rene the denition of the
s-dimensional Hausdor outer measure as in the following Proposition, where all members of the
-covering are open sets.
6.6.21 Proposition. Let Y be a separable subset of a metric space (X, d) and s a positive
real number. If for each positive real number < 1,
O
s
(Y ) = inf
_
_
_
iN
(diamO
i
)
s
: O
i
: i N is an -covering of Y by open sets O
i
_
_
_
,
then O
s
(Y ) = H
s
(Y ).
Further H
s
(Y ) =
_
_
_
lim
0
>0
O
s
(Y ), if the limit exists;

, otherwise.
Proof. Exercise.
6.6.22 Lemma. Let Y be a connected separable subset of a metric space (X, d). If
O
i
: i N is a covering of Y by open sets O
i
, then
iN
diamO
i
diamY
Proof. Exercise.
6.6.23 Example. Show H
1
[0, 1] 1.
Proof. If we put Y = [0, 1] in Lemma 6.6.22 and s = 1 in Proposition 6.6.21, noting
diam[0, 1] = 1 yields H
1
[0, 1] 1, for all > 0. This implies the required result.

6.6.24 Proposition. Let [0, 1] denote the closed unit interval with the euclidean metric.
Then dim
H
[0, 1] = 1.
Proof. From Proposition 6.6.11, it suces to show that 0 ,= H
1
[0, 1] < . This is the case if
we show H
1
[0, 1] = 1.
For any 1 > > 0, it is clear that the interval [0, 1] can be covered by n
intervals each of
diameter less than , where n
2 + 1/. So H
1
[0, 1] (2 + 1/); that is, H

1
[0, 1] 1 + 2.
Thus H
1
[0, 1] 1. From Example 6.6.23, we now have H
1
[0, 1] = 1, from which the Proposition
follows.
A similar argument to that above shows that if a, b R with a < b, where R has the euclidean
metric, then dim
H
[a, b] = 1. The next Corollary includes this result and is an easy consequence
of combining Proposition 6.6.24, Example 6.6.18, Proposition 6.6.14, Proposition 4.3.5, and the
denition of totally disconnected in Exercises 5.2 #10.
6.6.25 Corollary. Let R denote the set of all real numbers with the euclidean metric.
(i) dim
H
R = 1.
(ii) If S R, then dim
H
S 1.
(iii) If S contains a non-trivial interval (that is, is not totally disconnected), then dim
H
S = 1.
(iv) If S is a non-trivial interval in R, then dim
H
S = 1.
Proof. Exercise
6.6.26 Remark. In fact if R
n
has the euclidean metric, with n N, then it is true that
dim
H
R
n
= n. This is proved in Exercises 6.6. However, the proof there depends on the Generalized
Heine-Borel Theorem 8.3.3 which is not proved until Chapter 8.
This section on Hausdor dimension is not yet complete. From time to time please check
for updates online at http://uob-community.ballarat.edu.au/smorris/topology.htm.
Exercises 6.6
1. Ley Y be a subset of a metric space (X, d) and Y its closure. Prove that diamY = diamY .
[Hint. Use Denitions 6.6.4 and 6.6.10.]
3. Prove Lemma 6.6.15.
4. If Y =
n
i=1
Y
i
, for some n N, is a separable subset of a metric space (X, d), show that
dim
H
(Y ) = supdim
H
(Y
i
) : i = 1, 2 . . . , n.
5. (i) Let n N, and a, b R
n
. Show that if r and s are any positive real numbers, then the
open balls B
r
(a) and B
s
(b) in R
n
with the euclidean metric satisfy
dim
H
B
r
(a) = dim
H
B
s
(b).
(ii) Using the method of Example 6.6.18, show that dim
H
B
r
(a) = dimR
n
.
(ii) If S
1
is the open cube x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) R
n
: 0 < x
i
< 1, i = 1, . . . , n, prove that
dim
H
S
1
= dim
H
R
n
.
(iii)* Using the method of Proposition 6.6.24, show that if n = 2 then H
2
(S
1
) 2 and so
dim
H
(S
1
) 2.
(iv) Prove that dim
H
R
2
2.
(v)* Using an analogous argument, prove that dim
H
R
n
n, for all n > 2.
[Hint. Prove that a
s
.H
s
(X) H
s
(Y ) b
s
.H
s
(X).]
7. Let f : R R
2
be the function given by f(x) = x, x
2
). Using Proposition 6.6.19, show that
dim
H
f[0, 1] = dim
H
[0, 1]. Deduce from this and Proposition 6.6.16 that if Y is the graph in
R
2
of the function : R R given by (x) = x
2
, then dim
H
(Y ) = dim
H
[0, 1].
8. Using an analogous argument to that in Exercise 7 above, show that if Z is the graph in
R
2
of any polynomial (x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n1
x
n1
+ . . . a
2
x
2
+ a
1
x + a
0
, where a
n
,= 0, then
dim
H
Z = dim
H
[0, 1].
9.* Let g : R R be a function such that the n
th
-derivative g
(n)
exists, for each n N. Further
assume that there exists a K N, [g
(n)
(x)[ < K, for all n N and all x [0, 1]. (Examples
of such functions include g = exp, g = sin, g = cos, and g is a polynomial.) Using the
Taylor series expansion of g, extend the method of Exercises 7 and 8 above to show that if
f : R R
2
is given by f(x) = x, g(x)), then dim
H
f[0, 1] = dim
H
[0, 1].
[Hint. Firstly prove that if z is any positive real number greater than 1, and U
i
is any set in
(X, d) of diameter less than , then there exists an open set O
i
such that (i) U
i
O
i
, (ii)
diamO
i
< , and (iii) diamO
i
z. diamU
i
. Use this to show that O
s
(Y ) z
s
.H
s
(Y ), for all
z > 1.]
11. Prove Lemma 6.6.22.
[Hint. First assume that Y is covered by 2 open sets and prove the analogous result. Then
consider the case that Y is covered by a nite number of open sets. Finally consider the
case of an innite covering remembering a sum of an innite number of terms exists (and
is nite) if and only if the limit of the nite sums exist.]
12. Show that if P denotes the set of all irrational numbers with the euclidean metric, then
dim
H
P = 1
13. Fill in the details of the proof of Corollary 6.6.25.
14. The Generalized Heine-Borel Theorem 8.3.3 proved in Chapter 8, implies that if O
i
: i N
is an -covering of the open cube S
1
of Example 5 above, then there exists an N N, such
that O
1
, O
2
, . . . , O
N
is also an -covering of S
1
. Using this, extend Proposition 6.6.21 to
say that: For every positive real number ,
H
s
(S
1
) = inf
_
N
i=1
(diamO
i
)
s
: where N N and O
1
, . . . , O
N
is an open covering of S
1
_
.
Warning: Note that this Exercise depends on a result not proved until Chapter 8.
6.7. POSTSCRIPT 157
15. (i) Show that if O is a subset of R
2
with the euclidean metric, and A is its area, then
A

4
.(diamO)
2
.
(ii) Deduce from (i) that if O
1
, O
2
, . . . , O
N
is an -covering of S
1
in R
2
of Example 5 above,
then
N
i=1
(diamO
i
)
2
.
(iii) Deduce from (ii) and Exercise 14 above that H
2
(S
1
)
4
.
(iv) Using (iii) and Exercise 5, prove that dim
H
(S
1
) = dim
H
R
2
= 2.
(v) Using an analogous method to that above, prove that dim
H
R
n
= n, where R
n
has the
euclidean metric.
(vi) Prove that if S is any subset of R
n
with the euclidean metric, such that S contains a
non-empty open ball in R
n
, the dim
H
S = n.
Warning: Note that (iii), (iv), (v), and (vi) of this Exercise depend on a result not proved
until Chapter 8.
6.7 Postscript
Metric space theory is an important topic in its own right. As well, metric spaces hold an
important position in the study of topology. Indeed many books on topology begin with metric
spaces, and motivate the study of topology via them.
We saw that dierent metrics on the same set can give rise to the same topology. Such
metrics are called equivalent metrics. We were introduced to the study of function spaces, and in
particular, C[0, 1]. En route we met normed vector spaces, a central topic in functional analysis.
Not all topological spaces arise from metric spaces. We saw this by observing that topologies
induced by metrics are Hausdor.
We saw that the topology of a metric space can be described entirely in terms of its
convergent sequences and that continuous functions between metric spaces can also be so
described.
Exercises 6.2 #9 introduced the interesting concept of distance between sets in a metric
space.
We met the concepts of Cauchy sequence, complete metric space, completely metrizable
space, Banach space, Polish space, and Souslin space. Completeness is an important topic in
metric space theory because of the central role it plays in applications in analysis. Banach spaces
are complete normed vector spaces and are used in many contexts in analysis and have a rich
structure theory. We saw that every metric space has a completion, that is can be embedded
isometrically in a complete metric space. For example every normed vector space has a completion
which is a Banach space.
Contraction mappings were introduced in the concept of xed points and we saw the proof
of the Contraction Mapping Theorem which is also known as the Banach Fixed Point Theorem.
This is a very useful theorem in applications for example in the proof of existence of solutions of
dierential equations.
Another powerful theorem proved in this chapter was the Baire Category Theorem. We
introduced the topological notion of a Baire space and saw that every completely metrizable
space is a Baire space. En route the notion of rst category or meager was introduced. And then
we proved the Open Mapping Theorem which says that a continuous linear map from a Banach
space onto another Banach space must be an open mapping.
This Chapter is not yet complete. Material that is yet to be included (1) Hausdor dimension
(2) uniform continuity and the Postscript is to be revised
Chapter 7
Compactness
Introduction
The most important topological property is compactness. It plays a key role in many branches
of mathematics. It would be fair to say that until you understand compactness you do not
understand topology!
So what is compactness? It could be described as the topologists generalization of niteness.
The formal denition says that a topological space is compact if whenever it is a subset of a union
of an innite number of open sets then it is also a subset of a union of a nite number of these
open sets. Obviously every nite subset of a topological space is compact. And we quickly see
that in a discrete space a set is compact if and only if it is nite. When we move to topological
spaces with richer topological structures, such as R, we discover that innite sets can be compact.
Indeed all closed intervals [a, b] in R are compact. But intervals of this type are the only ones
which are compact.
So we are led to ask: precisely which subsets of R are compact? The Heine-Borel Theorem
will tell us that the compact subsets of R are precisely the sets which are both closed and bounded.
As we go farther into our study of topology, we shall see that compactness plays a crucial
role. This is especially so of applications of topology to analysis.
159
160 CHAPTER 7. COMPACTNESS
7.1 Compact Spaces
7.1.1 Denition. Let A be a subset of a topological space (X, ). Then A is said to be
compact if for every set I and every family of open sets, O
i
, i I, such that A

iI
O
i
there exists a nite subfamily O
i
1
, O
i
2
. . . . , O
i
n
such that A O
i
1
O
i
2
O
i
n
.
7.1.2 Example. If (X, ) = R and A = (0, ), then A is not compact.
Proof. For each positive integer i, let O
i
be the open interval (0, i). Then, clearly, A
i=1
O
i
.
But there do not exist i
1
, i
2
, . . . i
n
such that A (0, i
1
) (0, i
2
) (0, i
n
). Therefore A is not
compact.
7.1.3 Example. Let (X, ) be any topological space and A = x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
any nite
subset of (X, ). Then A is compact.
Proof. Let O
i
, i I, be any family of open sets such that A
iI
O
i
. Then for each x
j
A,
there exists an O
i
j
, such that x
j
O
i
j
. Thus A O
i
1
O
i
2
O
i
n
. So A is compact.
7.1.4 Remark. So we see from Example 7.1.3 that every nite set (in a topological space) is
compact. Indeed compactness can be thought of as a topological generalization of niteness.
7.1.5 Example. A subset A of a discrete space (X, ) is compact if and only if it is nite.
Proof. If A is nite then Example 7.1.3 shows that it is compact.
Conversely, let A be compact. Then the family of singleton sets O
x
= x, x A is such
that each O
x
is open and A
xA
O
x
. As A is compact, there exist O
x
1
, O
x
2
, . . . , O
x
n
such that
A O
x
1
O
x
2
O
x
n
; that is, A x
1
, . . . , x
n
. Hence A is a nite set.
Of course if all compact sets were nite then the study of compactness would not be
interesting. However we shall see shortly that, for example, every closed interval [a, b] is compact
Firstly, we introduce a little terminology.
7.1. COMPACT SPACES 161
7.1.6 Denitions. Let I be a set and O
i
, i I, a family of open sets in a topological
space (X, ). Let A be a subset of (X, ). Then O
i
, i I, is said to be an open covering
of A if A

iI
O
i
. A nite subfamily, O
i
1
, O
i
2
, . . . , O
i
n
, of O
i
, i I is called a nite
subcovering (of A) if A O
i
1
O
i
2
O
i
n
.
So we can rephrase the denition of compactness as follows:
7.1.7 Denitions. A subset A of a topological space (X, ) is said to be compact if
every open covering of A has a nite subcovering. If the compact subset A equals X, then
(X, ) is said to be a compact space.
7.1.8 Remark. We leave as an exercise the verication of the following statement:
Let A be a subset of (X, ) and
1
the topology induced on A by . Then A is a compact subset
of (X, ) if and only if (A,
1
) is a compact space.
[This statement is not as trivial as it may appear at rst sight.]
7.1.9 Proposition. The closed interval [0, 1] is compact.
Proof. Let O
i
, i I be any open covering of [0, 1]. Then for each x [0, 1], there is an O
i
such that x O
i
. As O
i
is open about x, there exists an interval U
x
, open in [0, 1] such that
x U
x
O
i
.
Now dene a subset S of [0, 1] as follows:
S = z : [0, z] can be covered by a nite number of the sets U
x
.
[So z S [0, z] U
x
1
U
x
2
U
x
n
, for some x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
.]
Now let x S and y U
x
. Then as U
x
is an interval containing x and y, [x, y] U
x
. (Here
we are assuming, without loss of generality that x y.) So
[0, y] U
x
1
U
x
2
U
x
n
U
x
and hence y S.
So for each x [0, 1], U
x
S = U
x
or .
This implies that
S =
_
xS
U
x
and
[0, 1] S =
_
x/ S
U
x
.
Thus we have that S is open in [0, 1] and S is closed in [0, 1]. But [0, 1] is connected. Therefore
S = [0, 1] or .
However 0 S and so S = [0, 1]; that is, [0, 1] can be covered by a nite number of
U
x
. So [0, 1] U
x
1
U
x
2
. . . U
x
m
. But each U
x
i
is contained in an O
i
, i I. Hence
[0, 1] O
i
1
O
i
2
O
i
m
and we have shown that [0, 1] is compact.
7.1. COMPACT SPACES 163
Exercises 7.1
1. Let (X, ) be an indiscrete space. Prove that every subset of X is compact.
2. Let be the nite-closed topology on any set X. Prove that every subset of (X, ) is
compact.
3. Prove that each of the following spaces is not compact.
(i) (0, 1);
(ii) [0, 1);
(iii) Q;
(iv) P;
(v) R
2
;
(vi) the open disc D = x, y) : x
2
+y
2
< 1 considered as a subspace of R
2
;
(vii) the Sorgenfrey line;
(viii) C[0, 1] with the topology induced by the metric d of Example 6.1.5:
(ix)
1
,
2
,
, c
0
with the topologies induced respectively by the metrics d
1
, d
2
, d
, and d
0
of Exercises 6.1 #7.
4. Is [0, 1] a compact subset of the Sorgenfrey line?
5. Is [0, 1] Q a compact subset of Q?
6. Verify that S = 0
n=1
1
n
is a compact subset of R while
n=1
1
n
is not.
7.2 The Heine-Borel Theorem
The next proposition says that a continuous image of a compact space is compact.
7.2.1 Proposition. Let f : (X, ) (Y,
1
) be a continuous surjective map. If (X, ) is
compact, then (Y,
1
) is compact.
Proof. Let O
i
, i I, be any open covering of Y ; that is Y
iI
O
i
.
Then f
1
(Y ) f
1
(
iI
O
i
); that is, X
iI
f
1
(O
i
).
So f
1
(O
i
), i I, is an open covering of X.
As X is compact, there exist i
1
, i
2
, . . . , i
n
in I such that
X f
1
(O
i
1
) f
1
(O
i
2
) f
1
(O
i
n
).
So Y = f(X)
f(f
1
(O
i
1
) f
1
(O
i
2
) f
1
(O
i
n
))
= f(f
1
(O
i
1
) f(f
1
(O
i
2
)) f(f
1
(O
i
n
))
= O
i
1
O
i
2
O
i
n
, since f is surjective.
So we have Y O
i
1
O
i
2
O
i
n
; that is, Y is covered by a nite number of O
i
.
Hence Y is compact.
7.2.2 Corollary. Let (X, ) and (Y,
1
) be homeomorphic topological spaces. If (X, )
is compact, then (Y,
1
) is compact.
7.2.3 Corollary. For a and b in R with a < b, [a, b] is compact while (a, b) is not compact.
Proof. The space [a, b] is homeomorphic to the compact space [0, 1] and so, by Proposition
7.2.1, is compact.
The space (a, b) is homeomorphic to (0, ). If (a, b) were compact, then (0, ) would be
compact, but we saw in Example 7.1.2 that (0, ) is not compact. Hence (a, b) is not compact.
7.2. THE HEINE-BOREL THEOREM 165
7.2.4 Proposition. Every closed subset of a compact space is compact.
Proof. Let A be a closed subset of a compact space (X, ). Let U
i
, i I, be any open
covering of A. Then
X (
_
iI
U
i
) (X A);
that is, U
i
, i I, together with the open set X A is an open covering of X. Therefore there
exists a nite subcovering U
i
1
, U
i
2
, . . . , U
i
k
, X A. [If X A is not in the nite subcovering then
we can include it and still have a nite subcovering of X.]
So
X U
i
1
U
i
2
U
i
k
(X A).
Therefore,
A U
i
1
U
i
2
U
i
k
(X A)
which clearly implies
A U
i
1
U
i
2
U
i
k
since A (X A) = . Hence A has a nite subcovering and so is compact.
7.2.5 Proposition. A compact subset of a Hausdor topological space is closed.
Proof. Let A be a compact subset of the Hausdor space (X, ). We shall show that A
contains all its limit points and hence is closed. Let p X A. Then for each a A, there exist
open sets U
a
and V
a
such that a U
a
, p V
a
and U
a
V
a
= .
Then A
aA
U
a
. As A is compact, there exist a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
in A such that
A U
a
1
U
a
2
U
a
n
.
Put U = U
a
1
U
a
2
U
a
n
and V = V
a
1
V
a
2
V
a
n
. Then p V and V
a
U
a
= implies
V U = which in turn implies V A = . So p is not a limit point of A, and V is an open set
containing p which does not intersect A.
Hence A contains all of its limit points and is therefore closed.
7.2.6 Corollary. A compact subset of a metrizable space is closed.
7.2.7 Example. For a and b in R with a < b, the intervals [a, b) and (a, b] are not compact as
they are not closed subsets of the metrizable space R.
7.2.8 Proposition. A compact subset of R is bounded.
Proof. Let A R be unbounded. Then A

