1. Describe the Vinay and Darbelnet's model of the translation shift approach the direct translation procedures.

. Give an E-Cro/H-Cro example for each direct procedure. Vinay and Darbelnet carried out a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English. They looked at texts in both languages, noting differences between the languages and identifying different translation strategies and 'procedures'. The two general translation strategies identified by Vinay and Darbelnet are direct translation and oblique translation, which hark back to the 'literal vs. free' division.The two strategies comprise seven procedures, of which direct translation covers three: 1.Borrowing: The SL word is transferred directly to the TL. This grouping covers words that are used in English and other languages to fill a semantic gap in the TL. Sometimes borrowings are employed to add local colour. (e.g. teenager, talk-show <> Sabor) 2.Calque: 'a special kind of borrowing' - the SL expression or structure is transferred in a literal translation. Vinay and Darbelnet note that both borrowings and calques often become fully integrated into the TL, although sometimes with some semantic change, which can turn them into false friends. Adoption by the TL of a phrase or a compound word whose components are literal translation of a corresonding phrase or compund in the SL. (e.g. eljezna zavjesa, part-time job) 3.Literal translation: 'word-for-word' translation - most common between languages of the same family and culture. Literal translation is the authors' prescription for good translation: 'literalness should only be sacrificed because of structural and metalinguistic requirements and only after checking that the meaning is fully preserved.' But the translator may judge literal translation to be 'unacceptable' because it: (a) gives a different meaning; (b) has no meaning; (c) is impossible for structural reasons; (d) 'does not have a corresponding expression within the metalinguistic experience of the TL'; (e) corresponds to something at a different level of language. (e.g. Where is the boy? - Gdje je djeak?)

5. Explain Catford's translation shift approach giving an example for each of the four types of shifts (Munday 4); Ivir (152-158) Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965) devotes a chapter to translation shift. Catford follows the linguistic model which analyzes language as communication, operating functionally in context and on a range of different levels and ranks. He says that textual equivalence is tied to a particular ST-TT pair, while formal equivalence is a more general system-based concept between a pair of languages. When the two concepts diverge, a translation shift is deemed to have occurred. In Catford's own words, translation shifts are thus 'departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL'. Catford considers two kinds of shift: (1) shift of level and (2) shift of category: 1.A level shift would he something which is expressed by grammar in one language and lexis in another e.g. aspect in Russian being translated by a lexical verb in English: e.g. igrat (to play) and sigrat (to finish playing). 2.Most of Catford's analysis is given over to category shifts.These are subdivided into four kinds: (a) Structural shifts: These are said by Catford to be the most common form of shift and to involve mostly a shift in grammatical structure. e.g. the subject pronoun+verb+direct object structures of I like jazz and j'aime le jazz in English and French are translated by an indirect object pronoun+verb+subject noun structure in Spanish (me gusts el jazz) and in Italian (mi piace il jazz). (b) Class shifts: These comprise shifts from one part of speech to another. e.g. the English a medical student and the French un itudiant en midecine, where the English premodifying adjective medical is translated by the adverbial qualifying phrase en me'decine. (c) Unit shifts or rank shifts: These are shifts where the translation equivalent in the TL is at a different rank (sentence, clause, group, word and morpheme) to the SL. (d) Intra-system shifts: These are shifts that take place when the SL and TL possess approximately corresponding systems but where 'the translation involves selection of a non-corresponding term in the TL system'. e.g. advice (singular) in English becomes des conseils (plural) in French

2. Describe the Vinay and Darbelnet's model of the translation shift approach the oblique translation procedures. Give one E-Cro/Cro-E example for each oblique procedure. Vinay and Darbelnet carried out a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English. They looked at texts in both languages, noting differences between the languages and identifying different translation strategies and 'procedures'. The two general translation strategies identified by Vinay and Darbelnet are direct translation and oblique translation, which hark back to the 'literal vs. free' division. In those cases where literal translation is not possible, Vinay and Darbelnet say that the strategy of oblique translation must be used: 1.Transposition: a change of one part of speech for another without changing the sense. Transposition can be: obligatory and optional. Vinay and Darbelnet see transposition as 'probably the most common structural change undertaken by translators'. Replacing a grammatical structure in SL with a grammatical structure of a different type in TL in order to achieve the same effect. (e.g. There is absolutely no truth in his deposition. Njegova izjava (prijava za sud) nije uope bila istinita.)

