Great TruthsMECHANICS (C) 1.

Kinematics (straight line; one dimension) : = position a) The slope of a ; = velocity < B E C E vs time graph is the instantaneous D : velocity = ; = acceleration < B E ; C E D

v = dx/dt = slope of the tangent line to the x vs t graph; a = dv/dt = d2x/dt2 = slope of the tangent line to the v vs t graph. : velocity = b) The area under a ; = acceleration < B : E = position C E vs time graph is the change in ; = velocity D < B E ; C E D

x xo = I v dt = area under the v vs t graph; v vo = I a dt = area under the a vs t graph. c) If the acceleration is constant, then Galileos Kinematic Equations are true: (i) v = vo + at (iii) x xo = 1/2 (v + vo)t 2. Rotational Kinematics a) = d/dt (angular velocity); = d/dt = d2/dt2 (angular acceleration) b) If the angular acceleration is constant, then we have the analogs of Galileos equations: (i) = o + t (iii) o = 1/2 ( + o)t 3. Kinematics (vectors; two dimensions) a) Conversions: (i) Polar Rectangular: (ii) Rectangular Polar: (Ax, Ay) = (A cos , A sin ) (A @ ) = ( A2 + A2 @ inv tan (Ay / Ax )) x y (ii) = o + ot + 1/2 t2 (iv) 2 ( o) = 2 o2 (ii) x = xo + vot + 1/2 at2 (iv) 2a (x xo) = v2 vo2

b) Position, velocity, acceleration (i) in rectangular coordinates r = (x, y); v = (vx, vy) = (dx/dt, dy/dt); a = (ax, ay) = (d2x/dt2, d2y/dt2)

(ii) in polar coordinates r = (cos , sin ); = (sin , cos );

r ; a = r (2 dr/dt + r), ; v = dr/dt = r dr/dt + (d2r/dt2 2r) + r=rr

Great TruthsMECHANICS (C)

page 2 of 6

The velocity and acceleration can be written in terms of tangential and radial components; vtang = r; atang = 2 dr/dt + r; vradial = dr/dt aradial = d2r/dt2 2r

r, a = 2r + r (iii) circular motion (r = constant): v = r, a = 2r = v2/r r (iv) uniform circular motion (r = constant, v = constant): v = c) Projectile motion: constant acceleration a = (0, g) (i) x = xo + vo cos t (ii) y = yo + vo sin t 1/2 gt2 The horizontal distance x is greatest when the launch angle = 45. To find when the object hits the ground, set y = 0 and solve for t. To find how far the object goes, put this time t into the x equation 4. Newtons Laws a) 1st Law: If Fnet = 0, then a = 0 and v is constant; and vice-versa. If a problem says that the velocity is constant, then we know Fnet = 0. We do not need v = 0 to have Fnet = 0; we need only v = constant. Newtons 1st Law is the same thing as Galileos Principle of Inertia. b) 2nd Law: If Fnet 0, then a = Fnet/m. Fnet is a vector, Newtons 2nd Law is actually two equations: Fnet,x = max ; Fnet,y = may. Note that the 1st Law is a special case of the 2nd Law. The 2nd Law is usually written Fnet = ma. c) 3 rd Law: F 1 on 2 = F 2 on 1 It is impossible that one body push or pull on a second without its being pushed or pulled just as hard by the second body in return. The two pushes are in opposite directions, and they act on two different bodies. Newtons 3rd Law is equivalent to the conservation of momentum. d) Torque: = r F ; = rF sin can be zero if F = 0, or if r = 0, or if F is parallel to r. e) Rotational 1st Law: if net = 0, then = 0 and = constant, and vice-versa. For equilibrium, usually both net = 0 and Fnet = 0 at the same time f) Rotational 2nd Law: If net 0, then = net/I, where I is the moment of inertia I = I r2 dm for a continuous distribution of mass; I = mi ri2 for a discrete set of masses Parallel Axis Theorem: Ip = Icm + Md2 , where d = distance from P to center of mass