n=1
(n, n), but (n, n) : n = 1, 2, 3, . . . does
not have any nite subcovering of A as A is unbounded. Therefore A is not compact. Hence all
compact subsets of R are bounded.
7.2.9 Theorem. (Heine-Borel Theorem) Every closed bounded subset of R is compact.
Proof. If A is a closed bounded subset of R, then A [a, b], for some a and b in R. As [a, b] is
compact and A is a closed subset, A is compact.
The Heine-Borel Theorem is an important result. The proof above is short only because we
extracted and proved Proposition 7.1.9 rst.
7.2.10 Proposition. (Converse of Heine-Borel Theorem) Every compact subset of R
is closed and bounded.
Proof. This follows immediately from Propositions 7.2.8 and 7.2.5.
7.2.11 Denition. A subset A of a metric space (X, d) is said to be bounded if there
exists a real number r such that d(a
1
, a
2
) r, for all a
1
and a
2
in A.
7.2.12 Proposition. Let A be a compact subset of a metric space (X, d). Then A is
closed and bounded.
Proof. By Corollary 7.2.6, A is a closed set. Now x x
0
X and dene the mapping
f : (A, ) R by
f(a) = d(a, x
0
), for every a A,
where is the induced topology on A. Then f is continuous and so, by Proposition 7.2.1, f(A)
is compact. Thus, by Proposition 7.2.10, f(A) is bounded; that is, there exists a real number M
such that
f(a) M, for all a A.
Thus d(a, x
0
) M, for all a A. Putting r = 2M, we see by the triangle inequality that
d(a
1
, a
2
) r, for all a
1
and a
2
in A.
Recalling that R
n
denotes the n-dimensional euclidean space with the topology induced by
the euclidean metric, it is possible to generalize the Heine-Borel Theorem and its converse from
R to R
n
, n > 1. We state the result here but delay its proof until the next chapter.
7.2.13 Theorem. (Generalized Heine-Borel Theorem) A subset of R
n
, n 1, is
compact if and only if it is closed and bounded.
Warning. Although Theorem 7.2.13 says that every closed bounded subset of R
n
is compact,
closed bounded subsets of other metric spaces need not be compact. (See Exercises 7.2 #9.)
7.2.14 Proposition. Let (X, ) be a compact space and f a continuous mapping from
(X, ) into R. Then the set f(X) has a greatest element and a least element.
Proof. As f is continuous, f(X) is compact. Therefore f(X) is a closed bounded subset of
R. As f(X) is bounded, it has a supremum. Since f(X) is closed, Lemma 3.3.2 implies that the
supremum is in f(X). Thus f(X) has a greatest element namely its supremum. Similarly it
can be shown that f(X) has a least element.
7.2.15 Proposition. Let a and b be in R and f a continuous function from [a, b] into R.
Then f([a, b]) = [c, d], for some c and d in R.
Proof. As [a, b] is connected, f([a, b]) is a connected subset of R and hence is an interval. As
[a, b] is compact, f([a, b]) is compact. So f([a, b]) is a closed bounded interval. Hence
f([a, b]) = [c, d]
for some c and d in R.
Exercises 7.2
1. Which of the following subsets of R are compact? (Justify your answers.)
(i) Z;
(ii)
2
n
: n = 1, 2, 3, . . . ;
(iii) x : x = cos y, y [0, 1];
(iv) x : x = tan y, y [0, /2).
2. Which of the following subsets of R
2
are compact? (Justify your answers.)
(i) x, y) : x
2
+y
2
= 4
(ii) x, y) : x y + 1
(iii) x, y) : 0 x 2, 0 y 4
(iv) x, y) : 0 < x < 2, 0 y 4
3. Let (X, ) be a compact space. If F
i
: i I is a family of closed subsets of X such that
iI
F
i
= , prove that there is a nite subfamily
F
i
1
, F
i
2
, . . . , F
i
m
such that F
i
1
F
i
2
F
i
m
= .
4. Corollary 4.3.7 says that for real numbers a, b, c and d with a < b and c < d,
(i) (a, b) ,
= [c, d]
(ii) [a, b) ,
= [c, d].
Prove each of these using a compactness argument (rather than a connectedness argument
as was done in Corollary 4.3.7).
1
) be topological spaces. A mapping f : (X, ) (Y,
1
) is said to
be a closed mapping if for every closed subset A of (X, ), f(A) is closed in (Y,
1
). A
function f : (X, ) (Y,
1
) is said to be an open mapping if for every open subset A of
(X, ), f(A) is open in (Y,
1
).
(a) Find examples of mappings f which are
(i) open but not closed
(ii) closed but not open
(iii) open but not continuous
(iv) closed but not continuous
(v) continuous but not open
(vi) continuous but not closed.
(b) If (X, ) and (Y,
1
) are compact Hausdor spaces and f : (X, ) (Y,
1
) is a
continuous mapping, prove that f is a closed mapping.
6. Let f : (X, ) (Y,
1
) be a continuous bijection. If (X, ) is compact and (Y,
1
) is
Hausdor, prove that f is a homeomorphism.
7. Let C
j
: j J be a family of closed compact subsets of a topological space (X, ). Prove
that
jJ
C
j
is compact.
8. Let n be a positive integer, d the euclidean metric on R
n
, and X a subset of R
n
. Prove that
X is bounded in (R
n
, d) if and only if there exists a positive real number M such that for
all x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) X, M x
i
M, i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
9. Let (C[0, 1], d
) be the metric space dened in Example 6.1.6. Let B = f : f C[0, 1] and

d
(f, 0) 1 where 0 denotes the constant function from [0, 1] into R which maps every
element to zero. (The set B is called the closed unit ball.)
(i) Verify that B is closed and bounded in (C[0, 1], d
).
(ii) Prove that B is not compact. [Hint: Let B
i
: i I be the family of all open balls
of radius
1
2
in (C[0, 1], d
). Then B
i
: i I is an open covering of B. Suppose there
exists a nite subcovering B
1
, B
2
, . . . B
N
. Consider the (N +1) functions f
: [0, 1] R
given by f
(x) = sin(2
N
..x), = 1, 2, . . . N + 1.
(a) Verify that each f
B.
(b) Observing that f
N+1
(1) = 1 and f
m
(1) = 0, for all m N, deduce that if f
N+1
B
1
then f
m
, B
1
, m = 1, . . . , N.
(c) Observing that f
N
(
1
2
) = 1 and f
m
(
1
2
) = 0, for all m N 1, deduce that if f
N
B
2
then f
m
, B
2
, m = 1, . . . , N 1.
(d) Continuing this process, show that f
1
, f
2
, . . . , f
N+1
lie in distinct B
i
a contradiction.]
10. Prove that every compact Hausdor space is a normal space.
11.* Let A and B be disjoint compact subsets of a Hausdor space (X, ). Prove that there
exist disjoint open sets G and H such that A G and B H.
12. Let (X, ) be an innite topological space with the property that every subspace is compact.
Prove that (X, ) is not a Hausdor space.
13. Prove that every uncountable topological space which is not compact has an uncountable
number of subsets which are compact and an uncountable number which are not compact.
14. If (X, ) is a Hausdor space such that every proper closed subspace is compact, prove that
(X, ) is compact.
7.3. POSTSCRIPT 171
7.3 Postscript
Compactness plays a key role in applications of topology to all branches of analysis. As noted in
Remark 7.1.4 it can be thought as a topological generalization of niteness.
The Generalized Heine-Borel Theorem characterizes the compact subsets of R
n
as those
which are closed and bounded.
Compactness is a topological property. Indeed any continuous image of a compact space is
compact.
Closed subsets of compact spaces are compact and compact subspaces of Hausdor spaces
are closed.
Exercises 7.2 # 5 introduces the notions of open mappings and closed mappings. Exercises
7.2 #10 notes that a compact Hausdor space is a normal space (indeed a T
4
-space). That the
closed unit ball in each R
n
is compact contrasts with Exercises 7.2 #9. This exercise points out
that the closed unit ball in the metric space (C[0, 1], d
) is not compact. Though we shall not

prove it here, it can be shown that a normed vector space is nite-dimensional if and only if its
closed unit ball is compact.
Warning. It is unfortunate that compact is dened in dierent ways in dierent books and
some of these are not equivalent to the denition presented here. Firstly some books include
Hausdor in the denition of compact. Some books, particularly older ones, use compact to
mean a weaker property than ourswhat is often called sequentially compact. Finally the term
bikompakt is often used to mean compact or compact Hausdor in our sense.
Chapter 8
Finite Products
Introduction
There are three important ways of creating new topological spaces from old ones. They are by
forming subspaces, quotient spaces, and product spaces. The next three chapters are
devoted to the study of product spaces. In this chapter we investigate nite products and prove
Tychonos Theorem. This seemingly innocuous theorem says that any product of compact
spaces is compact. So we are led to ask: precisely which subsets of R are compact? The Heine-
Borel Theorem will tell us that the compact subsets of R are precisely the sets which are both
closed and bounded.
As we go farther into our study of topology, we shall see that compactness plays a crucial
role. This is especially so of applications of topology to analysis.
172
8.1. THE PRODUCT TOPOLOGY 173
8.1 The Product Topology
If X
1
, X
2
, . . . , X
n
are sets then the product X
1
X
2
X
n
is the set consisting of all the
ordered n-tuples x
1
, x
2
. . . , x
n
), where x
i
X
i
, i = 1, . . . , n.
The problem we now discuss is:
Given topological spaces (X
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
) how do we dene a reasonable topology
on the product set X
1
X
2
X
n
?
An obvious (but incorrect!) candidate for is the set of all sets O
1
O
2
O
n
, where O
i

i
,
i = 1, . . . , n. Unfortunately this is not a topology.
For example, if n = 2 and (X, T
1
) = (X,
2
) = R then would contain the rectangles
(0, 1) (0, 1) and (2, 3) (2, 3) but not the set [(0, 1) (0, 1)] [(2, 3) (2, 3)], since this is not
O
1
O
2
for any choice of O
1
and O
2
.
[If it were O
1
O
2
for some O
1
and O
2
, then
1
2
(0, 1) O
1
and 2
1
2
(2, 3) O
2
and so the
ordered pair
1
2
, 2
1
2
) O
1
O
2
but
1
2
, 2
1
2
) / [(0, 1) (0, 1)] [(2, 3) (2, 3)].] Thus is not closed
under unions and so is not a topology.
However we have already seen how to put a topology (the euclidean topology) on R
2
= RR.
This was done in Example 2.2.9. Indeed this example suggests how to dene the product topology
in general.
8.1.1 Denitions. Let (X
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
) be topological spaces. Then
the product topology on the set X
1
X
2
X
n
is the topology having the family
O
1
O
2
. . . O
n
, O
i

i
, i = 1, . . . , n as a basis. The set X
1
X
2
X
n
with the
topology is said to be the product of the spaces (X
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
) and is
denoted by (X
1
X
2
. . . X
n
, ) or (X
1
,
1
) (X
2
,
2
) (X
n
,
n
).
Of course it must be veried that the family O
1
O
2
O
n
: O
i

i
, i = 1, . . . , n is
a basis for a topology; that is, it satises the conditions of Proposition 2.2.8. (This is left as an
exercise for you.)
174 CHAPTER 8. FINITE PRODUCTS
8.1.2 Proposition. Let B
1
, B
2
, . . . , B
n
be bases for topological spaces (X
1
,
1
),
(X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
), respectively. Then the family O
1
O
2
O
n
: O
i
B
i
, i = 1, . . . , n
is a basis for the product topology on X
1
X
2
X
n
.
The proof of Proposition 8.1.2 is straightforward and is also left as an exercise for you.
8.1.3 Observations (i) We now see that the euclidean topology on R
n
, n 2, is just the
product topology on the set R R R = R
n
. (See Example 2.2.9 and Remark 2.2.10.)
(ii) It is clear from Denitions 8.1.1 that any product of open sets is an open set or more
precisely: if O
1
, O
2
, . . . , O
n
are open subsets of topological spaces (X
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
),
respectively, then O
1
O
2
. . . O
n
is an open subset of (X
1
,
1
) (X
2
,
2
) (X
n
,
n
). The
next proposition says that any product of closed sets is a closed set.
8.1.4 Proposition. Let C
1
, C
2
, . . . , C
n
be closed subsets of the topological spaces
(X
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
),. . . , (X
n
,
n
), respectively. Then C
1
C
2
C
n
is a closed subset of
the product space (X
1
X
2
X
n
, ).
Proof. Observe that
(X
1
X
2
X
n
) (C
1
C
2
C
n
)
= [(X
1
C
1
) X
2
X
n
] [X
1
(X
2
C
2
) X
3
X
n
]
[X
1
X
2
X
n1
(X
n
C
n
)]
which is a union of open sets (as a product of open sets is open) and so is an open set in
(X
1
,
1
) (X
2
,
2
) (X
n
,
n
). Therefore its complement, C
1
C
2
. . . C
n
, is a closed set,
as required.
Exercises 8.1
2. If (X
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
) are discrete spaces, prove that the product space (X
1
,
1
)
(X
2
,
2
) (X
n
,
n
) is also a discrete space.
3. Let X
1
and X
2
be innite sets and
1
and
2
the nite-closed topology on X
1
and X
2
,
respectively. Show that the product topology, , on X
1
X
2
is not the nite-closed topology.
4. Prove that the product of any nite number of indiscrete spaces is an indiscrete space.
5. Prove that the product of any nite number of Hausdor spaces is Hausdor.
6. Let (X, ) be a topological space and D = (x, x) : x X the diagonal in the product
space (X, ) (X, ) = (X X,
1
). Prove that (X, ) is a Hausdor space if and only if
D is closed in (X X,
1
).
7. Let (X
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
) and (X
3
,
3
) be topological spaces. Prove that
[(X
1
,
1
) (X
2
,
2
)] (X
3
, T
3
)

= (X
1
,
1
) (X
2
,
2
) (X
3
,
3
).
8. (i) Let (X
1
,
1
) and (X
2
,
2
(X
1
,
1
) (X
2
,
2
)

= (X
2
,
2
) (X
1
,
1
).
(ii) Generalize the above result to products of any nite number of topological spaces.
9. Let C
1
, C
2
, . . . , C
n
be subsets of the topological spaces (X
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
, T
n
),
respectively, so that C
1
C
2
C
n
is a subset of (X
1
,
1
) (X
2
,
2
) (X
n
,
n
).
Prove each of the following statements.
(i) (C
1
C
2
C
n
)
1
C
2
C
n
;
(ii) C
1
C
2
C
n
= C
1
C
2
C
n
;
(iii) if C
1
, C
2
, . . . , C
n
are dense in (X
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
) , . . . , (X
n
,
n
), respectively, then
C
1
C
2
C
n
is dense in the product space (X
1
,
1
) (X
2
,
2
) (X
n
,
n
) ;
(iv) if (X
1
,
1
), (X
2
, T
2
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
) are separable spaces, then (X
1
,
1
) (X
2
, T
2
)
(X
n
,
n
) is a separable space;
(v) for each n 1, R
n
is a separable space.
10. Show that the product of a nite number of T
1
-spaces is a T
1
-space.
11. If (X
1
,
1
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
) satisfy the second axiom of countability, show that (X
1
,
1
)
(X
2
,
2
) (X
n
,
n
) satises the second axiom of countability also.
12. Let (R,
1
) be the Sorgenfrey line, dened in Exercises 3.2 #11, and (R
2
,
2
) be the product
space (R,
1
) (R,
1
). Prove the following statements.
(i) x, y) : a x < b, c y < d, a, b, c, d R is a basis for the topology
2
.
(ii) (R
2
,
2
) is a regular separable totally disconnected Hausdor space.
(iii) Let L = x, y) : x, y R and x + y = 0. Then the line L is closed in the euclidean
topology on the plane and hence also in (R
2
,
2
).
(iv) If
3
is the subspace topology induced on the line L by
2
, then
3
is the discrete
topology, and hence (L,
3
) is not a separable space. [As (L,
3
) is a closed subspace
of the separable space (R
2
,
2
), we now know that a closed subspace of a separable
space is not necessarily separable.]
[Hint: show that L x, y) : a x < a + 1, a y < a + 1, a R is a singleton
set.]
8.2. PROJECTIONS ONTO FACTORS OF A PRODUCT 177
8.2 Projections onto Factors of a Product
Before proceeding to our next result we need a couple of denitions.
8.2.1 Denitions. Let
1
and
2
be topologies on a set X. Then
1
is said to be a
ner topology than
2
(and
2
is said to be a coarser topology than
1
) if
1

2
.
8.2.2 Example. The discrete topology on a set X is ner than any other topology on X.
The indiscrete topology on X is coarser than any other topology on X. [See also Exercises 5.1
#10.]
8.2.3 Denitions. Let (X, ) and (Y,
1
) be topological spaces and f a mapping from
X into Y . Then f is said to be an open mapping if for every A T , f(A)
1
. The
mapping f is said to be a closed mapping if for every closed set B in (X, ), f(B) is closed
in (Y,
1
).
8.2.4 Remark. In Exercises 7.2 #5, you were asked to show that none of the conditions
continuous mapping, open mapping, closed mapping, implies either of the other two
conditions. Indeed no two of these conditions taken together implies the third. (Find examples
to verify this.)
8.2.5 Proposition. Let (X,
1
, ), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
) be topological spaces and
(X
1
X
2
X
n
, ) their product space.
For each i 1, . . . , n, let p
i
: X
1
X
2
X
n
X
i
be the projection mapping; that is,
p
i
(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
i
, . . . , x
n
)) = x
i
, for each x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
i
, . . . , x
n
) X
1
X
2
X
n
. Then
(i) each p
i
is a continuous surjective open mapping, and
(ii) is the coarsest topology on the set X
1
X
2
X
n
such that each p
i
is continuous.
Proof. Clearly each p
i
is surjective. To see that each p
i
is continuous, let U be any open set
in (X
1
,
i
). Then
p
1
i
(U) = X
1
X
2
X
i1
U X
i+1
X
n
which is a product of open sets and so is open in (X
1
X
2
X
n
, ). Hence each p
i
is
continuous.
To show that p
i
is an open mapping it suces to verify that for each basic open set
U
1
U
2
U
n
, where U
j
is open in (X
j
,
j
), for j = 1, . . . , n, the set p
i
(U
1
U
2
U
n
) is
open in (X
i
,
i
). But p
i
(U
1
U
2
U
n
) = U
i
which is, of course, open in (X
i
,
i
). So each
p
i
is an open mapping. We have now veried part (i) of the proposition.
Now let
be any topology on the set X

1
X
2
X
n
such that each projection mapping
p
i
: (X
1
X
2
X
n
,
) (X
i
,
i
) is continuous. We have to show that
T .
Recalling the denition of the basis for the topology (given in Denition 8.1.1) it suces
to show that if O
1
, O
2
, . . . , O
n
are open sets in (X
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
) respectively, then
O
1
O
2
O
n

. To show this, observe that as p

i
is continuous, p
1
i
(O
i
)
, for each
i = 1, . . . , n. Now
p
1
i
(O
i
) = X
1
X
2
X
i1
O
i
X
i+1
X
n
,
so that
n
i=1
p
1
i
(O
i
) = O
1
O
2
O
n
.
Then p
1
i
(O
i
)
for i = 1, . . . , n, implies
n
i=1
p
1
i
(O
i
)
; that is, O
1
O
2
O
n

, as
required.
8.2.6 Remark. Proposition 8.2.5 (ii) gives us another way of dening the product topology.
Given topological spaces (X
1
, T
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
) the product topology can be dened as
the coarsest topology on X
1
X
2
X
n
such that each projection p
i
: X
1
X
2
. . . X
n
X
i
is
continuous. This observation will be of greater signicance in the next section when we proceed
to a discussion of products of an innite number of topological spaces.
8.2.7 Corollary. For n 2, the projection mappings of R
n
onto R are continuous open
mappings.
8.2.8 Proposition. Let (X
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
, T
n
) be topological spaces and
(X
1
X
2
X
n
, ) the product space. Then each (X
i
,
i
) is homeomorphic to a
subspace of (X
1
X
2
X
n
, ).
Proof. For each j, let a
j
be any (xed) element in X
j
. For each i, dene a mapping
f
i
: (X
i
,
i
) (X
1
X
2
X
n
, ) by
f
i
(x) = a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
i1
, x, a
i+1
, . . . , a
n
).
We claim that f
i
: (X
i
,
i
) (f
i
(X
i
),
) is a homeomorphism, where
is the topology induced

on f
i
(X
i
) by . Clearly this mapping is one-to-one and onto. Let U
i
. Then
f
i
(U) = a
1
a
2
a
i1
U a
i+1
a
n
= (X
1
X
2
X
i1
U X
i+1
X
n
)
(a
1
a
2
a
i1
X
i
a
i+1
a
n
)
= (X
1
X
2
X
i1
U X
i+1
X
n
) f
i
(X
i
)

since X
1
X
2
X
i1
U X
i+1
X
n
. So U
i
implies that f
i
(U)
.
Finally, observe that the family
(U
1
U
2
U
n
) f
i
(X
i
) : U
i
T
i
, i = 1, . . . , n
is a basis for
, so to prove that f
i
is continuous it suces to verify that the inverse image under
f
i
of every member of this family is open in (X
i
,
i
). But
f
1
i
[(U
1
U
2
. . . U
n
) f
i
(X
i
)] = f
1
i
(U
1
U
2
U
n
) f
1
i
(f
i
(X
i
))
=
_
U
i
X
i
, if a
j
U
j
, j ,= i
, if a
j
/ U
j
, for some j ,= i.
As U
i
X
i
= U
i

i
and
i
we infer that f
i
is continuous, and so we have the required
result.
Notation. If X
1
, X
2
, . . . , X
n
are sets then the product X
1
X
2
X
n
is denoted by
n
i=1
X
i
. If (X
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
) are topological spaces, then the product space
(X
1
,
1
) (X
2
,
2
) (X
n
,
n
) is denoted by
n
i=1
(X
i
,
i
).
Exercises 8.2
1. Prove that the euclidean topology on R is ner than the nite-closed topology.
2. Let (X
i
,
i
) be a topological space, for i = 1, . . . , n. Prove that
(i) if
n
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is connected, then each (X
i
,
i
) is connected;
(ii) if
n
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is compact, then each (X
i
,
i
) is compact;
(iii) if
n
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is path-connected, then each (X
i
,
i
) is path-connected;
(iv) if
n
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is Hausdor, then each (X
i
,
i
) is Hausdor;
(v) if
n
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is a T
1
-space, then each (X
i
,
i
) is a T
1
-space.
3. Let (Y, ) and (X
i
,
i
), i = 1, 2, ..., n be topological spaces. Further for each i, let f
i
be a
mapping of (Y, ) into (X
i
,
i
). Prove that the mapping f : (Y, )