2.Modulation: changes the semantics and point of view of the SL. A semantic-pragmatic procedure that changes: the category of thought, the focus, the point of view and the whole conceptualization. It can be: obligatory and optional. Modulation is a procedure that is justified 'when, although a literal, or even transposed, translation results in a grammatically correct utterance, it is considered unsuitable, unidiomatic or awkward in the TL'. This category covers a wide range of phenomena. (e.g. The ship/aircraft must carry a radio officer. Brod mora imati radijskog asnika) 3.Equivalence: cases where languages describe the same situation by different stylistic or structural means. Equivalence is particularly useful in translating idioms and proverbs. (e.g. take the bull by the horns - uhvatiti se smjelo ukotac s tekoama) 4.Adaptation: changing the cultural reference when a situation in the source culture does not exist in the target culture. The translator replaces a social, or cultural, reality in the source text with a corresponding reality in the target text. (e.g. cricket (engl. nacionalni sport); American football vs nogomet)

6. Show and describe the four text types by K. Reiss following Bhler's three-way categorization of the functions of language. How do these refer to translation? Katharina Reiss's work in the 1970s builds on the concept of equivalence but views the text, rather than the word or sentence, as the level at which communication is achieved and at which equivalence must be sought. The main characteristics of each text type are: 1.'Plain communication of facts': information, knowledge, opinions, etc. The language dimension used to transmit the information is logical or referential, the content or 'topic' is the main focus of the communication, and the text type is informative. The translation should be in 'plain prose', without redundancy and with the use of explicitation when required. 2.'Creative composition': the author uses the aesthetic dimension of language. The author or 'sender' is foregrounded, as well as the form of the message, and the text type is expressive. The TT of an expressive text should transmit the aesthetic and artistic form of the ST. The translation should use the 'identifying' method, with the translator adopting the standpoint of the ST author. 3.'Inducing behavioural responses': the aim of the appellative function is to appeal to or persuade the reader or 'receiver' of the text to act in a certain way. The form of language is dialogic, the focus is appellative and this text type is operative. The translation should employ the 'adaptive' method, creating an equivalent effect among TT readers. 4.Audiomedial texts, such as films and visual and spoken advertisements which supplement the other three functions with visual images, music, etc. This is Reiss's fourth type (not in the table). Audio-medial texts require the 'supplementary' method, supplementing written words with visual images and music.

3. Discuss modulation as a translation procedure, types of modulation and give examples in translating E-HR or HE-E Modulation is a semantic-pragmatic procedure that changes: the category of thought, the focus, the point of view and the whole conceptualization. It can be fixed and free. Example for the fixed modulation is There was a tree near the road - Pokraj ceste nalazilo se je jedno stablo''. Types of modulation (Vinay and Darbelnet): recorded /fixed modulation (standard modulation, e.g.in bilingual dictionaries: two-to-one; one-to-two; one-to-nought; nought-to-one correspondence) and free modulation (more practical in cases where "the TL rejects literal translation", used when grammatical means are inadequate, an equivalent is created for the specidic occasion e.g. ''It is difficult Nije lako''). Semantic contents underlying free modulation: inclusion specialisation, generalisation and opposition. Modulation occurs when there is a change of perspective accompanied with a lexical change in the TL, however, it should better be avoided unless it is necessary for the naturalness of the translation).

4. Give the five steps for the translator to follow when translating from ST to TT. Vinay and Darbelnet stress that it is option, the realm of stylistics, that should be the translator's main concern. The role of the translator is 'to choose from among the available options to express the nuances of the message'. The authors continue by giving a list of five steps for the translator to follow in moving from ST to TT; these are: 1.Identify the units of translation 2.Examine the SL text, evaluating the descriptive, affective and intellectual content of the units 3.Reconstruct the metalinguistic context of the message 4.Evaluate the stylistic effects 5.Produce and revise the TT As far as the key question the 'unit of translation' is concerned, the authors reject the individual word. They consider the unit of translation to be a combination of a 'lexicological unit' and a 'unit of thought' and define it as: 'the smallest segment of the utterance whose signs are linked in such a way that they should not be translated individually'.