Great TruthsMECHANICS (C)

page 3 of 6

5. Constant Forces. a) Weight: Fgrav = mg. This is the force of gravity on or near the surface of a planet acting on a mass m. g = GM/R2, M = planets mass, R = distance from the mass to the planets center. b) Normal force: N is a force exerted by a surface perpendicular to the surface. For a horizontal, non-accelerated surface, N = mg. For non-accelerated inclined planes, N = mg cos Scales read normal force (or tension), not weight! c) Elevator problems: Fnet = ma = N mg d) Friction: kinetic friction fk = kN; static friction fs sN always acts to oppose motion always acts parallel to a surface sliding kinetic friction is always proportional to N. e) Inclined planes (sliding): a = g sin k g cos ; N = mg cos f) Inclined planes (rolling without slipping): N = mg cos , and a= mg sin (m + I / R 2 )
mg N

00 11 11 00
N mg N

00 11 11 00
mg

torque on mass = fR = I if rolling without slipping, a = R ma = mg sin f g) Atwoods Machine (ideal pulley):
T

a= h)

(m 2 m 1 ) (m 2 + m 1 )

g;

T =

(2m 1 m 2 ) (m 2 + m 1 )

Guess which way a mass will go, and call that direction positive Tension on either side of a massless pulley is the same All masses attached to the same rope have the same acceleration Write down the relevant system of equations and solve for a, T

00 11 11 00 11 00 1 00 1 11 00 11 00
mg 1 f wall

m g 2

Atwoods Machine (nonideal pulley) The tensions on either side are not equal Set Ipulley = T2R T1R If there is no slipping, use a = R

i)

Ladder problems Usually the problem is to work out the angle at which slipping begins Set Fx,net = 0 and Fy,net = 0, clock = counter-clock. It is often easiest to take torques about the pivot at the floor

00 1 0 11 1 0 11 00 1 0 1 0 1 0 11111 0 00000
N
wall

Mg

mg

f floor

floor

Great TruthsMECHANICS (C)

page 4 of 6

5. Nonconstant Forces a) Simple Harmonic Motion: a = 2 x; x described in terms of a sine and/or a cosine T = time for a complete cycle, the period of oscillation, independent of amplitude f = 1/T = frequency, the number of oscillations per second = 2/T = angular frequency, the number of oscillations in 2 seconds (i) Uniform Circular motion: Fcentrip = mv2/R directed inwards (towards the circles center) if an object moves in a circular path, then Fnet in the inward R direction must equal Fcentrip! v = R = 2R/T ; a = v2/R = 2R = 42R/T2 v is perpendicular to R; a is perpendicular to v; a = 2 R (ii) Springs: Fspring = kx; k, the spring constant, is in newtons/meter, or kg/sec2. solution given by x(t) = xo cos (t) + (vo/) sin (t) = k ; m T = 2 m k

maximum speed when x = 0 (midpoint); maximum displacement when v = 0 (endpoints) Kmax (at midpoint) = Umax (at endpoints) Amplitude A = (x ) 2 + (v / ) 2
o o

(iii) Pendulums: for small angles, =

g ;

T = 2

l
g

l
Note that Tpendulum is independent of the mass. b) Air resistance or drag: Fdrag = bv or Fdrag = cv2

In free fall, dv/dt = g (b/m)v or dv/dt = g (c/m)v2 Find vmax when dv/dt = 0; vmax = mg/b or vmax = mg / c

In the linear case, simple integration gives (assuming vo = 0) v = mg (1 e (b / m)t ) b c) Combined rolling and slipping: the time in which friction turns vo to vfinal is the same time in which the frictional torque turns o to final = vfinal/R; ft = m(vfinal vo); fRt = I(final o).