n
i=1
(X
i
,
i
), given
by
f(y) = f
1
(y), f
2
(y), . . . , f
n
(y)),
is continuous if and only if every f
i
is continuous.
[Hint: Observe that f
i
= p
i
f, where p
i
is the projection mapping of
n
j=1
(X
j
,
j
) onto
(X
i
, T
i
).]
4. Let (X, d
1
) and (Y, d
2
) be metric spaces. Further let e be the metric on X Y dened in
Exercises 6.1 #4. Also let be the topology induced on X Y by e. If d
1
and d
2
induce
the topologies
1
and
2
on X and Y , respectively, and
3
is the product topology of
(X,
1
) (Y,
2
), prove that =
3
. [This shows that the product of any two metrizable
spaces is metrizable.]
5. Let (X
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
n
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is a
metrizable space if and only if each (X
i
,
i
) is metrizable.
[Hint: Use Exercises 6.1 #6, which says that every subspace of a metrizable space is
metrizable, and Exercise 4 above.]
8.3 Tychonos Theorem for Finite Products
8.3.1 Theorem. (Tychonos Theorem for Finite Products) If (X
1
, T
1
), (X
2
, T
2
), . . . ,
(X
n
,
n
) are compact spaces, then
n
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is a compact space.
Proof. Consider rst the product of two compact spaces (X,
1
) and (Y,
2
). Let U
i
, i I be
any open covering of X Y . Then for each x X and y Y , there exists an i I such that
x, y) U
i
. So there is a basic open set V (x, y) W(x, y), such that V x, y)
1
, W(x, y)
2
and x, y) V (x, y) W(x, y) U
i
.
As x, y) ranges over all points of X Y we obtain an open covering V (x, y) W(x, y),
x X, y Y , of X Y such that each V (x, y) W(x, y) is a subset of some U
i
, i I. Thus
to prove (X,
1
) (Y,
2
) is compact it suces to nd a nite subcovering of the open covering
V (x, y) W(x, y), x X, y Y .
Now x x
0
X and consider the subspace x
0
Y of X Y . As seen in Proposition 8.2.8
this subspace is homeomorphic to (Y,
2
) and so is compact. As V (x
0
, y) W(x
0
, y), y Y , is
an open covering of x
0
Y it has a nite subcovering:
V (x
0
, y
1
) W(x
0
, y
1
), V (x
0
, y
2
) W(x
0
, y
2
), . . . , V (x
0
, y
m
) W(x
0
, y
m
).
Put V (x
0
) = V (x
0
, y
1
) V (x
0
, y
2
) V (x
0
, y
m
). Then we see that the set V (x
0
) Y is
contained in the union of a nite number of sets of the form V (x
0
, y) W(x
0
, y), y Y.
Thus to prove XY is compact it suces to show that XY is contained in a nite union of
sets of the form V (x)Y . As each V (x) is an open set containing x X, the family V (x), x X,
is an open covering of the compact space (X,
1
). Therefore there exist x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
k
such that
X V (x
1
) V (x
2
) . . . V (x
k
). Thus X Y (V (x
1
) Y ) (V (x
2
) Y ) (V (x
k
) Y ), as
required. Hence (X,
1
) (Y,
2
) is compact.
The proof is completed by induction. Suppose that the product of any N compact spaces
is compact. Consider the product (X
1
,
1
) (X
2
,
2
) (X
N+1
,
N+1
) of compact spaces
(X
i
,
i
), i = 1, . . . , N + 1. Then
(X
1
,
1
) (X
2
,
2
) (X
N
+ 1,
N
+ 1)

= [(X
1
,
1
) (X
N
, T
N
)] (X
N
+ 1,
N
+ 1).
By our inductive hypothesis (X
1
,
1
) (X
N
,
N
) is compact, so the right-hand side is the
product of two compact spaces and thus is compact. Therefore the left-hand side is also compact.
This completes the induction and the proof of the theorem.
8.3. TYCHONOFFS THEOREM FOR FINITE PRODUCTS 183
Using Proposition 7.2.1 and 8.2.5 (i) we immediately obtain:
8.3.2 Proposition. (Converse of Tychonos Theorem) Let (X
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . ,
(X
n
,
n
) be topological spaces. If
n
i=1
(X
i
,
i
i
,
i
) is compact.
We can now prove the previously stated Theorem 7.2.13.
8.3.3 Theorem. (Generalized Heine-Borel Theorem) A subset of R
n
, n 1 is compact
if and only if it is closed and bounded.
Proof. That any compact subset of R
n
is bounded can be proved in an analogous fashion to
Proposition 7.2.8. Thus by Proposition 7.2.5 any compact subset of R
n
is closed and bounded.
Conversely let S be any closed bounded subset of R
n
. Then, by Exercises 7.2 #8, S is a
closed subset of the product
n terms
..
[M, M] [M, M] [M, M]
for some positive real number M. As each closed interval [M, M] is compact, by Corollary 7.2.3,
Tychonos Theorem implies that the product space
[M, M] [M, M] [M, M]
is also compact. As S is a closed subset of a compact set, it too is compact.
8.3.4 Example. Dene the subspace S
1
of R
2
by
S
1
= x, y) : x
2
+y
2
= 1.
Then S
1
is a closed bounded subset of R
2
and thus is compact.
Similarly we dene the n-sphere S
n
as the subspace of R
n+1
given by
S
n
= x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n+1
) : x
2
1
+x
2
2
+ +x
2
n+1
= 1.
Then S
n
is a closed bounded subset of R
n+1
and so is compact.
8.3.5 Example. The subspace S
1
[0, 1] of R
3
is the product of two compact spaces and so
is compact. (Convince yourself that S
1
[0, 1] is the surface of a cylinder.)
Exercises 8.3
1. A topological space (X, ) is said to be locally compact if each point x X has at least
one neighbourhood which is compact. Prove that
(i) Every compact space is locally compact.
(ii) R and Z are locally compact (but not compact).
(iii) Every discrete space is locally compact.
(iv) If (X
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
) are locally compact spaces, then
n
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is
locally compact.
(v) Every closed subspace of a locally compact space is locally compact.
(vi) A continuous image of a locally compact space is not necessarily locally compact.
(vii) If f is a continuous open mapping of a locally compact space (X, ) onto a topological
space (Y,
1
), then (Y,
1
) is locally compact.
(viii) If (X
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
, T
n
) are topological spaces such that
n
i=1
(X
i
i
) is locally
compact, then each (X
i
,
i
) is locally compact.
2.* Let (Y,
1
) be a locally compact subspace of the Hausdor space (X, ). If Y is dense in
(X, ), prove that Y is open in (X, ).
[Hint: Use Exercises 3.2 #9]
8.4. PRODUCTS AND CONNECTEDNESS 185
8.4 Products and Connectedness
8.4.1 Denition. Let (X, ) be a topological space and let x be any point in X. The
component in X of x, C
X
(x), is dened to be the union of all connected subsets of X which
contain x.
8.4.2 Proposition. Let x be any point in a topological space (X, ). Then C
X
(x) is
connected.
Proof. Let C
i
: i I be the family of all connected subsets of (X, ) which contain x.
(Observe that x C
i
: i I.) Then C
X
(x) =
iI
C
i
.
Let O be a subset of C
X
(x) which is clopen in the topology induced on C
X
(x) by . Then
O C
i
is clopen in the induced topology on C
i
, for each i.
But as each C
i
is connected, OC
i
= C
i
or , for each i. If OC
j
= C
j
for some j I, then
x O. So, in this case, O C
i
,= , for all i I as each C
i
contains x. Therefore O C
i
= C
i
,
for all i I or O C
i
= , for all i I; that is, O = C
X
(x) or O = .
So C
X
(x) has no proper non-empty clopen subset and hence is connected.
8.4.3 Remark. We see from Denition 8.4.1 and Proposition 8.4.2 that C
X
(x) is the largest
connected subset of X which contains x.
8.4.4 Lemma. Let a and b be points in a topological space (X, ). If there exists a
connected set C containing both a and b then C
X
(a) = C
X
(b).
Proof. By Denition 8.4.1, C
X
(a) C and C
X
(b) C. Therefore a C
X
(b).
By Proposition 8.4.2, C
X
(b) is connected and so is a connected set containing a. Thus, by
Denition 8.4.1, C
X
(a) C
X
(b).
Similarly C
X
(b) C
X
(a), and we have shown that C
X
(a) = C
X
(b).
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
n
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is connected if and only if each (X
i
,
i
) is connected.
Proof. To show that the product of a nite number of connected spaces is connected, it suces
to prove that the product of any two connected spaces is connected, as the result then follows
by induction.
So let (X, ) and (Y,
1
) be connected spaces and x
0
, y
0
) any point in the product space
(X Y,
2
). Let x
1
, y
1
) be any other point in X Y . Then the subspace x
0
Y of (X Y, )
is homeomorphic to the connected space (Y,
1
) and so is connected.
Similarly the subspace X y
1
is connected. Furthermore, x
0
, y
1
) lies in the connected
space x
0
Y , so C
XY
(x
0
, y
1
)) x
0
Y x
0
, y
0
), while x
0
, y
1
) X y
1
, and so
C
XY
((x
0
, y
1
)) X y
1
(x
1
, y
1
).
Thus x
0
, y
0
) and x
1
, y
1
) lie in the connected set C
XY
(x
0
, y
1
)), and so by Lemma 8.4.4,
C
XY
(x
0
, y
0
)) = C
XY
(x
1
, y
1
)). In particular, x
1
, y
1
) C
XY
(x
0
, y
0
)). As x
1
, y
1
) was an
arbitrary point in X Y , we have that C
XY
(x
0
, y
0
)) = X Y. Hence (X Y,
2
) is connected.
Conversely if
n
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is connected then Propositions 8.2.5 and 5.2.1 imply that each
(X
i
,
i
) is connected.
8.4.6 Remark. In Exercises 5.2 #9 the following result appears: For any point x in any
topological space (X, ), the component C
X
(x) is a closed set.
8.4.7 Denition. A topological space is said to be a continuum if it is compact and
connected.
As an immediate consequence of Theorem 8.3.1 and Propositions 8.4.5 and 8.3.2 we have
the following proposition.
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
n
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is a continuum if and only if each (X
i
,
i
) is a continuum.
8.4. PRODUCTS AND CONNECTEDNESS 187
Exercises 8.4
1. A topological space (X, ) is said to be a compactum if it is compact and metrizable. Let
(X
1
,
1
), (X
2
, T
2
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
) be topological spaces. Using Exercises 8.2#5, prove that
n
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is a compactum if and only if each (X
i
,
i
) is a compactum.
2. Let (X, d) be a metric space and the topology induced on X by d.
(i) Prove that the function d from the product space (X, T ) (X, ) into R is continuous.
(ii) Using (i) show that if the metrizable space (X, ) is connected and X has at least 2
points, then X has the uncountable number of points.
3. If (X, ) and (Y,
1
) are path-connected spaces, prove that the product space (X, )(Y,
1
)
is path-connected.
4. (i) Let x = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) be any point in the product space (Y, ) =
n
i=1
(X
i
,
i
). Prove
that C
Y
(x) = C
X
1
(x
1
) C
X
2
(x
2
) C
X
n
(x
n
).
(ii) Deduce from (i) and Exercises 5.2 #10 that
n
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is totally disconnected if and
only if each (X
i
, T
i
) is totally disconnected.
5. Let G be a group and be a topology on the set G. Then (G, ) is said to be a topological
group if the mappings
(G, ) (G, ) and (G, ) (G, ) (G, )
x x
1
(x, y) x y
are continuous, where x and y are any elements of the group G, and xy denotes the product
in G of x and y. Show that
(i) R, with the group operation being addition, is a topological group.
(ii) Let T be the subset of the complex plane consisting of those complex numbers
of modulus one. If the complex plane is identied with R
2
(and given the usual
topology), then T with the subspace topology and the group operation being complex
multiplication, is a topological group. [This topological group is called the circle group.]
(iii) Let (G, ) be any topological group, U a subset of G and g any element of G. Then
g U if and only if e g
1
U , where e denotes the identity element of G.
(iv) Let (G, ) be any topological group and U any open set containing the identity element
e. Then there exists an open set V containing e such that
v
1
.v
2
: v
1
V and v
2
V U.
(v)* Any topological group (G, ) which is a T
1
-space is also a Hausdor space.
6. A topological space (X, ) is said to be locally connected if it has a basis B consisting of
connected (open) sets.
(i) Verify that Z is a locally connected space which is not connected.
(ii) Show that R
n
and S
n
are locally connected, for all n 1.
(iii) Let (X, ) be the subspace of R
2
consisting of the points in the line segments joining
0, 1) to 0, 0) and to all the points
1
n
, 0), n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . Show that (X, ) is connected
but not locally connected.
(iv) Prove that every open subset of a locally connected space is locally connected.
(v) Let (X
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
n
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is
locally connected if and only if each (X
i
,
i
) is locally connected.
8.5. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA 189
8.5 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
In this section we give an application of topology to another branch of mathematics. We show
how to use compactness and the Generalized Heine-Borel Theorem to prove the Fundamental
Theorem of Algebra.
8.5.1 Theorem. (The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra) Every polynomial
f(z) = a
n
z
n
+ a
n1
z
n1
+ + a
1
z + a
0
, where each a
i
is a complex number, a
n
,= 0,
and n 1, has a root; that is, there exists a complex number z
0
s.t. f(z
0
) = 0.
Proof.
[f(z)[ = [a
n
z
n
+a
n1
z
n1
+ +a
0
[
[a
n
[[z[
n
[z[
n1
_
[a
n1
[ +
[a
n2
[
[z[
+ +
[a
0
[
[z[
n1
_
[a
n
[[z[
n
[z[
n1
[[a
n1
[ +[a
n2
[ + +[a
0
[] , for [z[ 1
= [z[
n1
[[a
n
[[z[ R], for [z[ 1 and R = [a
n1
[ + +[a
0
[
[z[
n1
, for [z[ max
_
1,
R + 1
[a
n
[
_
. (1)
If we put p
0
=[f(0)[ = [a
0
[ then, by inequality (1), there exists a T > 0 such that
[f(z)[ > p
0
, for all [z[ > T (2)
Consider the set D = z : z complex plane and [z[ T. This is a closed bounded subset
of the complex plane C = R
2
and so, by the Generalized Heine-Borel Theorem, is compact.
Therefore, by Proposition 7.2.14, the continuous function [f[ : D R has a least value at some
point z
0
. So
[f(z
0
)[ [f(z)[, for all z D.
By (2), for all z / D, [f(z)[ > p
0
= [f(0)[ [f(z
0
)[. Therefore
[f(z
0
)[ [f(z)[, for all z C (3)
So we are required to prove that f(z
0
) = 0. To do this it is convenient to perform a
translation. Put P(z) = f(z +z
0
). Then, by (2),
[P(0)[ [P(z)[, for all z C (4)
The problem of showing that f(z
0
) = 0 is now converted to the equivalent one of proving that
P(0) = 0.
Now P(z) = b
n
z
n
+b
n1
z
n1
+b
0
, b
i
C. So P(0) = b
0
. We shall show that b
0
= 0.
Suppose b
0
,= 0. Then
P(z) = b
0
+b
k
z
k
+z
k+1
Q(z), (5)
where Q(z) is a polynomial and b
k
is the smallest b
i
,= 0, i > 0.
e.g. if P(z) = 10z
7
+ 6z
5
+ 3z
4
+ 4z
3
+ 2z
2
+ 1, then b
0
= 1, b
k
= 2, (b
1
= 0), and
P(z) = 1 + 2z
2
+z
3
Q(z)
..
(4 + 3z + 6z
2
+ 10z
4
) .
Let w C be a k
th
root of the number b
0
/b
k
; that is, w
k
= b
0
/b
k
.
As Q(z) is a polynomial, for t a real number,
t [Q(tw)[ 0, as t 0
This implies that t [w
k+1
Q(tw)[ 0 as t 0.
So there exists a real number t
0
with 0 < t
0
< 1 such that
t
0
[w
k+1
Q(t
0
w)[ < [b
0
[ (6)
So, by (5), P(t
0
w) = b
0
+b
k
(t
0
w)
k
+ (t
0
w)
k+1
Q(t
0
w)
= b
0
+b
k
_
t
0
k
_
b
0
b
k
__
+ (t
0
w)
k+1
Q(t
0
w)
= b
0
(1 t
0
k
) + (t
0
w)
k+1
Q(t
0
w)
Therefore [P(t
0
w)[ (1 t
0
k
)[b
0
[ +t
0
k+1
[w
k+1
Q(t
0
w)[
< (1 t
0
k
) [b
0
[ +t
0
k
[b
0
[, by (6)
= [b
0
[
= [P(0)[ (7)
But (7) contradicts (4). Therefore the supposition that b
0
,= 0 is false; that is, P(0) = 0, as
required.
8.6. POSTSCRIPT 191
8.6 Postscript
As mentioned in the Introduction, this is one of three chapters devoted to product spaces. The
easiest case is that of nite products. In the next chapter we study countably innite products and
in Chapter 10, the general case. The most important result proved in this section is Tychonos
Theorem
1
. In Chapter 10 this is generalized to arbitrary sized products.
The second result we called a theorem here is the Generalized Heine-Borel Theorem which
characterizes the compact subsets of R
n
as those which are closed and bounded.
Exercises 8.4 #5 introduced the notion of topological group, that is a set with the structure
of both a topological space and a group, and with the two structures related in an appropriate
manner. Topological group theory is a rich and interesting branch of mathematics. Exercises 8.3
#1 introduced the notion of locally compact topological space. Such spaces play a central role
in topological group theory.
Our study of connectedness has been furthered in this section by dening the component of
a point. This allows us to partition any topological space into connected sets. In a connected
space like R
n
the component of any point is the whole space. At the other end of the scale, the
components in any totally disconnected space, for example, Q, are all singleton sets.
As mentioned above, compactness has a local version. So too does connectedness. Exercises
8.4 #6 dened locally connected. However, while every compact space is locally compact, not
every connected space is locally connected. Indeed many properties T have local versions called
locally T, and T usually does not imply locally T and locally T usually does not imply T.
At the end of the chapter we gave a topological proof of the Fundamental Theorem of
Algebra. The fact that a theorem in one branch of mathematics can be proved using methods
from another branch is but one indication of why mathematics should not be compartmentalized.
While you may have separate courses on algebra, complex analysis, and number theory these
topics are, in fact, interrelated.
For those who know some category theory, we observe that the category of topological spaces
and continuous mappings has both products and coproducts. The products in the category are
indeed the products of the topological spaces. You may care to identify the coproducts.
1
You should have noticed how sparingly we use the word theorem, so when we do use that term it is because
the result is important.
Chapter 9
Countable Products
Introduction
Intuition tells us that a curve has zero area. Thus you should be astonished to learn of the existence
of space-lling curves. We attack this topic using the curious space known as the Cantor Space. It
is surprising that an examination of this space leads us to a better understanding of the properties
of the unit interval [0, 1].
Previously we have studied nite products of topological spaces. In this chapter we extend
our study to countably innite products of topological spaces. This leads us into wonderfully rich
territory of which space-lling curves is but one example.
192
9.1. THE CANTOR SET 193
9.1 The Cantor Set
9.1.1 Remark. We now construct a very curious (but useful) set known as the Cantor Set.
Consider the closed unit interval [0,1] and delete from it the open interval (
1
2
,
2
3
), which is the
middle third, and denote the remaining closed set by G
1
. So
G
1
= [0,
1
3
] [
2
3
, 1].
Next, delete from G
1
the open intervals (
1
9
,
2
9
) and (
7
9
,
8
9
) which are the middle third of its
two pieces and denote the remaining closed set by G
2
. So
G
2
= [0,
1
9
] [
2
9
[,
1
3
] [
2
3
,
7
9
] [
8
9
, 1].
0 1

