CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

A. Literature Review

1. English Teaching and Learning

a. Definition of Teaching and Learning

Brown (1987: 6) defines teaching as “showing or helping someone to

learn how to do something, giving instruction, guiding in study something,

providing with knowledge, causing to know or understand”.

Teaching is also defined as a change or modification of behavior

containing three things which are necessary, they are: experience, discrimination,

and association (Madsen, 1970: 8). Usman (1992: 16) defines teaching as the

guidance of learning activities.

Hornby (1974: 886) in his “Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of

Current English” gives the same definitions of teaching as a derivation of the

word “to teach” as follows:

1) give instruction to somebody

2) cause somebody to know or be able to do something
3) give to somebody knowledge, skill, etc
4) give lesson

Learning is defined as acquiring or getting knowledge of a subject or a

skill by study, experience, or obstruction (Brown, 1987: 6). Webster (1979: 1032)

defines the word “learn” in his dictionary as follows:

1) to gain knowledge of a subject; to acquire information concerning, as

by instruction, study, observation, experience, etc.; to acquire skill in
anything; as to learn the news, or a lesson
2) to come to know; as I learned that he had sick
3) to come to know how
 4) to fix in mind; to memorize
5) to acquire as a habit or attitude
6) to teach: formerly a standard usage now substandard learning

b. Components of the Teaching and Learning Process

Gagne in Rustiyah (1994: 39) states that the teaching and learning

components are learning objectives, content, method, resources, media,

management, evaluation, learner, teacher, and development of the teaching and

learning process. Kemp (1977: 39-40) proposes different category of teaching and

learning components. According to him the components of teaching and learning

are goals, topic and general purposes, learner characteristics, learning objectives,

subject content, pre-assessment, teaching and learning activities and resources,

and supporting facilities.

Some of the teaching and learning components according to Gagne in

Rustiyah (1994:39) are as follows:

1) Learner

Breen and Candlin in Richards (1985: 22-23) explain about the learner’s

role in a communicative method as follows:

“The role of learner as negotiator-the self, the learning process, and the
object of learning-emerges from and interacts with the role of joint
negotiator within the group and within the classroom procedures and
activities which the group undertakes. The implication for the learners is
that he should contribute as much as he gains, and thereby learn in an
independent way”.

Johnson and Paulston in Richards (1985: 23) state about the learner’s role in

an individualized approach to language learning as follows:

(a) the learner is the planner of his own learning program and thus ultimately
assumes responsibility for what he or she does in the class room;
(b) the learner is the monitor and evaluator of his/her own progress;
(c) the learner is a member of a group and learns by interacting with others;
(d) the learner is a tutor of other learners;
(e) the learner learns from the teacher, from other students, and from other
teaching sources.

2) Teacher

Some of the instructional systems depend on the teacher as the source of

knowledge; others see the teacher as the catalyst, consultant, diagnostician, guide,

and model for learning. In the classical audio-lingual method, the teacher is

regarded as the source of language and learning. The teacher is similar to a

conductor of the orchestra, whose prime goal is to keep the players in tune and

time, and without whom no music could be performed (Richards, 1985: 23-24).

Teachers should be able to lead students to learn totally (developing their

cognitive, affective, and psychomotor), optimalize the teaching - learning process,

investigate the student potentials and personality, and motivate students for their

future life (Samana, 1994; 29). Usman (1994: 7-10) states that the teachers’ roles

in teaching are as the demonstrators, learning managers, evaluators, and

facilitators. As demonstrators, the teachers should master the content of the

materials to be taught to their students, and always improve their skill related to

their specific knowledge. As learning managers, the teachers should be able to

manage the classroom because the classroom is the learning environment and the

aspect of school environment to be organized. As facilitators, the teachers should

have enough knowledge about educational media because sometimes they have to

use and create the media to support the teaching and learning process. It is

because educational media are the instruments of communication to make the

teaching and learning process more effective. So, they will help the students to
understand the materials easily. As evaluators, the teachers should be able to

evaluate the process and the result of the teaching and learning process. It is

because evaluation will inform them about the students’ progress and the

students’ learning development.