Great TruthsMECHANICS (C)

page 5 of 6

4. Conservation of Momentum, Angular Momentum and Collisions a) All motions, no matter how complicated, may be reduced to a translational motion of the center of mass and a rotational motion about the center of mass. b) Momentum p = mv c) Center of mass: xcm = mixi / mi and similarly for ycm , zcm vcm = mivi / mi = pi / mi = ptotal / mi d) In any collision, or in any closed system, momentum is conserved: m i v i = mi v i / or p total = p total/

these represent two (or perhaps three) equations, in x & y (& perhaps z) directions. elastic means that kinetic energy is conserved totally inelastic means that the two objects stick together after the collision; it does not mean that all the kinetic energy is lost. (A better phrase is maximally inelastic; all the energy that can be lost, consistent with momentum conservation, is lost.) in any collision or closed sytem, vcm = vcm/ e) Special cases: the collision is (i) elastic, (ii) has a stationary target (v2 = 0) If the collision is also one-dimensional then v
/

m m 1 2 = m + m 1 2

v ; 1

2m 1 = m + m 1 2

v 1

If the masses are equal then v1/ is perpendicular to v2/. f) Impulse: J = p = mv = I F dt. Note that Newtons Second Law is properly F = dp/dt; in a closed system, Fnet = 0. g) Rocket problems: fuel leaves rocket at a (constant) relative speed of u: v vo = u ln (Mo/M) h) Angular momentum
before M v vu dM after M + dM v + dv

0 1 1 0

Extended body: L = I where the direction of is along the axis (using the right-hand rule) Point mass: L = r p i) In a collision, or in any closed system, angular momentum is conserved: dL/dt = 0, or L = L / = dL/dt; in a closed system net = 0. = dL/dt follows from = r F and L = r p; dL/dt = (dr/dt p) + (r dp/dt) = r dp/dt (since p = mv = m dr/dt) in hockey stick problems, set mvr = mv/r + I , using the center of mass.

Great TruthsMECHANICS (C)

page 6 of 6

7. Conservation of Energy a) Translational kinetic energy Ktrans = 1/2 mv2 always b) Rotational kinetic energy Krot = 1/2 I2 : = Fx cos , if F constant, motion in one dimension = = = F x + F y, if F constant, motion in two dimensions c) Work = = ; x y = = = = = I F dr = I F cos d r if F is not constant < d) Work-Energy Theorem: If a net force Fnet acts on an object, then Worknet = K. In general, the work done by an external force is the change in total energy, E. e) A force is said to be conservative if any of the following conditions hold: The total energy does not change as the force acts The work done moving a body from one place to another depends only on the endpoints (and independent of the path chosen to move from one place to another.) The force has a potential energy, U, depending only on position, with U = I F dx F = dU/dx f) Potential energy depends on which force is acting: (i) Ugrav, near the earth = mgh (ii) U spring = 1/2 kx2 (iii) Ugrav, far from the earth = GMm/R (iv) Upendulum = mgl (1 cos ) g) Power = the rate at which work is done = dW/dt = Fv cos 8. Gravity and Keplers Laws a) F = GM1M2/R2 r b) gplanet = GMplanet/R2 where R is the distance from a point to the center of the planet c) Circular orbit problems: GMm/R2 = mv2/R, or v2 = GM/R. Note that the mass of the satellite always cancels.
perihelion aphelion

(note the negative!)

d) Keplers Laws: All the planets orbit the Sun in ellipses with the sun at one focus Equal areas are swept out in equal times a3/T2 = the same number for all the planets (a = semimajor axis; for a circle, substitute R for a) e) Eorbit = GMm/2a (ellipse; for a circle, substitute R for a; minimum occurs for circular orbits) f) L is conserved, since F is parallel to r, so mvara = mvprp (v r only at perihelion, aphelion) *g) eccentricity e = 1 + E ; = 2L2/G2M2m3 e = 0 circular orbit; 0 < e < 1 ellipse; e = 1 parabola; e > 0 hyperbola
v.1.1 13 April 2002

* S