0 1
1
3
2
3

0
1
3
1
3
2
3
1
9
2
9
7
9
8
9
1

G
1
G
2
G
3
If we continue in this way, at each stage deleting the open middle third of each closed interval
remaining from the previous stage we obtain a descending sequence of closed sets
G
1
G
2
G
3
. . . G
n
. . . .
The Cantor Set, G, is dened by
G =
n=1
G
n
and, being the intersection of closed sets, is a closed subset of [0,1]. As [0,1] is compact, the
Cantor Space, (G, ), (that is, G with the subspace topology) is compact. [The Cantor Set is
named after the famous set theorist, Georg Cantor (18451918).]
It is useful to represent the Cantor Set in terms of real numbers written to base 3; that is,
ternaries. You are familiar with the decimal expansion of real numbers which uses base 10. Today
one cannot avoid computers which use base 2. But for the Cantor Set, base 3 is what is best.
194 CHAPTER 9. COUNTABLE PRODUCTS
In the ternary system, 76
5
81
would be written as 22110012, since this represents
2.3
3
+ 2.3
2
+ 1.3
1
+ 1.3
0
+ 0.3
1
+ 0.3
2
+ 1.3
3
+ 2.3
4
.
So a number x in [0, 1] is represented by the base 3 number a
1
a
2
a
3
. . . a
n
. . . , where
x =
n=1
a
n
3
n
, a
n
0, 1, 2, for each n N.
So as
1
2
=
n=1
1
3
n
,
1
3
=
n=2
2
3
n
, and 1 =
n=1
2
3
n
, we see that their ternary forms are given by
1
2
= 011111 . . . ;
1
3
= 002222 . . . ; 1 = 02222 . . . .
(Of course another ternary expression for
1
3
is 010000 . . . and another for 1 is 10000 . . . . )
Turning again to the Cantor Set, G, it should be clear that an element of [0, 1] is in G if and
only if it can be written in ternary form with a
n
,= 1, for every n N. So
1
2
/ G,
5
81
/ G,
1
3
G,
and 1 G.
Thus we have a function f from the Cantor Set into the set of all sequences of the form
a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, . . . , a
n
, . . . ), where each a
i
0, 2 and f is one-to-one and onto. Later on we shall
make use of this function f.
Exercises 9.1
1. (a) Write down ternary expansions for the following numbers:
(i) 21
5
243
; (ii)
7
9
; (iii)
1
13
.
(b) Which real numbers have the following ternary expressions:
(i) 002 = 0020202 . . . ; (ii) 0110 ; (iii) 0012?
(c) Which of the numbers appearing in (a) and (b) lie in the Cantor Set?
2. Let x be a point in a topological space (X, ). Then x is said to be an isolated point if
x X X
; that is, x is not a limit point of X. The space (X, ) is said to be perfect if
it has no isolated points. Prove that the Cantor Space is a compact totally disconnected
perfect space.
[It can be shown that any non-empty compact totally disconnected metrizable perfect space
is homeomorphic to the Cantor Space. See, for example, Exercise 6.2A(c) of Engelking [71].
9.2 The Product Topology
9.2.1 Denition. Let (X
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
, ), . . . be a countably innite family
of topological spaces. Then the product,

i=1
X
i
, of the sets X
i
, i N consists of all the
innite sequences x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . , x
n
, . . . ), where x
i
X
i
for all i. (The innite sequence
x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . ) is sometimes written as
i=1
x
i
.) The product space,

i=1
(X
i
,
i
),
consists of the product
i=1
X
i
with the topology having as its basis the family
B =
_
i=1
O
i
: O
i

i
and 0
i
= X
i
for all but a nite number of i.
_
The topology is called the product topology.
So a basic open set is of the form
O
1
O
2
O
n
X
n+1
X
n+2
. . . .
WARNING. It should be obvious that a product of open sets need not be open in the product
topology . In particular, if O
1
, O
2
, O
3
, . . . , O
n
, . . . are such that each O
i

i
, and O
i
,= X
i
for
all i, then
i=1
O
i
cannot be expressed as a union of members of B and so is not open in the
product space (
i=1
X
i
, ).
9.2.2 Remark. Why do we choose to dene the product topology as in Denition 9.2.1? The
answer is that only with this denition do we obtain Tychonos Theorem (for innite products),
which says that any product of compact spaces is compact. And this result is extremely important
for applications.
9.2.3 Example. Let (X
1
,
1
), , . . . , (X
n
,
n
), . . . be a countably innite family of topological
spaces. Then the box topology
on the product
i=1
X
i
, is that topology having as its basis
the family
B
=
_

i=1
O
i
: O
i

i
_
.
It is readily seen that if each (X
i
,
i
) is a discrete space, then the box product (
i=1
X
i
,
) is
a discrete space. So if each (X
i
, ) is a nite set with the discrete topology, then (
i=1
X
i
,
)
is an innite discrete space, which is certainly not compact. So we have a box product of the
compact spaces (X
i
,
i
) being a non-compact space.
Another justication for our choice of denition of the product topology is the next
proposition which is the analogue for countably innite products of Proposition 8.2.5.
1
,
1
), (X
2
,
2
), . . . , (X
n
,
n
), . . . be a countably innite family
of topological spaces and (
i=1
X
i
, ) their product space. For each i, let p
i
:
j=1
X
j
X
i
be the projection mapping; that is p
i
(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . )) = x
i
for each
x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . )
j=1
X
j
. Then
(i) each p
i
is a continuous surjective open mapping, and
(ii) is the coarsest topology on the set
j=1
X
j
such that each p
i
is continuous.
Proof. The proof is analogous to that of Proposition 8.2.5 and so left as an exercise.
We shall use the next proposition a little later.
i
,
i
) and (Y
i
,
i
), i N, be countably innite families
of topological spaces having product spaces (
i=1
X
i
, ) and (
i=1
Y
i
,
), respectively.
If the mapping h
i
: (X
i
,
i
) (Y
i
,
i
) is continuous for each i N, then so is the
mapping h: (
i=1
X
i
, ) (
i=1
Y
i
,
) given by h: (
i=1
x
i
) =
i=1
h
i
(x
i
); that is,
h(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . )) = h
1
(x
1
), h
2
(x
2
), . . . , h
n
(x
n
), . . . ).
Proof. It suces to show that if O is a basic open set in (
i=1
Y
i
,
), then h
1
(O) is open in
(
i=1
X
i
, ). Consider the basic open set U
1
U
2
. . . U
n
Y
n+1
Y
n+2
. . . where U
i

i
, for
i = 1, . . . , n. Then
h
1
(U
1
U
n
Y
n+1
Y
n+2
. . . ) = h
1
1
(U
1
) h
1
n
(U
n
) X
n+1
X
n+2
. . .
and the set on the right hand side is in , since the continuity of each h
i
implies h
1
i
(U
i
)
i
,
for i = 1, . . . , n. So h is continuous.
Exercises 9.2
1. For each i N, let C
i
be a closed subset of a topological space (X
i
,
i
). Prove that
i=1
C
i
is a closed subset of
i=1
(X
i
,
i
).
2. If in Proposition 9.2.5 each mapping h
i
is also
(a) one-to-one,
(b) onto,
(c) onto and open,
(d) a homeomorphism,
prove that h is respectively
(a) one-to-one,
(b) onto,
(c) onto and open,
(d) a homeomorphism.
3. Let (X
i
,
i
), i N, be a countably innite family of topological spaces. Prove that each
(X
i
,
i
) is homeomorphic to a subspace of
i=1
(X
i
,
i
).
[Hint: See Proposition 8.12].
4. (a) Let (X
i
,
i
), i N, be topological spaces. If each (X
i
,
i
) is (i) a Hausdor space, (ii)
a T
1
-space, (iii) a T
0
-space, prove that
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is respectively (i) a Hausdor space,
(ii) a T
1
-space, (iii) a T
0
-space.
(b) Using Exercise 3 above, prove the converse of the statements in (a).
5. Let (X
i
,
i
), i N, be a countably innite family of topological spaces. Prove that
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is a discrete space if and only if each (X
i
,
i
) is discrete and all but a nite
number of the X
i
, i N are singleton sets.
6. For each i N, let (X
i
,
i
) be a topological space. Prove that
(i) if
i=1
(X
i
,
i
i
,
i
) is compact;
(ii) if
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is connected, then each (X
i
,
i
) is connected;
(iii) if
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is locally compact, then each (X
i
,
i
) is locally compact and all but a
nite number of (X
i
,
i
) are compact.
9.3. THE CANTOR SPACE AND THE HILBERT CUBE 199
9.3 The Cantor Space and the Hilbert Cube
9.3.1 Remark. We now return to the Cantor Space and prove that it is homeomorphic to a
countably innite product of two-point spaces.
For each i N we let (A
i
,
i
) be the set 0, 2 with the discrete topology, and consider the
product space (
i=1
A
i
,
). We show in the next proposition that it is homeomorphic to the

Cantor Space (G, ).
9.3.2 Proposition. Let (G, ) be the Cantor Space and (
i=1
A
i
,
) be as in Remark
9.3.1. Then the map f : (G, ) (
i=1
A
i
,
) given by f(
n=1
a
n
3
n
) = a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
, . . . )
is a homeomorphism.
Proof. We have already noted in Remark 9.1.1 that f is one-to-one and onto. As (G, )
is compact and (
i=1
A
i
,
) is Hausdor (Exercises 9.2 #4) Exercises 7.2 #6 says that f is a

homeomorphism if it is continuous.
To prove the continuity of f it suces to show for any basic open set
U = U
1
U
2
U
N
A
N+1
A
N+2
. . . and any point a = a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
, . . . ) U there
exists an open set W
n=1
a
n
3
n
such that f(W) U.
Consider the open interval
_
n=1
a
n
3
n

1
3
N+2
,
n=1
a
n
3
n
+
1
3
N+2
_
and let W be the intersection
of this open interval with G. Then W is open in (G, ) and if x =
n=1
x
n
3
n
W, then x
i
= a
i
,
for i = 1, 2, . . . , N. So f(x) U
1
U
2
. . . U
N
A
N+1
A
N+2
. . . , and thus f(W) U, as
required.
As indicated earlier, we shall in due course prove that any product of compact spaces is
compact that is, Tychonos Theorem. However in view of Proposition 9.3.2 we can show,
trivially, that the product of a countable number of homeomorphic copies of the Cantor Space is
homeomorphic to the Cantor Space, and hence is compact.
9.3.3 Proposition. Let (G
i
,
i
), i N, be a countably innite family of topological
spaces each of which is homeomorphic to the Cantor Space (G, ). Then
(G, )

=
i=1
(G
i
,
i
)

=
n
i=1
(G
i
,
i
), for each n N.
Proof. Firstly we verify that (G, )

= (G
1
,
1
) (G
2
,
2
). This is, by virtue of Proposition
9.3.2, equivalent to showing that
i=1
(A
i
,
i
)

=
i=1
(A
i
,
i
)
i=1
(A
i
,
i
)
where each (A
i
,
i
) is the set 0, 2 with the discrete topology.
Now we dene a function from the set
i=1
(A
i
,
i
)
i=1
(A
i
,
i
) to the set
i=1
(A
i
,
i
)
by
(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, . . . ), b
1
, b
2
, b
3
, . . . )) a
1
, b
1
, a
2
, b
2
, a
3
, b
3
, . . . )
It is readily veried that is a homeomorphism and so (G
1
,
1
)(G
2
,
2
)

= (G, ). By induction,
then, (G, )

=
n
i=1
(G
i
,
i
), for every positive integer n.
Turning to the innite product case, dene the mapping
:
_
i=1
(A
i
,
i
)
i=1
(A
i
,
i
)
i=1
(A
i
,
i
) . . .
_
i=1
(A
i
,
i
)
by
(a
1
, a
2
, . . . ), b
1
, b
2
, . . . ), c
1
, c
2
, . . . ), d
1
, d
2
, . . . ), e
1
, e
2
, . . . ), . . . )
= a
1
, a
2
, b
1
, a
3
, b
2
, c
1
, a
4
, b
3
, c
2
, d
1
, a
5
, b
4
, c
3
, d
2
, e
1
, . . . ).
Again it is easily veried that is a homeomorphism, and the proof is complete.
9.3.4 Remark. It should be observed that the statement
(G, )

=
i=1
(G
i
,
i
)
in Proposition 9.3.3 is perhaps more transparent if we write it as
(A, ) (A, ) . . .

= [(A, ) (A, ) . . . ] [(A, ) (A, ) . . . ] . . .
where (A, ) is the set 0, 2 with the discrete topology.
9.3.5 Proposition. The topological space [0, 1] is a continuous image of the Cantor
Space (G, ).
Proof. In view of Proposition 9.3.2 it suces to nd a continuous mapping of
i=1
(A
i
,
i
)
onto [0, 1]. Such a mapping is given by
(a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
i
, . . . )) =
i=1
a
i
2
i+1
.
Recalling that each a
i
0, 2 and that each number x [0, 1] has a dyadic expansion of the
form
j=1
b
j
2
j
, where b
j
0, 1, we see that is an onto mapping. To show that is continuous
it suces, by Proposition 5.1.7, to verify that if U is the open interval
_

i=1
a
i
2
i+1
,
i=1
a
i
2
i+1
+
_
i=1
a
i
2
i+1
, for any > 0.
then there exists an open set W a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
i
, . . . ) such that (W) U. Choose N suciently
large that
i=N
a
i
2
i+1
< , and put
W = a
1
a
2
a
N
A
N+1
A
N+2
. . . .
Then W is open in
i=1
(A
i
,
i
), W a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
i
, . . . ), and (W) U, as required.
9.3.6 Remark. You should be somewhat surprised by Proposition 9.3.5 as it says that the
nice" space [0,1] is a continuous image of the very curious Cantor Space. However, we shall see
in due course that every compact metric space is a continuous image of the Cantor Space.
9.3.7 Denition. For each positive integer n, let the topological space (I
n
,
n
) be
homeomorphic to [0, 1]. Then the product space
n=1
(I
n
,
n
) is called the Hilbert cube
and is denoted by I
. The product space
n
i=1
(I
i
,
i
) is called the n-cube and is denoted
by I
n
, for each n N.
We know from Tychonos Theorem for nite products that I
n
is compact for each n. We
now prove that I
is compact. (Of course this result can also be deduced from Tychonos
Theorem for innite products, which is proved in Chapter 10.)
9.3.8 Theorem. The Hilbert cube is compact.
Proof. By Proposition 9.3.5, there is a continuous mapping
n
of (G
n
,
n
) onto (I
n
,
n
)
where, for each n N, (G
n
,
n
) and (I
n
,
n
) are homeomorphic to the Cantor Space and
[0,1], respectively. Therefore by Proposition 9.2.5 and Exercises 9.2 #2 (b), there is a
continuous mapping of
n=1
(G
n
,
n
) onto
n=1
(I
n
,
n
) = I
. But Proposition 9.3.3 says

that
n=1
(G
n
,
n
) is homeomorphic to the Cantor Space (G, ). Therefore I
is a continuous
image of the compact space (G, ), and hence is compact.
i
,
i
), i N, be a countably innite family of metrizable
spaces. Then
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is metrizable.
Proof. For each i N, let d
i
be a metric on X
i
which induces the topology
i
. Exercises 6.1
#2 says that if we put e
i
(a, b) = min(1, d(a, b)), for all a and b in X
1
, then e
i
is a metric and it
induces the topology
i
on X
i
. So we can, without loss of generality, assume that d
i
(a, b) 1,
for all a and b in X
i
, i N.
Dene d:
i=1
X
i
i=1
X
i
R by
d
_
i=1
a
i
,
i=1
b
i
_
=
i=1
d
i
(a
i
, b
i
)
2
i
for all a
i
and b
i
in X
i
.
Observe that the series on the right hand side converges because each d
i
(a
i
, b
i
) 1 and so it is
bounded above by
i=1
1
2
i
= 1.
It is easily veried that d is a metric on
i=1
X
i
. Observe that d
i
, dened by d
i
(a, b) =
d
i
(a,b)
2
i
,
is a metric on X
i
, which induces the same topology
i
as d
i
. We claim that d induces the product
topology on
i=1
X
i
.
To see this consider the following. Since
d
_
i=1
a
i
,
i=1
b
i
_
d
i
(a
i
, b
i
)
2
i
= d
i
(a
i
, b
i
)
it follows that the projection p
i
: (
i=1
X
i
, d) (X
i
, d
i
) is continuous, for each i. As d
i
induces
the topology
i
, Proposition 9.2.4 (ii) implies that the topology induced on
i=1
X
i
by d is finer
than the product topology.
To prove that the topology induced by d is also coarser than the product topology, let B
(a)
be any open ball of radius > 0 about a point a =
i=1
a
i
. So B
(a) is a basic open set in the

topology induced by d. We have to show that there is a set W a such that W B
(a), and W
is open in the product topology. Let N be a positive integer such that
i=N
1
2
i
<

2
. Let O
i
be
the open ball in (X
i
, d
i
) of radius

2N
about the point a
i
, i = 1, . . . , N. Dene
W = O
1
O
2
O
N
X
N+1
X
N+2
. . . .
Then W is an open set in the product topology, a W, and clearly W B
(a), as required.
9.3.10 Corollary. The Hilbert Cube is metrizable.
The proof of Proposition 9.3.9 can be rened to obtain the following result:
i
,
i
), i N, be a countably innite family of completely
metrizable spaces. Then
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is completely metrizable.
Proof. Exercises 9.3 #10.
9.3.12 Remark. From Proposition 9.3.11 we see that a countably innite product of discrete
spaces is completely metrizable. The most interesting example of this is N
0
, that is a countably
innite product of topological spaces each homeomorphic to the discrete space N. What is
much more surprising is the fact, as mentioned in Chapter 6, that N
is homeomorphic to P,
the topological space of all irrational numbers with the euclidean topology. See Engelking [71]
Exercise 4.3.G and Exercise 6.2.A.
9.3.13 Remark. Another important example of a completely metrizable countable product
is R
. This is the countably innite product of topological spaces each homeomorphic to

R. Corollary 4.3.25 of Engelking [71] shows that: a separable metrizable space is completely
metrizable if and only if it is homeomorphic to a closed subspace of R
. In particular we see that

every separable Banach space is homeomorphic to a closed subspace of R
.
A beautiful and deep result says that: every separable innite-dimensional Banach space is
homeomorphic to R
, see Bessaga and Pelczynski [22].

Exercises 9.3
1. Let (X
i
, d
i
), i N, be a countably innite family of metric spaces with the property that,
for each i, d
i
(a, b) 1, for all a and b in X
i
. Dene e :
i=1
X
i
i=1
X
i
R by
e
_
i=1
a
i
,
i=1
b
i
_
= supd
i
(a
i
, b
i
) : i N.
Prove that e is a metric on
i=1
X
i
and is equivalent to the metric d in Proposition 9.3.9.
(Recall that equivalent means induces the same topology.)
2. If (X
i
,
i
), i N, are compact subspaces of [0, 1], deduce from Theorem 9.3.8 and Exercises
9.2 #1, that
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is compact.
3. Let
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) be the product of a countable innite family of topological spaces. Let
(Y, ) be a topological space and f a mapping of (Y, ) into
i=1
(X
i
,
i
). Prove that f is
continuous if and only if each mapping p
i
f : (Y, ) (X
i
,
i
) is continuous, where p
i
denotes the projection mapping.
4. (a) Let X be a nite set and a Hausdor topology on X. Prove that
(i) is the discrete topology;
(ii) (X, ) is homeomorphic to a subspace of [0, 1].
(b) Using (a) and Exercise 3 above, prove that if (X
i
,
i
) is a nite Hausdor space for
i N, then
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is compact and metrizable.
(c) Show that every nite topological space is a continuous image of a nite discrete space.
(d) Using (b) and (c), prove that if (X
i
,
i
) is a nite topological space for each i N,
then
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is compact.
5. (i) Prove that the Sierpinski Space (Exercises 1.3 #5 (iii)) is a continuous image of [0,1].
(ii) Using (i) and Proposition 9.2.5, show that if (X
i
,
i
), for each i N, is homeomorphic
to the Sierpinski Space, then
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is compact.
6. (i) Let (X
i
,
i
), i N, be a countably innite family of topological spaces each of which
satises the second axiom of countability. Prove that
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) satises the second
(ii) Using Exercises 3.2 #4 (viii) and Exercises 4.1 #14, deduce that the Hilbert cube and
all of its subspaces are separable.
7. Let (X
i
,
i
), i N, be a countably innite family of topological spaces. Prove that
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is a totally disconnected space if and only if each (X
i
,
i
) is totally disconnected.
Deduce that the Cantor Space is totally disconnected.
8. Let (X, ) be a topological space and (X
ij
,
ij
), i N, j N, a family of topological spaces
each of which is homeomorphic to (X, ). Prove that
j=1
_
i=1
(X
ij
,
ij
)
_
i=1
(X
i1
.
i1
).
[Hint: This result generalizes Proposition 9.3.3 and the proof uses a map analogous to .]
9. (i) Let (X
i
,
i
), i N, be a countably innite family of topological spaces each of which
is homeomorphic to the Hilbert cube. Deduce from Exercise 8 above that
i=1
(X
i
,
i
)
is homeomorphic to the Hilbert cube.
(ii) Hence show that if (X
i
,
i
), i N, are compact subspaces of the Hilbert cube, then
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is compact.
[Hint. In the notation of the proof of Proposition 9.3.9, show that if a
n
=
i=1
a
in
, n N, is
a Cauchy sequence in (
i=1
X
i
, d), then for each i N, a
in
: n N is a Cauchy sequence
in X
i
, d
i
.]
9.4 Urysohns Theorem
9.4.1 Denition. A topological space (X, ) is said to be separable if it has a countable
dense subset.
See Exercises 3.2 #4 and Exercises 8.1 #9 where separable spaces were introduced.
9.4.2 Example. Q is dense in R, and so R is separable.
9.4.3 Example. Every countable topological space is separable.
9.4. URYSOHNS THEOREM 207
9.4.4 Proposition. Let (X, ) be a compact metrizable space. Then (X, ) is separable.
Proof. Let d be a metric on X which induces the topology . For each positive integer n, let
o
n
be the family of all open balls having centres in X and radius
1
n
. Then o
n
is an open covering
of X and so there is a nite subcovering |
n
= U
n
1
, U
n
2
, . . . , U
n
k
, for some k N. Let y
n
j
be the
centre of U
n
j
, j = 1, . . . , k, and Y
n
= y
n
1
, y
n
2
, . . . , y
n
k
. Put Y =
n=1
Y
n
. Then Y is a countable
subset of X. We now show that Y is dense in (X, ).
If V is any non-empty open set in (X, ), then for any v V , V contains an open ball, B,
of radius
1
n
, about v, for some n N. As |
n
is an open cover of X, v U
n
j
, for some j. Thus
d(v, y
n
j
) <
1
n
and so y
n
j
B V . Hence V Y ,= , and so Y is dense in X.
9.4.5 Corollary. The Hilbert cube is a separable space.
Shortly we shall prove the very striking Urysohn Theorem which shows that every compact
metrizable space is homeomorphic to a subspace of the Hilbert cube. En route we prove the
(countable version of the) Embedding Lemma.
First we record the following proposition, which is Exercises 9.3 #3 and so its proof is not
included here.
i
,
i
), i N, be a countably innite family of topological
spaces and f a mapping of a topological space (Y, ) into
i=1
(X
i
,
i
). Then f is continuous
if and only if each mapping p
i
f : (Y, ) (X
i
,
i
) is continuous, where p
i
denotes the
projection mapping of
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) onto (X
i
,
i
).
9.4.7 Lemma. (The Embedding Lemma) Let (Y
i
,
i
), i N, be a countably innite
family of topological spaces and for each i, let f
i
be a mapping of a topological space
(X, ) into (Y
i
,
i
). Further, let e: (X, )

i=1
(Y
i
,
i
) be the evaluation map; that
is, e(x) =
i=1
f
i
(x), for all x X. Then e is a homeomorphism of (X, ) onto the space
(e(X),
), where
is the subspace topology on e(X), if