13. False pairs and cognates in translation types and examples. False cognates are words that are commonly thought to be related whereas linguistic examination reveals that they are unrelated. They are pairs of words in the same or different languages that are similar in form and meaning but have different roots, and do not mean the same thing. Examples: 'sensible' (Spanish) means sensitive in English; 'gift' (German) means poison; "Librairie" (French) is the cognate of "Library" but refers to a bookshop. False friends are pairs of words in two languages or letters in two alphabets that look or sound similar but differ in meaning. One difference between false cognates and false friends is that while false cognates mean roughly the same thing in two languages, false friends bear two distinct meanings. Types: - absolute: false in every context (dres, fen, reklamacija and ef) - contextual: false in some contexts, not in others (most FP) - pseudo false friends, in which the English expression does not exist as a single term, only as two or more separate English morphemes (e.g. automat, autostop, grafoskop, hazarder, internacija, klientelizam, rekonvalescent and referat). False pairs: lexical pairs in two diff. languages which share something (i.e.: partial match but not complete), TLR considers them as TRUE pairs, they are completely interchangeable, substitutable in (L2) in the same context(s) as in L1, there is partial/apparent substitutability because of similarity in form (eventualno - eventually) - internationalisms (almost the same form, different meaning: corner-korner (l'angolo-off-side)) - tertium comparations (similar form, variable semantical relationships: 'I didn't realize it was that late' (*realizirao = a US/UK speaker in Cro) Collocations, lexical sets, proverbs, idioms and fixed phrases are also false pairs.

7. Define the Hallidayan model of language and discourse (systemic functional grammar) and explain the concepts of register and genre. Halliday's model of discourse analysis, based on what he terms systemic functional grammar, is geared to the study of language as communication, seeing meaning in the writer's linguistic choices and systematically relating these choices to a wider sociocultural framework.' In Halliday's model, there is a strong interrelation between the surface-level realizations of the linguistic functions and the sociocultural framework. The genre (the conventional text type that is associated with a specific communicative function) is conditioned by the sociocultural environment and itself determines other elements in the systemic framework. The first of these is register, which comprises three variable elements: 1.field: what is being written about, e.g. a delivery; 2.tenor: who is communicating and to whom, e.g. a sales representative to a customer; a 3.mode: the form of communication, e.g. written. Each of the variables of register is associated with a strand of meaning. These strands, which together form the discourse semantics of a text, are the three metafunctions: ideational, interpersonal and textual. The metafunctions are constructed or realized by the Iexicogrammar, that is the choices of wording and syntactic structure. The links are broadly as follows: The field of a text is associated with ideational meaning, which is realized through transitivity patterns. The tenor of a text is associated with interpersonal meaning, which is realized through the patterns of modality. The mode of a text is associated with textual meaning, which is realized through the thematic and information structures (mainly the order and structuring of elements in a clause) and cohesion (the way the text hangs together lexically, including the use of pronouns, ellipsis, collocation, repetition, etc.). Analysis of the metafunctions has prime place in this model.

16. Translating elements of culture procedures Procedures in translating elements of culture: 1) BORROWING, importation - i.e. borrow a concept + term + supply an explanation (e.g. pub, five-oclocktea,The Wall Street). It ensures precise transfer of cultural information on condition that knowledge of exttra-linguistic reality already is somehow assured. It depends on the familiarity of extra-linguistic reality. 2) DEFINING definitional translating. It relies on a combination of what members of TL culture know in an attempt to make them aware of what the do not know, on shared (culture elements) vs. unshared (e.g. comon law vs. continental), there is no definition that can give the whole information, definition is formulated so as to focus on the information relevant for the act of communication at hand 3) LITERAL TRANSLATION which is applied for each particular cultural element/lex. item, for each particular act of communication and is still regarded the best procedure for filling cultural & lexical gaps. It's advantages are: faithfulness to SL expression, transparency in TL. 4)SUBSTITUTION - replacing a cultural item in SLT with the closest cultural item in TL culture, used in cases of partial overlap. 5)LEXICAL CREATION in the TL is a less frequent procedure. It is used when translators are faced with heavy demands of the TLR's ingenuity or he is not sure his contribution to the native stock will 'catch on'. Forms: lexical invention, word formation, regularly formed words, semantically close to the SL word, semantic extension, new collocations 6)OMISSION which is needed not by the nature of cultural element to be translated but by the nature of the communicative situation, redundancy, need for no or little communicative loss, it brings poor or little contribution to the communicative value 7)ADDITION used in translating implicit elements of culture. The SL speaker often leaves some things unsaid (taken for granted in SL communicative situation).