Breen and Candlin in Richards (1985: 24) propose about the teacher’s role

in a communicative method as follows:

“The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate
communication process between all participants in the classroom, and
between these participants and the various activities and text. The second
role is to act as an independent participant within the learning and teaching
group. The later role is closely related to the objectives of the first role and
arises from it. This role implies a set of secondary roles for the teacher;
first, as an organizer of resources and as a resource himself, second as a
guide within the classroom procedures and activities… A third role for the
teacher is that if researcher and learner, with much to contribute in terms
of appropriate knowledge and abilities, actual and observed experience of
the nature of learning and organizational capacities”.

3) Materials and Subject Content

Kemp (1977: 45-47) states that the content of the syllabus must closely

related to the objective and students’ needs. Objectives are what the teachers’

want the content to do. For many teachers, the subject content is the traditional

strategy point for teaching. In the planning, teachers are developing the syllabus,

and developing the materials from the textbook which consider as the source of

the subject content. Kemp (1977: 49) also states that the subject content

comprises the selection and organizes the specific knowledge (fact and

information), skills (systematic procedures, conditions, and requirement), and

attitudinal factors of any topic.

What is specified with respect to the content (the syllabus) and to the
learner as well as teacher roles suggest the function for materials (Richards, 1985:

24). He (1985: 25) mentions the roles of instructional materials as follows:

(a) The materials will facilitate the communication abilities of interpretation,

expression, and negotiation.
(b) Materials will focus on understandable and relevant communication rather
that on grammatical form.
(c) Materials will command the learner’s interest and involve their intelligence
and creativity.
(d) Materials will involve different types of text, and different media, which the
participants can use to develop their competence through a variety of
different activities and tasks.

4) Teaching and Learning Method

In the Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, methodology is defined

as the study of the practice and procedures used in teaching, and the principles

and beliefs that underline them (Nunan, 1991: 2).

A method refers to a language-teaching philosophy that contains a

standardized set of procedures or principles for teaching a language that are based

upon a given set of theoretical premises about the nature of language and

language learning (Richards, 1985: 32). Roestiyah (1994: 65) states that a method

in the teaching and learning activities is a systematic planning and strategy to

present information.

Stern (1983: 474) explains Anthony’s terminology about the distinction

among approach, method and technique. According to Anthony’s terminology, an

approach constitutes the axiomatic or theoretical bases of language teaching. A

method is a procedural and the selection of materials to be taught, the graduation

of those materials, their presentation, and pedagogical implementation to induce

learning. Within one approach, there can be more than one method, while a
technique is implementation. An approach is simply defined as a theoretical

assumption, a method is the teaching strategy, while a technique is specific

classroom activities.

5) Media

Instructional media refers to audiovisual materials, books, and duplicated

materials that serve instructional functions in education. (Burden & Byrd, 1999:

137). Sugeng (1997: 46) states that media are important factors to facilitate the

teaching and learning process. In the teaching and learning process the teacher has

to choose the media selectively, it is because the media that is used must be

appropriate with the material that is taught.

a) Contributions of media to the teaching and learning process

Kemp and Smellie in Burden and Byrd (1999: 13) mention some benefits

of media as follows:

(1) The content of topic can be more carefully selected and organized.
(2) The delivery of instruction can be more standardized.
(3) The instruction can be more interesting.
(4) Learning becomes more interactive when applying accepted learning theory.
(5) The length of time required for instruction can be reduced.
(6) The quality of learning can be improved.
(7) The instruction can be provided when and where desired or necessary.
(8) The positive attitude of individuals towards what they are learning and to the
learning process itself can be enhanced.
(9) The role of instructor or teacher can be enhanced.

b) Types of media and resources

Lado (1964: 173-202) distinguishes the main types of media as

technological aids in language teaching into two namely language laboratory and

visual media. The visual media consist of pictures, whiteboard, marker, charts,

slide and slide projectors, film strips, opaque projectors, overhead projectors,
motion pictures, and television.

Burden and Byrd (1999: 144-159) also have a similar idea. They state that

a wide variety of media and resources are available for instructional purposes

including audio visual materials, books and duplicates materials, and other

resources. Audio visual media consist of non-projected visual (chalk boards,

display boards, flip charts, etc.), projected visual (overhead projector and

transparencies, filmstrips, slides, and opaque projector), audio media (phonograph

record, audiotapes and compact disc), multimedia (interactive video, multi-image

system, etc), film and video, electronic distribution system (radio, television, etc.),

computer, and simulation and games.

Books and duplicated materials consist of textbooks, resource materials,

and workbooks. Other resources are free and inexpensive materials (brochures,

pamphlets, statistical reports, etc.), and media created by the teachers.