(i) each f
i
is continuous,
(ii) the family f
i
: i N separates points of X; that is, if x
1
and x
2
are in X with x
1
,= x
2
,
then for some i, f
i
(x
1
) ,= f
i
(x
2
), and
(iii) the family f
i
: i N separates points and closed sets; that is, for x X and A any
closed subset of (X, ) not containing x, f
i
(x) / f
i
(A), for some i.
Proof. That the mapping e : (X, ) (e(X),
) is onto is obvious, while condition (ii)

clearly implies that it is one-to-one.
As p
i
e = f
i
is a continuous mapping of (X, ) into (Y
i
,
i
), for each i, Proposition 9.4.6
implies that the mapping e : (X, )
i=1
(Y
i
, t
i
) is continuous. Hence e : (X, ) (e(X),
)
is continuous.
To prove that e: (X, ) (e(X),
) is an open mapping, it suces to verify that for each

U and x U, there exists a set W
such that e(x) W e(U). As the family f

i
, i N,
separates points and closed sets, there exists a j N such that f
j
(x) / f
j
(X U). Put
W = (Y
1
Y
2
Y
j1
[Y
j
f
j
(X U)] Y
j+1
Y
j+2
. . . ) e(X).
Then clearly e(x) W and W
. It remains to show that W e(U). So let e(t) W. Then

f
j
(t) Y
j
f
j
(X U)
f
j
(t) / f
j
(X U)
f
j
(t) / f
j
(X U)
t / X U
t U.
So e(t) e(U) and hence W e(U). Therefore e is a homeomorphism.
9.4.8 Denition. A topological space (X, ) is said to be a T
1
-space if every singleton
set x, x X, is a closed set.
9.4.9 Remark. It is easily veried that every Hausdor space (i.e. T
2
-space) is a T
1
-space.
The converse, however, is false. (See Exercises 4.1 #13 and Exercises 1.3 #3.) In particular,
every metrizable space is a T
1
-space.
9.4.10 Corollary. If (X, ) in Lemma 9.4.7 is a T
1
-space, then condition (ii) is implied
by condition (iii) (and so is superuous).
Proof. Let x
1
and x
2
be any distinct points in X. Putting A equal to the closed set x
2
,
condition (iii) implies that for some i, f
i
(x
1
) / f
i
(x
2
). Hence f
i
(x
i
) ,= f
i
(x
2
), and condition (ii)
is satised.
9.4.11 Theorem. (Urysohns Theorem) Every separable metric space (X, d) is
homeomorphic to a subspace of the Hilbert cube.
Proof. By Corollary 9.4.10 this result will follow if we can nd a countably innite family of
mappings f
i
: (X, d) [0, 1], which are (i) continuous, and (ii) separate points and closed sets.
Without loss of generality we can assume that d(a, b) 1, for all a and b in X, since every
metric is equivalent to such a metric.
As (X, d) is separable, there exists a countable dense subset Y = y
i
, i N. For each i N,
dene f
i
: X [0, 1] by f
i
(x) = d(x, y
i
). It is clear that each mapping f
i
is continuous.
To see that the mappings f
i
: i N separate points and closed sets, let x X and A be
any closed set not containing x. Now X A is an open set about x and so contains an open ball
B of radius and centre x, for some > 0.
Further, as Y is dense in X, there exists a y
n
such that d(x, y
n
) <

2
. Thus d(y
n
, a)

2
, for
all a A.
So [0,

2
) is an open set in [0, 1] which contains f
n
(x), but f
n
(a) , [0,

2
), for all a A. This
implies f
n
(A) [
2
, 1]. As the set [
2
, 1] is closed, this implies f
n
(A) [
2
, 1].
Hence f
n
(x) / f
n
(A) and thus the family f
i
: i N separates points and closed sets.
9.4.12 Corollary. Every compact metrizable space is homeomorphic to a closed subspace
of the Hilbert cube.
9.4.13 Corollary. If for each i N, (X
i
,
i
) is a compact metrizable space, then
i=1
(X
i
,
i
Proof. That
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is metrizable was proved in Proposition 9.3.9. That
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is
compact follows from Corollary 9.4.12 and Exercises 9.3 #9 (ii).
Our next task is to verify the converse of Urysohns Theorem. To do this we introduce a
new concept. (See Exercises 2.2 #4.)
9.4.14 Denition. A topological space (X, ) is said to satisfy the second axiom of
countability (or to be second countable) if there exists a basis B for such that B consists
of only a countable number of sets.
9.4.15 Example. Let B = (q
1
n
, q +
1
n
) : q Q, n N. Then B is a basis for the euclidean
topology on R. (Verify this). Therefore R is second countable.
9.4.16 Example. Let (X, ) be an uncountable set with the discrete topology. Then, as
every singleton set must be in any basis for , (X, ) does not have any countable basis. So
(X, ) is not second countable.
9.4.17 Proposition. Let (X, d) be a metric space and the induced topology. Then
(X, ) is a separable space if and only if it satises the second axiom of countability.
Proof. Let (X, ) be separable. Then it has a countable dense subset Y = y
i
: i N. Let B
consist of all the open balls (in the metric d) with centre y
i
, for some i, and radius
1
n
, for some
positive integer n. Clearly B is countable and we shall show that it is a basis for .
Let V . Then for any v V , V contains an open ball, B, of radius
1
n
about v, for some
n. As Y is dense in X, there exists a y
m
Y , such that d(y
m
, v) <
1
2n
. Let B
be the open ball

with centre y
m
and radius
1
2n
. Then the triangle inequality implies B
B V . Also B
B.
Hence B is a basis for . So (X, ) is second countable.
Conversely let (X, ) be second countable, having a countable basis B
1
= B
i
: i N. For
each B
i
,= , let b
i
be any element of B
i
, and put Z equal to the set of all such b
i
. Then Z is
a countable set. Further, if V , then V B
i
, for some i, and so b
i
V. Thus V Z ,= .
Hence Z is dense in X. Consequently (X, ) is separable.
9.4.18 Remark. The above proof shows that every second countable space is separable, even
without the assumption of metrizability. However, it is not true, in general, that a separable space
is second countable. (See Exercises 9.4 #11.)
9.4.19 Theorem. (Urysohns Theorem and its Converse) Let (X, ) be a topological
space. Then (X, ) is separable and metrizable if and only if it is homeomorphic to a
subspace of the Hilbert cube.
Proof. If (X, ) is separable and metrizable, then Urysohns Theorem 9.4.11 says that it is
homeomorphic to a subspace of the Hilbert cube.
Conversely, let (X, ) be homeomorphic to the subspace (Y,
1
) of the Hilbert cube I
.
By Proposition 9.4.4, I
is separable. So, by Proposition 9.4.17, it is second countable. It is

readily veried (Exercises 4.1 #14) that any subspace of a second countable space is second
countable, and hence (Y,
1
) is second countable. It is also easily veried (Exercises 6.1 #6) that
any subspace of a metrizable space is metrizable. As the Hilbert cube is metrizable, by Corollary
9.3.10, its subspace (Y,
1
) is metrizable. So (Y,
1
) is metrizable and satises the second axiom
of countability. Therefore it is separable. Hence (X, ) is also separable and metrizable.
Exercises 9.4
1. Prove that every continuous image of a separable space is separable.
2. If (X
i
,
i
), i N, are separable spaces, prove that
i=1
(X
i
,
i
3. If all the spaces (Y
i
,
i
) in Lemma 9.4.7 are Hausdor and (X, ) is compact, show that
condition (iii) of the lemma is superuous.
4. If (X, ) is a countable discrete space, prove that it is homeomorphic to a subspace of the
Hilbert cube.
5. Verify that C[0, 1], with the metric d described in Example 6.1.5, is homeomorphic to a
subspace of the Hilbert cube.
6. If (X
i
,
i
), i N, are second countable spaces, prove that
i=1
(X
i
,
i
) is second countable.
7. (Lindelofs Theorem) Prove that every open covering of a second countable space has a
countable subcovering.
8. Deduce from Theorem 9.4.19 that every subspace of a separable metrizable space is separable
and metrizable.
9. (i) Prove that the set of all isolated points of a second countable space is countable.
(ii) Hence, show that any uncountable subset A of a second countable space contains at
least one point which is a limit point of A.
10. (i) Let f be a continuous mapping of a Hausdor non-separable space (X, ) onto itself.
Prove that there exists a proper non-empty closed subset A of X such that f(A) = A.
[Hint: Let x
0
X and dene a set S = x
n
: n Z such that x
n+1
= f(x
n
) for every
integer n.]
(ii) Is the above result true if (X, ) is separable? (Justify your answer.)
11. Let be the topology dened on R in Example 2.3.1. Prove that
(i) (R, ) is separable;
(ii) (R, ) is not second countable.
12. A topological space (X, ) is said to satisfy the countable chain condition if every disjoint
family of open sets is countable.
(i) Prove that every separable space satises the countable chain condition.
(ii) Let X be an uncountable set and the countable-closed topology on X. Show that
(X, ) satises the countable chain condition but is not separable.
13. A topological space (X, ) is said to be scattered if every non-empty subspace of X has an
isolated point (see Exercises 9.1 #2).
(i) Verify that R, Q, and the Cantor Space are not scattered, while every discrete space is
scattered.
(ii) Let X = R
2
, d the Euclidean metric on R
2
and d
the metric on X given by

d
(x, y) = d(x, 0) + d(0, y) if x ,= y and d
(x, y) = 0 if x = y. Let be the topology

induced on X by the metric d
. The metric d
is called the Post Oce Metric. A

topological space is said to be extremally disconnected if the closure of every open
set is open. A topological space (Y,
1
) is said to be collectionwise Hausdor if for
every discrete subspace (Z,
2
) of (Y,
1
) and each pair of points z
1
, z
2
in Z, there are
disjoint open sets U
1
, U
2
in (Y,
1
) such that z
1
U
1
and z
2
U
2
. Prove the following:
(a) Every point in (X, ), except x = 0, is an isolated point.
(b) 0 is not an isolated point of (X, ).
(c) (X, ) is a scattered space.
(d) (X, ) is totally disconnected.
(e) (X, ) is not compact.
(f) (X, ) is not locally compact (see Exercise 8.3 #1).
(g) Every separable metric space has cardinality less than or equal to c.
(h) (X, ) is an example of a metrizable space of cardinality c which is not separable.
(Note that the metric space (
, d
) of Exercises 6.1 #7 (iii) is also of cardinality

c and not separable.)
(i) Every discrete space is extremally disconnected.
(j) (X, ) is not extremally disconnected.
(k) The product of any two scattered spaces is a scattered space.
(l) Let (S,
3
) be the subspace 0, 1,
1
2
,
1
3
, . . .
1
n
, . . . of R. Then S is not extremally
disconnected.
(m)* Every extremally disconnected metrizable space is discrete.
[Hint. Show that every convergent sequence must have repeated terms.]
(n) A topological space is Hausdor if and only if it is a T
1
-space and collectionwise
Hausdor.
(o)* Every extremally disconnected collectionwise Hausdor space is discrete.
9.5. PEANOS THEOREM 215
9.5 Peanos Theorem
9.5.1 Remark. In the proof of Theorem 9.3.8 we showed that the Hilbert cube I
is a
continuous image of the Cantor Space (G, ). In fact, every compact metric space is a continuous
image of the Cantor Space. The next proposition is a step in this direction.
9.5.2 Proposition. Every separable metrizable space (X,
1
) is a continuous image of a
subspace of the Cantor Space (G, ). Further, if (X,
1
) is compact, then the subspace can
be chosen to be closed in (G, ).
Proof. Let be the continuous mapping of (G, ) onto I
shown to exist in the proof of

Theorem 9.3.8. By Urysohns Theorem, (X,
1
) is homeomorphic to a subspace (Y,
2
) of I
.
Let the homeomorphism of (Y,
2
) onto (X,
1
) be . Let Z =
1
(Y ) and
3
be the subspace
topology on Z. Then is a continuous mapping of (Z,
3
) onto (X,
1
). So (X,
1
) is a
continuous image of the subspace (Z,
3
) of (G, ).
Further if (X,
1
) is compact, then (Y,
2
) is compact and hence closed in I
. So Z =
1
(Y )
is a closed subset of (G, ), as required.
9.5.3 Proposition. Let (Y,
1
) be a (non-empty) closed subspace of the Cantor Space
(G, ). Then there exists a continuous mapping of (G, ) onto (Y,
1
).
Proof. Let (G
) be the set of all real numbers which can be written in the form
i=1
a
i
6
i
,
where each a
i
= 0 or 5, with the subspace topology induced from R. The space (G
) is called
the middle two-thirds Cantor Space. Clearly (G
) is homeomorphic to the Cantor Space

(G, ).
We can regard (Y,
1
) as a closed subspace of (G
) and seek a continuous mapping of

(G
) onto (Y,
1
). Before proceeding, observe from the construction of the middle two thirds
Cantor space that if g
1
G
and g
2
G
, then
g
1
+g
2
2
/ G
.
The map : (G
) (Y,
1
) which we seek is dened as follows: for g G
, (g) is the
unique element of Y which is closest to g in the euclidean metric on R. However we have to
prove that such a unique closest element exists.
Fix g G
. Then the map d

g
: (Y,
1
) R given by d
g
(y) = [g y[ is continuous. As
(Y,
1
) is compact, Proposition 7.2.15 implies that d
g
(Y ) has a least element. So there exists an
element of (Y,
1
) which is closest to g. Suppose there are two such elements y
1
and y
2
in Y
which are equally close to g. Then g =
y
1
+y
2
2
. But y
1
G
and y
2
G
and so, as observed above,

g =
y
1
+y
2
2
/ G
, which is a contradiction. So there exists a unique element of Y which is closest

to g. Call this element (g).
It is clear that the map : (G
) (Y,
1
) is surjective, since for each y Y , (y) = y.
To prove continuity of , let g G
. Let be any given positive real number. Then it suces,

by Corollary 6.2.4, to nd a > 0, such that if x G
and [g x[ < then [(g) (x)[ < .

Consider rstly the case when g Y , so (g) = g. Put =

2
. Then for x G
with [gx[ <

we have
[(g) (x)[ = [g (x)[
[x (x)[ +[g x[
[x g[ +[g x[, by denition of since g Y
= 2[x g[
< 2
= , as required.
Now consider the case when g / Y , so g ,= (g).
Without loss of generality, assume (g) < g and put a = g (g).
If the set Y [g, 1] = , then (x) = (g) for all x (g
a
2
, g +
a
2
).
Thus for <
a
2
, we have [(x) (g)[ = 0 < , as required.
If Y [g, 1] ,= , then as Y [g, 1] is compact it has a least element y > g.
Indeed by the denition of , if b = y g, then b > a.
Now put =
ba
2
.
So if x G
with [g x[ < , then either (x) = (g) or (x) = y. Observe that

[x (g)[ [x g[ +[g (g)[ < +a =
b a
2
+a =
b
2
+
a
2
while
[x y[ [g y[ [g x[ b
b a
2
=
b
2
+
a
2
.
So (x) = (g).
Thus [(x) (g)[ = 0 < , as required. Hence is continuous.
Thus we obtain from Propositions 9.5.2 and 9.5.3 the following theorem of Alexandro and
Urysohn:
9.5.4 Theorem. Every compact metrizable space is a continuous image of the Cantor
Space.
9.5.5 Remark. The converse of Theorem 9.5.4 is false. It is not true that every continuous
image of a Cantor Space is a compact metrizable space. (Find an example.) However, an
analogous statement is true if we look only at Hausdor spaces. Indeed we have the following
proposition.
9.5.6 Proposition. Let f be a continuous mapping of a compact metric space (X, d)
onto a Hausdor space (Y,
1
). Then (Y,
1
Proof. Since every continuous image of a compact space is compact, the space (Y,
1
) is
certainly compact. As the map f is surjective, we can dene a metric d
1
on Y as follows:
d
1
(y
1
, y
2
) = infd(a, b) : a f
1
y
1
and b f
1
y
2
, for all y
1
and y
2
in Y.
We need to show that d
1
is indeed a metric. Since y
1
and y
2
are closed in the Hausdor
space (Y,
1
), f
1
y
1
and f
1
y
2
are closed in the compact space (X, d). Hence the sets
f
1
y
1
and f
1
y
2
are compact. So the product f
1
y
1
f
1
y
2
, which is a subspace of the
produce space (X, ) (X, ), is compact, where is the topology induced by the metric d.
Observing that d: (X, ) (X, ) R is a continuous mapping, Proposition 7.2.15 implies
that d(f
1
y
1
f
1
y
2
), has a least element.
So there exists an element x
1
f
1
y
1
and an element x
2
f
1
y
2
such that
d(x
1
, x
2
) = inf d(a, b) : a f
1
y
1
, b f
1
y
2
= d
1
(y
1
, y
2
).
Clearly if y
1
,= y
2
, then f
1
1
y
1
f
1
y
2
= . Thus x
1
,= x
2
and hence d(x
1
, x
2
) > 0; that
is, d
1
(y
1
, y
2
) > 0.
It is easily veried that d
1
has the other properties required of a metric, and so is a metric
on Y .
Let
2
be the topology induced on Y by d
1
. We have to show that
1
=
2
.
Firstly, by the denition of d
1
, f : (X, ) (Y,
2
) is certainly continuous.
Observe that for a subset C of Y ,
C is a closed subset of (Y,
1
)
f
1
(C) is a closed subset of (X, )
f
1
(C) is a compact subset of (X, )
f(f
1
(C)) is a compact subset of (Y,
2
)
C is a compact subset of (Y,
2
)
C is closed in (Y,
2
).
So
1