8. Describe the House's model of translation quality assessment and how the model operates (seven translation steps). House rejects the 'more target-audience oriented notion of translation appropriateness' and for this reason bases her model on comparative ST-TT analysis leading to the assessment of the quality of the translation, highlighting 'mismatches' or 'errors'. House's incorporates some of her earlier categories into an openly Hallidayan register analysis of field, tenor and mode. The model involves a systematic comparison of the textual 'profile' of the ST and TT. This is a register analysis of both ST and TT according to their realization through lexical, syntactic and textual means. Textual means refers to: 1.theme-dynamics: thematic structure and cohesion; 2.clausal linkage: additive (and, in addition), adversative (but, however), etc.; 3.iconic linkage: parallelism of structures. Field refers to the subject matter and social action and covers the specificity of lexical items. Tenor includes 'the addresser's temporal, geographical and social provenance as well as his [or her] intellectual, emotional or affective stance (his [or her] "personal viewpoint")'. 'Social attitude' refers to formal, consultative or informal style. Finally, mode relates to 'channel' (spoken/written, etc.) and the degree of participation between addresser and addressee (monologue, dialogue). House's model operates as follows: 1.A profile is produced of the ST register. 2.To this is added a description of the ST genre realized by the register 3.Together, this allows a 'statement of function' to be made for the ST, including the ideational and interpersonal component of that function (in other words, what information is being conveyed and what the relationship is between sender and receiver). 4.The same descriptive process is then carried out for the TT. 5.The TT profile is compared to the ST profile and a statement of 'mismatches' or errors is produced, categorized according to genre and to the situational dimensions of register and genre; these dimensional errors are referred to as 'covertly erroneous errors'. 6.A 'statement of quality' is then made of the translation. 7.Finally, the translation can be categorized into one of two types: overt translation or covert translation. An overt translation is a TT that does not purport to be an original and a covert translation 'is a translation which enjoys the status of an original source text in the target culture'

12. Discuss translation and gender Sherry Simon criticizes translation studies for often using the term culture 'as if it referred to an obvious and unproblematic reality'. Simon approaches translation from a gender-studies angle. She sees a language of sexism in translation studies. The feminist theorists see a parallel between the status of translation, which is often considered to be derivative and inferior to original writing, and that of women, so often repressed in society and literature. This is the core of feminist translation theory. For feminist translation, fidelity is to be directed toward neither the author nor the reader, but toward the writing project - a project in which both writer and translator participate. More recent research in translation and gender has increasingly problematized the issue of language and identity. For example, Keith Harveys study involved combining linguistic methods of analysis of literature with a cultural-theory angle, enabling study of the social and ideological environment that conditions the exchange.

15. Translating elements of culture Give three areas of your choice which are a potential source of culture-specific terms and demonstrate it by an example for each area The difficulties arise when translating elements of different cultures which don't match. That means that you translate the elements that are characteristic for one original culture, and the other doesn't have equivalents for these expressions. Culture includes aspects such as rituals, habits and customs, expressions, forms of etiquette, manners of speech such as the way to address a person, or register and tone, literature, music, dance, theatre, clothing and dress code, religion and ceremonies. A name is a linguistic cultural element, and an author uses it for its associative value. It resists translation. In the Indian culture, people show respect to their elders by addressing them in plural. A simple he/she cannot be substituted, because then the idea behind the use of plural address would be lost. So, in addressing an elder person, either choice-retaining the plural form or replacing it by a simple "you"-will lead to ambiguity. Regarding social (family) relationships, most Indians used to live with their extended families. A need to address each relative arose. For this reason, there are different words in all Indian languages to refer to each relation. This concept of extended family living together is unheard of in western countries; therefore, the English language lacks the corresponding terms. Dress code or ornaments used and the symbols behind each of them also pose a problem for a translator. Here some of the ornaments are meant for only a woman whose husband is alive. A widow has certain restrictions. This idea of widowhood is non-existent in western countries.