2
. Similarly we can prove
2

1
, and thus
1
=
2
.
9.5.7 Corollary. Let (X, ) be a Hausdor space. Then it is a continuous image of the
Cantor Space if and only if it is compact and metrizable.
Finally in this chapter we turn to space-lling curves.
9.5.8 Remark. Everyone thinks he or she knows what a curve is. Formally we can dene
a curve in R
2
to be the set f[0, 1], where f is a continuous map f : [0, 1] R
2
. It seems
intuitively clear that a curve has no breadth and hence zero area. This is false! In fact there exist
space-lling curves; that is, f(I) has non-zero area. Indeed the next theorem shows that there
exists a continuous mapping of [0, 1] onto the product space [0, 1] [0, 1].
9.5.9 Theorem. (Peano) For each positive integer n, there exists a continuous
mapping
n
of [0, 1] onto the n-cube I
n
.
Proof. By Theorem 9.5.4, there exists a continuous mapping
n
of the Cantor Space (G, )
onto the n-cube I
n
. As (G, ) is obtained from [0, 1] by successively dropping out middle thirds,
we extend
n
to a continuous mapping
n
: [0, 1] I
n
by dening
n
to be linear on each
omitted interval; that is, if (a, b) is one of the open intervals comprising [0, 1] G, then
n
is
dened on (a, b) by
n
(a + (1 ) b) =
n
(a) + (1 )
n
(b), 0 1.
It is easily veried that
n
is continuous.
We conclude this chapter by stating (but not proving) the Hahn-Mazurkiewicz Theorem
which characterizes those Hausdor spaces which are continuous images of [0,1]. [For a proof of
the theorem see Wilder [206] and p. 221 of Kuratowski [130].] But rst we need a denition.
9.5.10 Denition. A topological space (X, ) is said to be locally connected if it has a
basis of connected (open) sets.
9.5.11 Remark. Every discrete space is locally connected as are R
n
and S
n
, for all n 1.
However, not every connected space is locally connected. (See Exercises 8.4 #6.)
9.5.12 Theorem. (Hahn-Mazurkiewicz Theorem) Let (X, ) be a Hausdor space.
Then (X, ) is a continuous image of [0, 1] if and only if it is compact, connected, metrizable
and locally connected.
Exercises 9.5
1. Let S R
2
be the set of points inside and on the triangle ABC, which has a right angle at
A and satises AC > AB. This exercise outlines the construction of a continuous surjection
f : [0, 1] S.
Let D on BC be such that AD is perpendicular to BC. Let a = a
1
a
2
a
3
. . . be a binary
decimal, so that each a
n
is 0 or 1. Then we construct a sequence (D
n
) of points of S as
follows : D
1
is the foot of the perpendicular from D onto the hypotenuse of the larger or
smaller of the triangles ADB, ADC according as a
1
= 1 or 0, respectively. This construction
is now repeated using D
1
instead of D and the appropriate triangle of ADB, ADC instead of
ABC. For example, the gure above illustrates the points D
1
to D
5
for the binary decimal
.1010 . . . . Give a rigorous inductive denition of the sequence (D
n
) and prove
(i) the sequence (D
n
) tends to a limit D(a) in S;
(ii) if [0, 1] is represented by distinct binary decimals a, a
then D(a) = D(a
); hence, the
point D() in S is uniquely dened;
(iii) if f : [0, 1] S is given by f() = D() then f is surjective;
(iv) f is continuous.
2. Let (G, ) be the Cantor Space and consider the mappings
i
: (G, ) [0, 1], i = 1, 2,
where
1
_

i=1
a
i
3
i
_
=
a
1
2
2
+
a
3
2
3
+ +
a
2n1
2
n+1
+. . .
and
2
_

i=1
a
i
3
i
_
=
a
2
2
2
+
a
4
2
3
+ +
a
2n
2
n+1
+. . . .
(i) Prove that
1
and
2
are continuous.
(ii) Prove that the map a
1
(a),
2
(a)) is a continuous map of (G, ) onto [0, 1] [0, 1].
(iii) If a and b (G, ) and (a, b) G = , dene, for j = 1, 2 ,
j
(x) =
b x
b a

j
(a) +x ab a
j
(b), a x b.
Show that
x
1
(x),
2
(x))
is a continuous mapping of [0, 1] onto [0, 1] [0, 1] and that each point of [0, 1] [0, 1]
is the image of at most three points of [0, 1].
9.6 Postscript
In this section we have extended the notion of a product of a nite number of topological spaces
to that of the product of a countable number of topological spaces. While this step is a natural
one, it has led us to a rich collection of results, some of which are very surprising.
We proved that a countable product of topological spaces with property T has property T,
where T is any of the following: (i) T
0
-space (ii) T
1
-space (iii) Hausdor (iv) metrizable (v)
connected (vi) totally disconnected (vii) second countable. It is also true when T is compact,
this result being the Tychono Theorem for countable products. The proof of the countable
Tychono Theorem for metrizable spaces presented here is quite dierent from the standard one
which appears in the next section. Our proof relies on the Cantor Space.
The Cantor Space was dened to be a certain subspace of [0, 1]. Later is was shown that it
is homeomorphic to a countably innite product of 2-point discrete spaces. The Cantor Space
appears to be the kind of pathological example pure mathematicians are fond of producing in
order to show that some general statement is false. But it turns out to be much more than this.
The Alexandro-Urysohn Theorem says that every compact metrizable space is an image
of the Cantor Space. In particular [0, 1] and the Hilbert cube (a countable innite product of
copies of [0, 1]) is a continuous image of the Cantor Space. This leads us to the existence of
space-lling curves in particular, we show that there exists a continuous map of [0, 1] onto the
cube [0, 1]
n
, for each positive integer n. We stated, but did not prove, the Hahn-Mazurkiewicz
Theorem: The Hausdor space (X, ) is an image of [0, 1] if and only if it is compact connected
locally connected and metrizable.
Finally we mention Urysohns Theorem, which says that a space is separable and metrizable
if and only if it is homeomorphic to a subspace of the Hilbert cube. This shows that [0, 1] is not
just a nice topological space, but a generator of the important class of separable metrizable
spaces via the formation of subspaces and countable products.
Appendix 1: Innite Sets
Introduction
Once upon a time in a far-o land there were two hotels, the Hotel Finite (an ordinary hotel with
a nite number of rooms) and Hilberts Hotel Innite (an extra-ordinary hotel with an innite
number of rooms numbered 1, 2, . . . n, . . . ). One day a visitor arrived in town seeking a room.
She went rst to the Hotel Finite and was informed that all rooms were occupied and so she
could not be accommodated, but she was told that the other hotel, Hilberts Hotel Innite, can
always nd an extra room. So she went to Hilberts Hotel Innite and was told that there too
all rooms were occupied. However, the desk clerk said at this hotel an extra guest can always be
accommodated without evicting anyone. He moved the guest from room 1 to room 2, the guest
from room 2 to room 3, and so on. Room 1 then became vacant!
From this cute example we see that there is an intrinsic dierence between innite sets and
nite sets. The aim of this Appendix is to provide a gentle but very brief introduction to the
theory of Innite Sets. This is a fascinating topic which, if you have not studied it before, will
contain several surprises. We shall learn that innite sets were not created equal" - some are
bigger than others. At rst pass it is not at all clear what this statement could possibly mean.
We will need to dene the term bigger". Indeed we will need to dene what we mean by two
sets are the same size".
223
224 APPENDIX 1: INFINITE SETS
A1.1 Countable Sets
A1.1.1 Denitions. Let A and B be sets. Then A is said to be equipotent to B, denoted
by A B, if there exists a function f : A B which is both one-to-one and onto (that is,
f is a bijection or a one-to-one correspondence).
A1.1.2 Proposition. Let A, B, and C be sets.
(i) Then A A.
(ii) If A B then B A.
(iii) If A B and B C then A C.
Outline Proof.
(i) The identity function f on A, given by f(x) = x, for all x A, is a one-to-one correspondence
between A and itself.
(ii) If f is a bijection of A onto B then it has an inverse function g from B to A and g is also
a one-to-one correspondence.
(iii) If f : A B is a one-to-one correspondence and g : B C is a one-to-one correspondence,
then their composition gf : A C is also a one-to-one correspondence.
Proposition A1.1.2 says that the relation is reexive (i), symmetric (ii), and transitive
(iii); that is, is an equivalence relation.
A1.1.3 Proposition. Let n, m N. Then the sets 1, 2, . . . , n and 1, 2, . . . , m are
equipotent if and only if n = m.
Proof. Exercise.
Now we explicitly dene the terms nite set and innite set.
225
A1.1.4 Denitions. Let S be a set.
(i) Then S is said to be nite if it is the empty set, , or it is equipotent to 1, 2, . . . , n,
for some n N.
(ii) If S is not nite, then it is said to be innite.
(iii) If S 1, 2, . . . , n then S is said to have cardinality n, which is denoted by card S = n.
(iv) If S = then the cardinality is said to be 0, which is denoted by card = 0.
The next step is to dene the smallest kind of innite set. Such sets will be called countably
innite. At this stage we do not know that there is any bigger kind of innite set indeed we
do not even know what bigger would mean in this context.
A1.1.5 Denitions. Let S be a set.
(i) The set S is said to be countably innite (or denumerable) if it is equipotent to N.
(ii) The set S is said to be countable if it is nite or countably innite.
(iii) If S is countably innite then it is said to have cardinality
0
, denoted by card S =
0
.
(iv) A set S is said to be uncountable if it is not countable.
A1.1.6 Remark. We see that if the set S is countably innite, then S = s
1
, s
2
, . . . , s
n
, . . .
where f : N S is a one-to-one correspondence and s
n
= f(n), for all n N. So we can
list the elements of S. Of course if S is nite and non-empty, we can also list its elements by
S = s
1
, s
2
, . . . , s
n
. So we can list the elements of any countable set. Conversely, if the elements
of S can be listed then S is countable as the listing denes a one-to-one correspondence with N
or 1, 2, . . . , n.
A1.1.7 Example. The set S of all even positive integers is countably innite.
Proof. The function f : N S given by f(n) = 2 n, for all n N, is a one-to-one
correspondence.
Example A1.1.7 is worthy of a little contemplation. We think of two sets being in one-
to-one correspondence if they are the same size. But here we have the set N in one-to-one
correspondence with one of its proper subsets. This does not happen with nite sets. Indeed
nite sets can be characterized as those sets which are not equipotent to any of their proper
subsets.
A1.1.8 Example. The set Z of all integers is countably innite.
Proof. The function f : N Z given by
f(n) =
_
_
m, if n = 2m, m 1
m, if n = 2m+ 1, m 1
0, if n = 1.
is a one-to-one correspondence.
A1.1.9 Example. The set S of all positive integers which are perfect squares is countably
innite.
Proof. The function f : N S given by f(n) = n
2
is a one-to-one correspondence.
Example A1.1.9 was proved by G. Galileo about 1600. It troubled him and suggested to him
that the innite is not mans domain.
A1.1.10 Proposition. If a set S is equipotent to a countable set then it is countable.
Proof. Exercise.
227
A1.1.11 Proposition. If S is a countable set and T S then T is countable.
Proof. Since S is countable we can write it as a list S = s
1
, s
2
, . . . (a nite list if S is nite,
an innite one if S is countably innite).
Let t
1
be the rst s
i
in T (if T ,= ). Let t
2
be the second s
i
in T (if T ,= t
1
). Let t
3
be
the third s
i
in T (if T ,= t
1
, t
2
), . . . .
This process comes to an end only if T = t
1
, t
2
, . . . , t
n
for some n, in which case T is nite.
If the process does not come to an end we obtain a list t
1
, t
2
, . . . , t
n
, . . . of members of T. This
list contains every member of T, because if s
i
T then we reach s
i
no later than the i
th
step
in the process; so s
i
occurs in the list. Hence T is countably innite. So T is either nite or
countably innite.
As an immediate consequence of Proposition 1.1.11 and Example 1.1.8 we have the following
result.
A1.1.12 Corollary. Every subset of Z is countable.
A1.1.13 Lemma. If S
1
, S
2
, . . . , S
n
, . . . is a countably innite family of countably innite
sets such that S
i
S
j
= for i ,= j, then
i=1
S
i
is a countably innite set.
Proof. As each S
i
is a countably innite set, S
i
= s
i1
, s
i2
, . . . , s
in
, . . .. Now put the s
ij
in a
square array and list them by zigzagging up and down the short diagonals.
s
11
s
12
s
13
s
14

s
21
s
22
s
23

s
31
s
32
s
33

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
This shows that all members of
i=1
S
i
are listed, and the list is innite because each S
i
is innite.
So
i=1
S
i
is countably innite.
In Lemma A1.1.13 we assumed that the sets S
i
were pairwise disjoint. If they are not pairwise
disjoint the proof is easily modied by deleting repeated elements to obtain:
A1.1.14 Lemma. If S
1
, S
2
, . . . , S
n
, . . . is a countably innite family of countably innite
sets, then
i=1
S
i
is a countably innite set.
A1.1.15 Proposition. The union of any countable family of countable sets is countable.
Proof. Exercise.
A1.1.16 Proposition. If S and T are countably innite sets then the product set
S T = s, t) : s S, t T is a countably innite set.
Proof. Let S = s
1
, s
2
, . . . , s
n
, . . . and T = t
1
, t
2
, . . . , t
n
, . . . . Then
S T =
_
i=1
s
i
, t
1
), s
i
, t
2
), . . . , s
i
, t
n
), . . . .
So S T is a countably innite union of countably innite sets and is therefore countably
innite.
A1.1.17 Corollary. Every nite product of countable sets is countable.
We are now ready for a signicant application of our observations on countable sets.
A1.1.18 Lemma. The set, Q
>0
, of all positive rational numbers is countably innite.
Proof. Let S
i
be the set of all positive rational numbers with denominator i, for i N. Then
S
i
=
_
1
i
,
2
i
, . . . ,
n
i
, . . .
_
and Q
>0
=
i=1
S
i
. As each S
i
is countably innite, Proposition A1.1.15
yields that Q
>0
229
We are now ready to prove that the set, Q, of all rational numbers is countably innite; that
is, there exists a one-to-one correspondence between the set Q and the (seemingly) very much
smaller set, N, of all positive integers.
A1.1.19 Theorem. The set Q of all rational numbers is countably innite.
Proof. Clearly the set Q
<0
of all negative rational numbers is equipotent to the set, Q
>0
, of all
positive rational numbers and so using Proposition A1.1.10 and Lemma A1.1.18 we obtain that
Q
<0
Finally observe that Q is the union of the three sets Q
>0
, Q
<0
and 0 and so it too is
countably innite by Proposition A1.1.15.
A1.1.20 Corollary. Every set of rational numbers is countable.
Proof. This is a consequence of Theorem A1.1.19 and Proposition A1.1.11.
A1.1.21 Denitions. A real number x is said to be an algebraic number if there is a
natural number n and integers a
0
, a
1
, . . . , a
n
with a
0
,= 0 such that
a
0
x
n
+a
1
x
n1
+ +a
n1
x +a
n
= 0.
A real number which is not an algebraic number is said to be a transcendental number.
A1.1.22 Example. Every rational number is an algebraic number.
Proof. If x =
p
q
, for p, q Z and q ,= 0, then qx p = 0; that is, x is an algebraic number with
n = 1, a
0
= q, and a
n
= p.
A1.1.23 Example. The number
2 is an algebraic number which is not a rational number.

Proof. While x =
2 is irrational, it satises x
2
2 = 0 and so is algebraic.
A1.1.24 Remark. It is also easily veried that
4
3 is an algebraic number since it satises

x
8
12x
6
+44x
4
288x
2
+16 = 0. Indeed any real number which can be constructed from the set
of integers using only a nite number of the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division and the extraction of square roots, cube roots, . . . , is algebraic.
A1.1.25 Remark. Remark A1.1.24 shows that most numbers we think of are algebraic
numbers. To show that a given number is transcendental can be extremely dicult. The rst
such demonstration was in 1844 when Liouville proved the transcendence of the number
n=1
1
10
n!
= 0.11000100000000000000000100 . . .
It was Charles Hermite who, in 1873, showed that e is transcendental. In 1882 Lindemann
proved that the number is transcendental thereby answering in the negative the 2,000 year old
question about squaring the circle. (The question is: given a circle of radius 1, is it possible, using
only a straight edge and compass, to construct a square with the same area? A full exposition
of this problem and proofs that e and are transcendental are to be found in the book, Jones,
Morris & Pearson [118].)
We now proceed to prove that the set / of all algebraic numbers is also countably innite.
This is a more powerful result than Theorem A1.1.19 which is in fact a corollary of this result.
231
A1.1.26 Theorem. The set / of all algebraic numbers is countably innite.
Proof. Consider the polynomial f(x) = a
0
x
n
+a
1
x
n1
+ +a
n1
x+a
n
, where a
0
,= 0 and each
a
i
Z and dene its height to be k = n +[a
0
[ +[a
1
[ + +[a
n
[.
For each positive integer k, let A
k
be the set of all roots of all such polynomials of height k.
Clearly / =
k=1
A
k
.
Therefore, to show that / is countably innite, it suces by Proposition A1.1.15 to show
that each A
k
is nite.
If f is a polynomial of degree n, then clearly n k and [a
i
[ k for i = 1, 2, . . . , n. So the set
of all polynomials of height k is certainly nite.
Further, a polynomial of degree n has at most n roots. Consequently each polynomial of
height k has no more than k roots. Hence the set A
k
is nite, as required.
A1.1.27 Corollary. Every set of algebraic numbers is countable.
Note that Corollary A1.1.27 has as a special case, Corollary A1.1.20.
So far we have not produced any example of an uncountable set. Before doing so we observe
that certain mappings will not take us out of the collection of countable sets.
A1.1.28 Proposition. Let X and Y be sets and f a map of X into Y .
(i) If X is countable and f is surjective (that is, an onto mapping), then Y is countable.
(ii) If Y is countable and f is injective (that is, a one-to-one mapping), then X is countable.
Proof. Exercise.
A1.1.29 Proposition. Let S be a countable set. Then the set of all nite subsets of S
is also countable.
Proof. Exercise.
A1.1.30 Denition. Let S be any set. The set of all subsets of S is said to be the power
set of S and is denoted by T(S).
A1.1.31 Theorem. (Georg Cantor) For every set S, the power set, T(S), is not
equipotent to S; that is, T(S) , S.
Proof. We have to prove that there is no one-to-one correspondence between S and T(S). We
shall prove more: that there is not even any surjective function mapping S onto T(S).
Suppose that there exists a function f : S T(S) which is onto. For each x S,
f(x) T(S), which is the same as saying that f(x) S.
Let T = x : x S and x , f(x). Then T S; that is, T T(S). So T = f(y) for some
y S, since f maps S onto T(S). Now y T or y , T.
Case 1.
y T y , f(y) (by the denition of T)
y , T (since f(y) = T).
So Case 1 is impossible.
Case 2.
y , T y f(y) (by the denition of T)
y T (since f(y) = T).
So Case 2 is impossible.
As both cases are impossible, we have a contradiction. So our supposition is false and there
does not exist any function mapping S onto T(S). Thus T(S) is not equipotent to S.
233
A1.1.32 Lemma. If S is any set, then S is equipotent to a subset of its power set, T(S).
Proof. Dene the mapping f : S T(S) by f(x) = x, for each x S. Clearly f is a
one-to-one correspondence between the sets S and f(S). So S is equipotent to the subset f(S)
of T(S).
A1.1.33 Proposition. If S is any innite set, then T(S) is an uncountable set.
Proof. As S is innite, the set T(S) is innite. By Theorem A1.1.31, T(S) is not equipotent
to S.
Suppose T(S) is countably innite. Then by Proposition A1.1.11, Lemma 1.1.32 and
Proposition A1.1.10, S is countably innite. So S and T(S) are equipotent, which is a
contradiction. Hence T(S) is uncountable.
Proposition A1.1.33 demonstrates the existence of uncountable sets. However the sceptic
may feel that the example is contrived. So we conclude this section by observing that important
and familiar sets are uncountable.
A1.1.34 Lemma. The set of all real numbers in the half open interval [1, 2) is not
countable.
Proof. (Cantors diagonal argument) We shall show that the set of all real numbers in [1, 2)
cannot be listed.
Let L = r
1
, r
2
, . . . r
n
. . . be any list of real numbers each of which lies in the set [1, 2).
Write down their decimal expansions:
r
1
=1.r
11
r
12
. . . r
1n
. . .
r
2
=1.r
21
r
22
. . . r
2n
. . .
.
.
.
r
m
=1.r
m1
r
m2
. . . r
mn
. . .
.
.
.
Consider the real number a dened to be 1.a
1
a
2
. . . a
n
. . . where, for each n N,
a
n
=
_
1 if r
nn
,= 1
2 if r
nn
= 1.
Clearly a
n
,= r
nn
and so a ,= r
n
, for all n N. Thus a does not appear anywhere in the list
L. Thus there does not exist a listing of the set of all real numbers in [1, 2); that is, this set is
uncountable.
A1.1.35 Theorem. The set, R, of all real numbers is uncountable.
Proof. Suppose R is countable. Then by Proposition A1.1.11 the set of all real numbers in
[1, 2) is countable, which contradicts Lemma A1.1.34. Therefore R is uncountable.
235
A1.1.36 Corollary. The set, I, of all irrational numbers is uncountable.
Proof. Suppose I is countable. Then R is the union of two countable sets: I and Q. By
Proposition A1.1.15, R is countable which is a contradiction. Hence I is uncountable.
Using a similar proof to that in Corollary A1.1.36 we obtain the following result.
A1.1.37 Corollary. The set of all transcendental numbers is uncountable.
A1.2 Cardinal Numbers
In the previous section we dened countably innite and uncountable and suggested, without
explaining what it might mean, that uncountable sets are bigger than countably innite sets.
To explain what we mean by bigger we will need the next theorem.
Our exposition is based on that in the book, Halmos [89]
A1.2.1 Theorem. (Cantor-Schroder-Bernstein) Let S and T be sets. If S is equipotent
to a subset of T and T is equipotent to a subset of S, then S is equipotent to T.
Proof. Without loss of generality we can assume S and T are disjoint. Let f : S T and
g : T S be one-to-one maps. We are required to nd a bijection of S onto T.
We say that an element s is a parent of an element f(s) and f(s) is a descendant of s.
Also t is a parent of g(t) and g(t) is a descendant of t. Each s S has an innite sequence of
descendants: f(s), g(f(s)), f(g(f(s))), and so on. We say that each term in such a sequence is
an ancestor of all the terms that follow it in the sequence.
Now let s S. If we trace its ancestry back as far as possible one of three things must
happen:
(i) the list of ancestors is nite, and stops at an element of S which has no ancestor;
(ii) the list of ancestors is nite, and stops at an element of T which has no ancestor;
(iii) the list of ancestors is innite.
Let S
S
be the set of those elements in S which originate in S; that is, S
S
is the set S g(T)
plus all of its descendants in S. Let S
T
be the set of those elements which originate in T; that
is, S
T
is the set of descendants in S of T f(S). Let S
be the set of all elements in S with no

parentless ancestors. Then S is the union of the three disjoint sets S
S
, S
T
and S
. Similarly T
is the disjoint union of the three similarly dened sets: T
T
, T
S
, and T
.
Clearly the restriction of f to S
S
is a bijection of S
S
onto T
S
.
Now let g
1
be the inverse function of the bijection g of T onto g(T). Clearly the restriction
of g
1
to S
T
is a bijection of S
T
onto T
T
.
Finally, the restriction of f to S
is a bijection of S
onto T
.
Dene h : S T by
h(s) =
_
_
f(s) if s S
S
g
1
(s) if s S
T
f(s) if s S
.
Then h is a bijection of S onto T. So S is equipotent to T.
237
Our next task is to dene what we mean by cardinal number.
A1.2.2 Denitions. A collection, , of sets is said to be a cardinal number if it satises
the conditions:
(i) Let S and T be sets. If S and T are in , then S T;
(ii) Let A and B be sets. If A is in and B A, then B is in .
If is a cardinal number and A is a set in , then we write card A = .
Denitions A1.2.2 may, at rst sight, seem strange. A cardinal number is dened as a
collection of sets. So let us look at a couple of special cases:
If a set A has two elements we write card A = 2; the cardinal number 2 is the collection of
all sets equipotent to the set 1, 2, that is the collection of all sets with 2 elements.
If a set S is countable innite, then we write card S =
0
; in this case the cardinal number
0
is the collection of all sets equipotent to N.
Let S and T be sets. Then S is equipotent to T if and only if card S = card T.
A1.2.3 Denitions. The cardinality of R is denoted by c; that is, card R = c. The
cardinality of N is denoted by
0
.
The symbol c is used in Denitions A1.2.3 as we think of R as the continuum.
We now dene an ordering of the cardinal numbers.
A1.2.4 Denitions. Let m and n be cardinal numbers. Then the cardinal m is said to
be less than or equal to n, that is m n, if there are sets S and T such that card m = S,
card T = n, and S is equipotent to a subset of T. Further, the cardinal m is said to be
strictly less than n, that is m < n, if m n and m ,= n.
As R has N as a subset, card R = c and card N =
0
, and R is not equipotent to N, we
immediately deduce the following result.
A1.2.5 Proposition.
0
< c.
We also know that for any set S, S is equipotent to a subset of T(S), and S is not equipotent
to T(S), from which we deduce the next result.
A1.2.6 Theorem. For any set S, card S < card T(S).
The following is a restatement of the Cantor-Schroder-Bernstein Theorem.
A1.2.7 Theorem. Let m and n be cardinal numbers. If m n and n m, then
m = n.
A1.2.8 Remark. We observe that there are an innite number of innite cardinal numbers.
This is clear from the fact that:
()
0
= card N < card T(N) < card T(T(N)) < . . .
The next result is an immediate consequence of Theorem A1.2.6.
A1.2.9 Corollary. There is no largest cardinal number.
Noting that if a nite set S has n elements, then its power set T(S) has 2
n
elements, it is
natural to introduce the following notation.
A1.2.10 Denition. If a set S has cardinality , then the cardinality of T(S) is denoted
by 2
.
Thus we can rewrite () above as:
()
0
< 2
0
< 2
2
0
< 2
2
2
0
< . . . .
When we look at this sequence of cardinal numbers there are a number of questions which
should come to mind including:
(1) Is
0
the smallest innite cardinal number?
239
(2) Is c equal to one of the cardinal numbers on this list?
(3) Are there any cardinal numbers strictly between
0
and 2
0
?
These questions, especially (1) and (3), are not easily answered. Indeed they require a careful
look at the axioms of set theory. It is not possible in this Appendix to discuss seriously the axioms
of set theory. Nevertheless we will touch upon the above questions later in the appendix.
We conclude this section by identifying the cardinalities of a few more familiar sets.
A1.2.11 Lemma. Let a and b be real numbers with a < b. Then
(i) [0, 1] [a, b];
(ii) (0, 1) (a, b);
(iii) (0, 1) (1, );
(iv) (, 1) (2, 1);
(v) (1, ) (1, 2);
(vi) R (2, 2);
(vii) R (a, b).
Outline Proof. (i) is proved by observing that f(x) = a + b x denes a one-to-one function of
[0, 1] onto [a, b]. (ii) and (iii) are similarly proved by nding suitable functions. (iv) is proved using
(iii) and (ii). (v) follows from (iv). (vi) follows from (iv) and (v) by observing that R is the union
of the pairwise disjoint sets (, 1), [1, 1] and (1, ). (vii) follows from (vi) and (ii). .
A1.2.12 Proposition. Let a and b be real numbers with a < b. If S is any subset of R
such that (a, b) S, then card S = c. In particular, card (a, b) = card [a, b] = c.
Proof. Using Lemma A1.2.11 observe that
card R = card (a, b) card [a, b] card R.
So card (a, b) = card [a, b] = card R = c. .
A1.2.13 Proposition. If R
2
is the set of points in the Euclidean plane, then card(R
2
) =
c.
Outline Proof. By Proposition A1.2.12, R is equipotent to the half-open interval [0, 1) and it is
easily shown that it suces to prove that [0, 1) [0, 1) [0, 1).
Dene f : [0, 1) [0, 1) [0, 1) by f(x) is the point x, 0). Then f is a one-to-one mapping
of [0, 1) into [0, 1) [0, 1) and so c = card [0, 1) card [0, 1) [0, 1).
By the Cantor-Schroder-Bernstein Theorem, it suces then to nd a one-to-one function g
of [0, 1) [0, 1) into [0, 1). Dene
g(0.a
1
a
2
. . . a
n
. . . , 0.b
1
b
2
. . . b
n
. . . , )) = 0.a
1
b
1
a
2
b
2
. . . a
n
b
n
. . . .
Clearly g is well-dened (as each real number in [0, 1) has a unique decimal representation that
does not end in 99. . . 9. . . ) and is one-to-one, which completes the proof.
A1.3 Cardinal Arithmetic
We begin with a denition of addition of cardinal numbers. Of course, when the cardinal numbers
are nite, this denition must agree with addition of nite numbers.
A1.3.1 Denition. Let and be any cardinal numbers and select disjoint sets A and
B such that card A = and card B = . Then the sum of the cardinal numbers and
is denoted by + and is equal to card (A B).
241
A1.3.2 Remark. Before knowing that the above denition makes sense and in particular does
not depend on the choice of the sets A and B, it is necessary to verify that if A
1
and B
1
are
disjoint sets and A and B are disjoint sets such that card A = card A
1
and card B = card B
1
,
then A B A
1
B
1
; that is, card (A B) = card (A
1
B
1
). This is a straightforward task and
so is left as an exercise.
A1.3.3 Proposition. For any cardinal numbers , and :
(i) + = +;
(ii) + ( +) = ( +) + ;
(iii) + 0 = ;
(iv) If then + + .
Proof. Exercise
A1.3.4 Proposition.
(i)
0
+
0
=
0
;
(ii) c +
0
= c;
(iii) c + c = c;
(iv) For any nite cardinal n, n +
0
=
0
and n + c = c.
Proof.
(i) The listing 1, 1, 2, 2, . . . , n, n, . . . shows that the union of the two countably innite sets
N and the set of negative integers is a countably innite set.
(ii) Noting that [2, 1] N R, we see that card[2, 1] + card N card R = c. So
c = card [2, 1] card ([2, 1] N) = card [2, 1] + card N = c +
0
c.
(iii) Note that c c + c = card ((0, 1) (1, 2)) card R = c from which the required result is
immediate.
(iv) Observe that
0
n +
0

0
+
0
=
0
and c n + c c + c = c, from which the results
follow.
Next we dene multiplication of cardinal numbers.
A1.3.5 Denition. Let and be any cardinal numbers and select disjoint sets A and
B such that card A = and card B = . Then the product of the cardinal numbers and
is denoted by and is equal to card (A B).
As in the case of addition of cardinal numbers, it is necessary, but routine, to check in
Denition A1.3.5 that does not depend on the specic choice of the sets A and B.
A1.3.6 Proposition. For any cardinal numbers , and
(i) = ;
(ii) () = () ;
(iii) 1. = ;
(iv) 0. = 0;
(v) ( +) = +;
(vi) For any nite cardinal n, n = + +. . . (n-terms);
(v1i) If then .
Proof. Exercise
A1.3.7 Proposition.
(i)
0
0
=
0
;
(ii) c c = c;
(iii) c
0
= c;
(iv) For any nite cardinal n, n
0
=
0
and nc = c.
Outline Proof. (i) follows from Proposition 1.1.16, while (ii) follows from Proposition A1.2.13.
To see (iii), observe that c = c.1 c
0
c c = c. The proof of (iv) is also straightforward.
The next step in the arithmetic of cardinal numbers is to dene exponentiation of cardinal
numbers; that is, if and are cardinal numbers then we wish to dene
.
243
A1.3.8 Denitions. Let and be cardinal numbers and A and B sets such that
card A = and card B = . The set of all functions f of B into A is denoted by A
B
.
Further,
is dened to be card A
B
.
Once again we need to check that the denition makes sense, that is that
does not depend

on the choice of the sets A and B. We also check that if n and m are nite cardinal numbers,
A is a set with n elements and B is a set with m elements, then there are precisely n
m
distinct
functions from B into A.
We also need to address one more concern: If is a cardinal number and A is a set such
that card A = , then we have two dierent denitions of 2
. The above denition has 2
as
the cardinality of the set of all functions of A into the two point set 0, 1. On the other hand,
Denition A1.2.10 denes 2
to be card (T(A)). It suces to nd a bijection of 0, 1

A
onto
T(A). Let f 0, 1
A
. Then f : A 0, 1. Dene (f) = f
1
(1). The task of verifying that
is a bijection is left as an exercise.
A1.3.9 Proposition. For any cardinal numbers , and :
(i)
+
=
;
(ii) ()
;
(iii) (
=
()
;
(iv) implies
;
(v) implies
.
Proof. Exercise
After Denition A1.2.10 we asked three questions. We are now in a position to answer the
second of these questions.
A1.3.10 Lemma.
0
0
= c.
Proof. Observe that card N
N
=
0
0
and card (0, 1) = c. As the function f : (0, 1) N
N
given
by f(0.a
1
a
2
. . . a
n
. . . ) = a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
, . . . ) is an injection, it follows that c
0
0
.
By the Cantor-Schroder-Bernstein Theorem, to conclude the proof it suces to nd an
injective map g of N
N
into (0, 1). If a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
, . . . ) is any element of N
N
, then each a
i
N
and so we can write
a
i
= . . . a
in
a
i(n1)
. . . a
i2
a
i1
, where for some M
i
N, a
in
= 0, for all n > M
i
[For example
187 = . . . 0 0 . . . 0 1 8 7 and so if a
i
= 187 then a
i1
= 7, a
i2
= 8, a
i3
=1 and a
in
= 0, for n > M
i
= 3.]
Then dene the map g by
g(a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
, . . . )) = 0.a
11
a
12
a
21
a
13
a
22
a
31
a
14
a
23
a
32
a
41
a
15
a
24
a
33
a
42
a
51
a
16
. . . .
(Compare this with the proof of Lemma A1.1.13.)
Clearly g is an injection, which completes the proof.
We now state a beautiful result, rst proved by Georg Cantor.
A1.3.11 Theorem. 2
0
= c.
Proof. Firstly observe that 2
0