9. Explain the difference between overt and covert translation. An overt translation is a TT that does not purport to be an original. House: 'an overt translation is one in which the addressees of the translation text are quite "overtly" not being directly addressed'. With such translations, House believes that equivalence has to be sought at the level of language/text, register and genre. The individual text function cannot, however, be the same for TT and ST since the discourse worlds in which they operate are different. For this reason, House suggests a 'secondlevel functional equivalence' should be sought, with the TT enabling access to the function of the ST, allowing the TT receivers to 'eavesdrop' on the ST. Readers then know that they are reading a translation and the individual function of the two texts cannot be the same. A covert translation 'is a translation which enjoys the status of an original source text in the target culture'. The ST is not linked particularly to the ST culture or audience. The function of a covert translation is 'to recreate, reproduce or represent in the translated text the function the original has in its linguacultural framework and discourse world'. It does this without taking the TT reader into the discourse world of the ST. Hence, equivalence is necessary at the level of genre and the individual text function, but what House calls a 'cultural filter' needs to be applied by the translator, modifying cultural elements and thus giving the impression that the TT is an original. This may involve changes at the levels of language/text and register. 10. Explain Toury' model of DTS Toury calls for the development of a properly systematic descriptive branch of the discipline to replace isolated free-standing studies that are commonplace. For him, translations first and foremost occupy a position in the social and literary systems of the target culture, and this position determines the translation strategies that are employed. Toury proposes the following three-phase methodology for systematic DTS, incorporating a description of the product and the wider role of the sociocultural system: 1) Situate the text within the target culture system, looking at its significance or acceptability. 2) Compare the ST and the TT for shifts, identifying relationships between 'coupled pairs' of ST and TT segments, and attempting generalizations about the underlying concept of translation. 3) Draw implications for decision-making in future translating.

14. Translation analysis: Lexical level (collocations, lexical gaps) Collocation: a multi-word lexical unit that represents a transition between a free combination and an idiom (a fixed expression), with its constituents being neither accidentally connected into a whole nor pre-determined, but rather showing a greater than chance likelihood that they will cooccur. Collocations are defined by several features, the most relevant being recurrence, irreversibility, degree of lexicalisation, and stability. Collocations are notoriously difficult for non-native speakers to translate, primarily because they are opaque and cannot be translated on a word-by-word basis. Strategies for translating collocations: Baker (1992: 48) suggests that: patterns of collocation are largely arbitrary and independent of meaning. This is so both within and across languages. The same degree of mismatch that can be observed when comparing the collocational patterns of synonyms and near-synonyms within the same language is evident in the collocational patterning of dictionary equivalents/near equivalents in two languages. A further consideration to bear in mind when dealing with collocation in translation is specificity; the more specific a word is, the shorter its collocational range. The correct choice of a collocate across two languages should also be influenced by register or genre; collocations that are valid in one area of discourse may not be so in another. Certain collocational combinations give the combination as a whole a meaning different to that of its individual components. Lexical gaps - word forms which co-occur in larger sequences (extended collocations); bundles of words that show a statistical tendency to co-occur, much more common than idioms. Types: across various types of text (conversation), academic prose (in the case of, it should be noted that). Goal of lexical grammar: construcing well-formed sentences, using well-tried lexical expressions in appropriate places.

11. Discuss translation and rewriting Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of 'very concrete factors' that systematically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts. The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as 'rewriting' literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological or poetological. ''Translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting, and . . . it is potentially the most influential because it is able to project the image of an author and/or those works beyond the boundaries of their culture of origin. Lefevere describes the literary system in which translation functions as being controlled by three main factors, which are: 1) professionals within the literary system - These include critics and reviewers, teachers and translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times the ideology of the translated text. 2) patronage outside the literary system- These are 'the powers (persons, institutions) that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature'. Patrons may be: an influential and individual in a given historical era; groups of people; institutions which regulate the distribution of literature and literary ideas. Lefevere identifies three elements to this patronage: (a) The ideological component: This constrains the choice of subject and the form of its presentation. (b) The economic component: This concerns the payment of writers and rewriters. (c) The status component: This occurs in many forms. In return for economic payment from a benefactor or the literary press, the beneficiary is often expected to conform to the patron's expectations. Patronage is differentiated when the three components are not dependent on each other. 3) the dominant poetics - analyzes this into 2 components: (a) Literary devices: These include the range of genres, symbols, leitrnotlfs and prototypical situations and characters. (b) The concept of the role of literature: This is the relation of llterature to the social system in which it exists. The struggle between different literary forms is a feature of polysystem theory. Lefevere takes this idea further and looks at the role of lnstitutlons in determining the poetics: Institutions enforce or, at least, try to enforce the dominant poetics of period. Thus, certain works of literature will be elevated to the level of 'classics' within a relatively short time after publication, while others are rejected, some to reach the exalted position of a classlc later, when the dominant poetics has changed.