0
0
= c, by Lemma A1.3.10. So we have to verify that
c
0
. To do this it suces to nd an injective map f of the set [0, 1) into 0, 1
N
. Each element
x of [0, 1) has a binary representation x = 0.x
1
x
2
. . . x
n
. . . , with each x
i
equal to 0 or 1. The
binary representation is unique except for representations ending in a string of 1s; for example,
1/4 = 0.0100 . . . 0 = 0.0011 . . . 1 . . . .
Providing that in all such cases we choose the representation with a string of zeros rather
than a string of 1s, the representation of numbers in [0, 1) is unique. We dene the function
f : [0, 1) 0, 1
N
which maps x [0, 1) to the function f(x): N 0, 1 given by f(x)(n) = x
n
,
n N. To see that f is injective, consider any x and y in [0, 1) with x ,= y. Then x
m
,= y
m
, for
some m N. So f(x)(m) = x
m
,= y
m
= f(y)(m). Hence the two functions f(x): N 0, 1 and
f(y): N 0, 1 are not equal. As x and y were arbitrary (unequal) elements of [0, 1), it follows
that f is indeed injective, as required.
245
A1.3.12 Corollary. If is a cardinal number such that 2 c, then
0
= c.
Proof. Observe that c = 2
0
c
0
= (2
0
)
0
= 2
0
.
0
= 2
0
= c.
Appendix 2: Topology Personalities
The source for material extracted in this appendix is primarily Mac [137] and Bourbaki [27]. In
fairness all of the material in this section should be treated as being essentially direct quotes from
these sources, though I have occasionally changed the words slightly, and included here only the
material that I consider pertinent to this book.
Rene Louis Baire
Rene Louis Baire was born in Paris, France in 1874. In 1905 he was appointed to the Faculty
of Science at Dijon and in 1907 was promoted to Professor of Analysis. He retired in 1925 after
many years of illness, and died in 1932. Reports on his teaching vary, perhaps according to his
health: Some described his lectures as very clear, but others claimed that what he taught was
so dicult that it was beyond human ability to understand.
Stefan Banach
Stefan Banach was born in Ostrowsko, Austria-Hungary now Poland in 1892. He lectured
in mathematics at Lvov Technical University from 1920 where he completed his doctorate which
is said to mark the birth of functional analysis. In his dissertation, written in 1920, he dened
axiomatically what today is called a Banach space. The name Banach space was coined by
Frechet. In 1924 Banach was promoted to full Professor. As well as continuing to produce
a stream of important papers, he wrote textbooks in arithmetic, geometry and algebra for
high school. Banachs Open Mapping Theorem of 1929 uses set-theoretic concepts which were
introduced by Baire in his 1899 dissertation. The Banach-Tarski paradox appeared in a joint paper
of the two mathematicians (Banach and Alfred Tarski) in 1926 in Fundamenta Mathematicae
entitled Sur la decomposition des ensembles de points en partiens respectivement congruent. The
246
247
puzzling paradox shows that a ball can be divided into subsets which can be tted together to make
two balls each identical to the rst. The Axiom of Choice is needed to dene the decomposition
and the fact that it is able to give such a non-intuitive result has made some mathematicians
question the use of the Axiom. The Banach-Tarski paradox was a major contribution to the work
being done on axiomatic set theory around this period. In 1929, together with Hugo Dyonizy
Steinhaus, he started a new journal Studia Mathematica and Banach and Steinhaus became the
rst editors. The editorial policy was . . . to focus on research in functional analysis and related
topics. The way that Banach worked was unconventional. He liked to do mathematical research
with his colleagues in the cafes of Lvov. Stanislaw Ulam recalls frequent sessions in the Scottish
Cafe (cf. Mauldin [140]): It was dicult to outlast or outdrink Banach during these sessions.
We discussed problems proposed right there, often with no solution evident even after several
hours of thinking. The next day Banach was likely to appear with several small sheets of paper
containing outlines of proofs he had completed. In 1939, just before the start of World War II,
Banach was elected President of the Polish Mathematical Society. The Nazi occupation of Lvov
in June 1941 meant that Banach lived under very dicult conditions. Towards the end of 1941
Banach worked feeding lice in a German institute dealing with infectious diseases. Feeding lice
was to be his life during the remainder of the Nazi occupation of Lvov up to July 1944. Banach
died in 1945.
Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer
Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer was born in 1881 in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. While an
undergraduate at the University of Amsterdam he proved original results on continuous motions in
four dimensional space. He obtained his Masters degree in 1904. Brouwers doctoral dissertation,
published in 1907, made a major contribution to the ongoing debate between Bertrand Russell
and Jules Henri Poincare on the logical foundations of mathematics. Brouwer quickly found that
his philosophical ideas sparked controversy. Brouwer put a very large eort into studying various
problems which he attacked because they appeared on David Hilberts list of problems proposed
at the Paris International Congress of Mathematicians in 1900. In particular Brouwer attacked
Hilberts fth problem concerning the theory of Lie groups. He addressed the International
Congress of Mathematicians in Rome in 1908 on the topological foundations of Lie groups.
Brouwer was elected to the Royal Academy of Sciences in 1912 and, in the same year, was
appointed extraordinary Professor of set theory, function theory and axiomatics at the University
248 APPENDIX 2: TOPOLOGY PERSONALITIES
of Amsterdam; he would hold the post until he retired in 1951. Bartel Leendert van der Waerden,
who studied at Amsterdam from 1919 to 1923, wrote about Brouwer as a lecturer: Brouwer came
[to the university] to give his courses but lived in Laren. He came only once a week. In general that
would have not been permitted - he should have lived in Amsterdam - but for him an exception was
made. ... I once interrupted him during a lecture to ask a question. Before the next weeks lesson,
his assistant came to me to say that Brouwer did not want questions put to him in class. He just
did not want them, he was always looking at the blackboard, never towards the students. Even
though his most important research contributions were in topology, Brouwer never gave courses
on topology, but always on and only on the foundations of intuitionism. It seemed that he
was no longer convinced of his results in topology because they were not correct from the point
of view of intuitionism, and he judged everything he had done before, his greatest output, false
according to his philosophy. As is mentioned in this quotation, Brouwer was a major contributor
to the theory of topology and he is considered by many to be its founder. He did almost all
his work in topology early in his career between 1909 and 1913. He discovered characterisations
of topological mappings of the Cartesian plane and a number of xed point theorems. His rst
xed point theorem, which showed that an orientation preserving continuous one-one mapping
of the sphere to itself always xes at least one point, came out of his research on Hilberts fth
problem. Originally proved for a 2-dimensional sphere, Brouwer later generalised the result to
spheres in n dimensions. Another result of exceptional importance was proving the invariance of
topological dimension. As well as proving theorems of major importance in topology, Brouwer
also developed methods which have become standard tools in the subject. In particular he used
simplicial approximation, which approximated continuous mappings by piecewise linear ones. He
also introduced the idea of the degree of a mapping, generalised the Jordan curve theorem to
n-dimensional space, and dened topological spaces in 1913. Van der Waerden, in the above
quote, said that Brouwer would not lecture on his own topological results since they did not t
with mathematical intuitionism. In fact Brouwer is best known to many mathematicians as the
founder of the doctrine of mathematical intuitionism, which views mathematics as the formulation
of mental constructions that are governed by self-evident laws. His doctrine diered substantially
from the formalism of Hilbert and the logicism of Russell. His doctoral thesis in 1907 attacked
the logical foundations of mathematics and marks the beginning of the Intuitionist School. In his
1908 paper The Unreliability of the Logical Principles Brouwer rejected in mathematical proofs
the Principle of the Excluded Middle, which states that any mathematical statement is either true
or false. In 1918 he published a set theory developed without using the Principle of the Excluded
249
Middle. He was made Knight in the Order of the Dutch Lion in 1932. He was active setting
up a new journal and he became a founding editor of Compositio Mathematica which began
publication in 1934. During World War II Brouwer was active in helping the Dutch resistance,
and in particular he supported Jewish students during this dicult period. After retiring in 1951,
Brouwer lectured in South Africa in 1952, and the United States and Canada in 1953. In 1962,
despite being well into his 80s, he was oered a post in Montana. He died in 1966 in Blaricum,
The Netherlands as the result of a trac accident.
Maurice Frechet
Maurice Frechet was born in France in 1878 and introduced the notions of metric space and
compactness (see Chapter 7) in his dissertation in 1906. He held positions at a number of
universities including the University of Paris from 19281948. His research includes important
contributions to topology, probability, and statistics. He died in 1973.
Felix Hausdor
One of the outstanding mathematicians of the rst half of
the twentieth century was Felix Hausdor. He did ground-
breaking work in topology, metric spaces, functional analysis,
Lie algebras and set theory. He was born in Breslau, Germany
now Wrocaw, Poland in 1868. He graduated from, and
worked at, University of Leipzig until 1910 when he accepted
a Chair at the University of Bonn. In 1935, as a Jew, he
was forced to leave his academic position there by the Nazi
Nuremberg Laws. He continued to do research in mathematics
for several years, but could publish his results only outside
Germany. In 1942 he was scheduled to go to an internment
camp, but instead he and his wife and sister committed suicide.
Wacaw Sierpi nski
Wacaw Sierpi nski was born in 1882 in Warsaw, Russian Empire now Poland. Fifty years after he
graduated from the University of Warsaw, Sierpi nski looked back at the problems that he had as a
Pole taking his degree at the time of the Russian occupation: . . . we had to attend a yearly lecture
on the Russian language. . . . Each of the students made it a point of honour to have the worst
results in that subject. . . . I did not answer a single question . . . and I got an unsatisfactory mark.
... I passed all my examinations, then the lector suggested I should take a repeat examination,
otherwise I would not be able to obtain the degree of a candidate for mathematical science. . . . I
refused him saying that this would be the rst case at our University that someone having excellent
marks in all subjects, having the dissertation accepted and a gold medal, would not obtain the
degree of a candidate for mathematical science, but a lower degree, the degree of a real student
(strangely that was what the lower degree was called) because of one lower mark in the Russian
language. Sierpi nski was lucky for the lector changed the mark on his Russian language course
to good so that he could take his degree. Sierpi nski graduated in 1904 and worked as a school
teacher of mathematics and physics in a girls school. However when the school closed because
of a strike, Sierpi nski went to Krakov to study for his doctorate. At the Jagiellonian University in
Krakov he received his doctorate and was appointed to the University of Lvov in 1908. In 1907
Sierpi nski for the rst time became interested in set theory. He happened across a theorem which
stated that points in the plane could be specied with a single coordinate. He wrote to Tadeusz
Banachiewicz asking him how such a result was possible. He received a one word reply (Georg)
Cantor. Sierpi nski began to study set theory and in 1909 he gave the rst ever lecture course
devoted entirely to set theory. During the years 1908 to 1914, when he taught at the University of
Lvov, he published three books in addition to many research papers. These books were The theory
of Irrational numbers (1910), Outline of Set Theory (1912) and The Theory of Numbers (1912).
When World War I began in 1914, Sierpi nski and his family happened to be in Russia. Sierpi nski
was interned in Viatka. However Dimitri Feddrovich Egorov and Nikolai Nikolaevich Luzin heard
that he had been interned and arranged for him to be allowed to go to Moscow. Sierpi nski
spent the rest of the war years in Moscow working with Luzin. Together they began the study
of analytic sets. When World War I ended in 1918, Sierpi nski returned to Lvov. However shortly
after he was accepted a post at the University of Warsaw. In 1919 he was promoted to Professor
spent the rest of his life there. In 1920 Sierpi nski, together with his former student Stefan
Mazurkiewicz, founded the important mathematics journal Fundamenta Mathematica. Sierpi nski
251
edited the journal which specialised in papers on set theory. From this period Sierpi nski worked
mostly in set theory but also on point set topology and functions of a real variable. In set theory
he made important contributions to the axiom of choice and to the continuum hypothesis. He
studied the Sierpi nski curve which describes a closed path which contains every interior point of
a square a space-lling curve. The length of the curve is innity, while the area enclosed
by it is 5/12 that of the square. Two fractals Sierpi nski triangle and Sierpi nski carpet are
named after him. Sierpi nski continued to collaborate with Luzin on investigations of analytic
and projective sets. Sierpi nski was also highly involved with the development of mathematics in
Poland. In 1921 He had been honoured with election to the Polish Academy was made Dean
of the faculty at the University of Warsaw. In 1928 he became Vice-Chairman of the Warsaw
Scientic Society and, was elected Chairman of the Polish Mathematical Society. In 1939 life in
Warsaw changed dramatically with the advent of World War II. Sierpi nski continued working in the
Underground Warsaw University while his ocial job was a clerk in the council oces in Warsaw.
His publications continued since he managed to send papers to Italy. Each of these papers ended
with the words: The proofs of these theorems will appear in the publication of Fundamenta
Mathematica which everyone understood meant Poland will survive. After the uprising of 1944
the Nazis burned his house destroying his library and personal letters. Sierpi nski spoke of the
tragic events of the war during a lecture he gave in 1945. He spoke of his students who had died
in the war: In July 1941 one of my oldest students Stanislaw Ruziewicz was murdered. He was
a retired professor of Jan Kazimierz University in Lvov . . . an outstanding mathematician and an
excellent teacher. In 1943 one of my most distinguished students Stanislaw Saks was murdered.
He was an Assistant Professor at Warsaw University, one of the leading experts in the world in the
theory of the integral. . . In 1942 another student of mine was Adolf Lindenbaum was murdered.
He was an Assistant Professor at Warsaw University and a distinguished author of works on set
theory. After listing colleagues who were murdered in the war such as Juliusz Pawel Schauder
and others who died as a result of the war such as Samuel Dickstein and Stanislaw Zaremba,
Sierpi nski continued: Thus more than half of the mathematicians who lectured in our academic
schools were killed. It was a great loss for Polish mathematics which was developing favourably
in some elds such as set theory and topology . . . In addition to the lamented personal losses
Polish mathematics suered because of German barbarity during the war, it also suered material
losses. They burned down Warsaw University Library which contained several thousand volumes,
magazines, mathematical books and thousands of reprints of mathematical works by dierent
authors. Nearly all the editions of Fundamenta Mathematica (32 volumes) and ten volumes of
Mathematical Monograph were completely burned. Private libraries of all the four Professors of
mathematics from Warsaw University and also quite a number of manuscripts of their works and
handbooks written during the war were burnt too. Sierpi nski was the author of the incredible
number of 724 papers and 50 books. He retired in 1960 as Professor at the University of Warsaw
but he continued to give a seminar on the theory of numbers at the Polish Academy of Sciences
up to 1967. He also continued his editorial work, as Editor-in-Chief of Acta Arithmetica which
he began in 1958, and as an editorial board member of Rendiconti dei Circolo Matimatico di
Palermo, Compositio Matematica and Zentralblatt f ur Mathematik. Andrzej Rotkiewicz, who
was a student of Sierpi nskis wrote: Sierpi nski had exceptionally good health and a cheerful
nature. . . . He could work under any conditions. Sierpi nski died in 1969.
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Index
T
1
-space, 209
-covering, 146
n-cube, 201
s-dimensional outer measure
Hausdor, 147
0
, 225
accumulation point, 55
Acta Arithmetica, 252
algebraic number, 229
analytic
set, 250
analytic set, 129
arrow, 88
axiom
least upper bound, 64
Baire Category Theorem, 138, 139
Baire space, 139
Baire, Rene Louis, 246
ball
closed unit, 170
Banach
Fixed Point Theorem, 136
Banach space, 132
Banach, Stefan, 246
Banach-Tarski paradox, 247
Banachiewicz, Tadeusz, 250
basis, 40
Besicovitch
Abram Samoilovitch, 146
bijection, 224
bijective, 26
bikompakt, 171
Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem, 126
bound
greatest lower, 64
lower, 64
upper, 64
bounded, 64, 166
above, 64
below, 64
metric, 112
metric space, 112
set, 134
box topology, 196
Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem, 98
Brouwer, Luitzen Egbertus Jan, 247
C[0, 1], 51, 170
c, 237
c
0
, 114
Cafe, Scottish, 247
Cantor
Georg, 232
Cantor set, 193
Cantor Space
268
INDEX 269
middle two-thirds, 216
Cantor space, 193
Cantor, Georg, 250
card , 237
cardinal number, 237
cardinality, 225
carpet
Sierpi nski, 251
category
rst, 140
second, 140
Cauchy sequence, 123
Cauchy-Riemann
manifold, 118
chaos, 146
circle group, 188
clopen
set, 22
closed
mapping, 169, 177
set, 20
unit ball, 170
closure, 57
cluster point, 55
coarser topology, 95, 177
conite topology, 24
collectionwise Hausdor, 214
compact, 160, 161
space, 161
compactum, 187
complete, 124
completely metrizable, 128
completion
of a metric space, 130
component, 99, 185, 186
Compositio Matematica, 252
Compositio Mathematica, 249
connected, 65
component, 185
locally, 188, 219
manifold, 118
path, 96
pathwise, 96
continuous, 88
at a point, 144
continuous mapping, 90
continuum, 186
contraction
mapping, 135
Contraction Mapping Theorem, 136
contradiction, 36
converge, 119
Converse of Heine-Borel Theorem, 166
convex
set, 141
countability
rst axiom of, 115
second axiom of, 45
countable
second, 211
countable bases, 115
countable chain condition, 213
countable closed topology, 30
countable set, 225
countably innite, 225
covering
270 INDEX
open, 161
CR-manifold, 118
cube
n, 201
Hilbert, 201
curve
Sierpi nski, 251
space-lling, 251
cylinder, 184
decreasing sequence, 125
dense, 58
everywhere, 58
nowhere, 138
denumerable, 225
diagonal, 175
diam, 146
diameter, 146
Dickstein, Samuel, 251
dierentiable, 137
manifold, 118
dim
H
, 149
dimension
Hausdor, 149
zero, 100
disconnected, 66, 96
totally, 99
discrete
metric, 103
space, 13
topology, 13
distance, 102
distance between sets, 123
Egorov, Dimitri Feddrovich, 250
element
greatest, 64
least, 64
embedding
isometric, 130
Embedding Lemma, 208
empty union, 17
equipotent, 224
equivalence relation, 87, 131, 224
equivalent metric, 110
euclidean
locally, 118
euclidean metric, 103
euclidean metric on R
2
, 103
euclidean topology, 34
euclidean topology on R
n
, 43
evaluation map, 208
everywhere dense, 58
extremally disconnected space, 214
F
-set, 38, 144

f
1
, 27
nal segment topology, 18
ner topology, 95, 177
nite, 225
nite subcovering, 161
nite-closed topology, 24
rst axiom of countability, 115
rst category, 140
rst countable, 115
xed point, 98, 135
xed point property, 98
INDEX 271
Fixed Point Theorem, 98
Banach, 136
Frechet, Maurice, 249
fractal, 251
geometry, 146
function
bijective, 26
continuous, 88
injective, 26
inverse, 26
one-to-one, 26
onto, 26
surjective, 26
Fundamenta Mathematica, 250
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, 189
G
-set, 38, 144

Generalized Heine-Borel Theorem, 167, 183
Georg Cantor, 232
greatest element, 64
greatest lower bound, 64
group
circle, 188
topological, 188
group of homeomorphisms, 79
Hausdor
s-dimensional outer measure, 147
collectionwise, 214
dimension, 149
Felix, 146
Hausdor space, 72, 111, 175
Hausdor, Felix, 249
Hausdor-Besicovitch measure, 146
Heine-Borel Theorem, 166
Converse, 166
Generalized, 167
Hilbert cube, 201
Hilbert, David, 247
homeomorphic, 73
locally, 86
homeomorphism, 73
local, 86
if and only if, 39
image
inverse, 27
increasing sequence, 125
indiscrete
space, 13
topology, 13
induced topological space, 109
induced topology, 68, 109
inf, 64
inmum, 64
innite, 225
countably, 225
initial segment topology, 18
injective, 26
Int, 63, 138
interior, 63, 138
Intermediate Value Theorem, 97
intersection of topologies, 31
interval, 82
inverse
function, 26
image, 27
272 INDEX
isolated point, 144, 195
isometric, 115, 130
embedding, 130
isometry, 115, 130
1
, 114
2
, 114
, 114
least element, 64
Least Upper Bound Axiom, 64
Lebesgue measure, 146
Lemma
Embedding, 208
limit point, 55
Lindelofs Theorem, 212
Lindenbaum, Adolph, 251
line
Sorgenfrey, 64, 163, 176
local
homeomorphism, 86
locally
compact, 184
connected, 188
euclidean, 118
homeomorphic, 86
locally connected, 219
lower bound, 64
lower semicontinuous, 145
Luzin, Nikolai Nikolaevich, 250
Mandelbrot
Benoit, 146
manifold
Cauchy-Riemann, 118
connected, 118
CR-, 118
dierentiable, 118
Riemannian, 118
smooth, 118
topological, 118
topological with boundary, 118
map
bijective, 26
evaluation, 208
injective, 26
inverse, 26
one-to-one, 26
onto, 26
surjective, 26
mapping
closed, 169, 177
continuous, 90
contraction, 135
lower semicontinuous, 145
open, 143, 169, 177
upper semicontinuous, 145
mathematical proof, 12
Mazurkiewicz, Stefan, 250
meager, 140
Mean Value Theorem, 137
measure
Hausdor-Besicovitch, 146
Lebesgue, 146
metric, 102
bounded, 112
discrete, 103
equivalent, 110
INDEX 273
euclidean, 103, 103
Post Oce, 214
space, 102
metric space
bounded, 112
complete, 124
totally bounded, 117
metrizable, 112
completely, 128
monotonic sequence, 125
N, 70
N, 13
n-sphere, 183
neighbourhood, 60
norm, 106
normal space, 115, 170
normed vector space, 106
nowhere dense, 138
number
algebraic, 229
cardinal, 237
transcendental, 229
object, 88
one-to-one, 26
one-to-one correspondence, 224
onto, 26
open
ball, 107
covering, 161
mapping, 143, 169, 177
set, 19
open covering, 161
Open Mapping Theorem, 142
P, 38, 70
T(S), 232
paradox
Banach-Tarski, 247
path, 96
path-connected, 96
pathwise connected, 96
peak point, 125
perfect space, 195
point, 55
accumulation, 55
cluster, 55
xed, 98, 135
isolated, 144, 195
limit, 55
neighbourhood of, 60
peak, 125
Polish space, 129
Post Oce metric, 214
power set, 232
Principle of the Excluded Middle, 248
product, 173, 195
space, 173
topology, 173, 179
product of cardinal numbers, 242
product space, 195
product topology, 45, 195
proof
by contradiction, 36
if and only if, 39
mathematical, 12
274 INDEX
proper subset, 23
property
xed point, 98
separation, 32
topological, 87
Q, 37, 70
R, 18, 34, 188
R
2
, 43
R
n
, 43
reexive, 75
regular, 176
regular space, 72
relation
equivalence, 87, 131, 224
reexive, 75
symmetric, 75
transitive, 75
relative topology, 68
Rendiconti dei Circolo Matimatico di Palermo,
252
Riemannian
manifold, 118
Rotkiewicz, Andrzej, 252
Russell, Bertram, 247
Ruziewicz, Stanislaw, 251
S
n
, 183
S
1
, 183
Saks, Stanislaw, 251
scattered space, 214
Schauder, Juliusz Pawel, 251
second axiom of countability, 45, 176, 211
second category, 140
second countable, 211
semicontinuous
lower, 145
upper, 145
separable, 62, 129, 176, 206
separates points, 208
separates points and closed sets, 208
separation property, 32
sequence
Cauchy, 123
convergent, 119
decreasing, 125
increasing, 125
monotonic, 125
set
F
, 38, 144
G
, 38, 144
analytic, 129, 250
bounded, 134
Cantor, 193
clopen, 22
closed, 20
convex, 141
countable, 225
denumerable, 225
nite, 225
rst category, 140
innite, 225
meager, 140
of continuous real-valued functions, 51
of integers, 37, 70
of irrational numbers, 38, 70
INDEX 275
of natural numbers, 13, 70
of positive integers, 13, 70
of rational numbers, 37, 70
of real numbers, 18
open, 19
power, 232
second category, 140
uncountable, 225
Sierpinski space, 30
Sierpi nski
carpet, 251
curve, 251
triangle, 251
Sierpi nski, Wacaw, 250
smooth
manifold, 118
Sorgenfrey line, 64, 163
Souslin space, 129
space
T
0
, 30
T
1
, 30, 176, 209
T
2
, 72, 111
T
3
, 72
T
4
, 115
Baire, 139
Banach, 132
bikompakt, 171
Cantor, 193
collectionwise Hausdor, 214
compact, 161
complete metric, 124
completely metrizable, 128
connected, 65
disconnected, 66
discrete, 13
extremally disconnected, 214
Hausdor, 72, 111, 175
indiscrete, 13
induced by a metric, 109
locally compact, 184
locally connected, 188, 219
metric, 102
metrizable, 112
normal, 115, 170
normed vector, 106
perfect, 195
Polish, 129
product, 173, 195
regular, 72, 176
scattered, 214
second countable, 211
separable, 62, 129, 176, 206
Sierpinski, 30
Souslin, 129
topological, 12
totally disconnected, 99, 176
space-lling curve, 251
Steinhaus, Hugo Dyonizy, 247
Studia Mathematica, 247
subbasis, 52
subcovering
nite, 161
subsequence, 125
subset
dense, 58
everywhere dense, 58
276 INDEX
proper, 23
subspace, 68
subspace topology, 68
sum of cardinal numbers, 240
sup, 64
suppose
proof by contradiction, 36
supremum, 64
surface, 184
surjective, 26
symmetric, 75
T
0
-space, 30
T
1
-space, 30, 176
T
2
-space, 72, 111
T
3
-space, 72
T
4
-space, 115
T, 118, 188
Tarski, Alfred, 246
Theorem
Baire Category, 138, 139
Banach Fixed Point, 136
Bolzano-Weierstrass, 126
Brouwer Fixed Point, 98
Contraction Mapping, 136
Converse of Heine-Borel, 166
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, 189
Generalized Heine-Borel, 167, 183
Heine-Borel, 166
Lindelofs, 212
Mean Value, 137
Open Mapping, 142
Tychono, 182
Urysohn and its Converse, 212
Urysohns, 210
Weierstrass Intermediate Value, 97
topological
manifold, 118
manifold with boundary, 118
topological group, 188
of real numbers, 188
topological property, 87
topological space, 12
topology, 12
box, 196
coarser, 95, 177
conite, 24
countable closed, 30
discrete, 13
euclidean, 34
euclidean on R
n
, 43
nal segment, 18
ner, 95, 177
nite-closed, 24
indiscrete, 13
induced, 68
induced by a metric, 109
initial segment, 18
intersection, 31
product, 45, 173, 179, 195
relative, 68
subspace, 68
usual, 70
totally bounded
metric space, 117
totally disconnected, 99
INDEX 277
totally disconnected space, 176
transcendental number, 229
transitive, 75
triangle
Sierpi nski, 251
Tychonos Theorem, 182
Ulam, Stanislaw, 247
uncountable set, 225
union
empty, 17
unit ball, 170
upper bound, 64
upper semicontinuous, 145
Urysohns Theorem, 210
Urysohns Theorem and its Converse, 212
usual topology, 70
van der Waerden, Bartel Leendert, 248
vector space
normed, 106
Weierstrass Intermediate Value Theorem, 97
Z, 37, 70
0-dimensional, 100
Zaremba, Stanislaw, 251
Zentralblatt f ur Mathematik, 252
zero-dimensional, 100

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TOPOLOGY WITHOUT TEARS

-set in R. (In Exercises 6.5#3 we prove that

-set and the complement of a G

be an open equilateral triangle

. Then there exists an open rectangle

. Pictorially, this is again easy to see.

the set of all

contains all of its limit

, there exists an open set U containing p with U A = p or

= . For if x U then as U is an open

) = , and p U. This implies

X A and then, by Denition 3.1.9, A = A

A = X; that is, A is dense in X.

= is a transitive relation. Indeed it is easily

= [0, 1]. Firstly, we present a seemingly

= [c, d], and

with f(a) U. Then

6.1. METRIC SPACES 105

(f, g) = sup[f(x) g(x)[ : x [0, 1].

6.1.7 Example. We can dene another metric on R

108 CHAPTER 6. METRIC SPACES

6.1. METRIC SPACES 109

(a) = (a , a + ). From this it is readily

also induces the euclidean topology on the set R

denote the set of bounded sequences of real numbers x = (x

consisting of all those sequences which converge to zero and

(x) such that x B

(x) X A. Noting that each a

(y) A ,= . For each positive integer n, let x

(f(x)) is an open set in (Y,

(f(x)) is an open set in

(f(x)), for all n n

is the metric of Example 6.1.6, prove

were replaced by the metric d, of Example 6.1.5.

is any other sequence in X converging to a, then f(z

(c)(b a). (Recall that f is said to be dierentiable at a

(x)[ r, for all x [a, b].

-set and Q is not a G

(Y ), if the limit exists;

(Y ) exists or it tends to . This helps us to understand the denition

(i) be the open ball centre y

(Y ), if the limit exists;

[0, 1] 1, for all > 0. This implies the required result.

[0, 1] (2 + 1/); that is, H

) be the metric space dened in Example 6.1.6. Let B = f : f C[0, 1] and

) is not compact. Though we shall not

be any topology on the set X

. To show this, observe that as p

is the topology induced

). We show in the next proposition that it is homeomorphic to the

) is Hausdor (Exercises 9.2 #4) Exercises 7.2 #6 says that f is a

. The product space

. But Proposition 9.3.3 says

(a) is a basic open set in the

. This is the countably innite product of topological spaces each homeomorphic to

. In particular we see that

, see Bessaga and Pelczynski [22].

is the subspace topology on e(X), if

) is onto is obvious, while condition (ii)

) is an open mapping, it suces to verify that for each

such that e(x) W e(U). As the family f

. It remains to show that W e(U). So let e(t) W. Then

be the open ball