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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

A. Literature Review

1. English Teaching and Learning

a. Definition of Teaching and Learning

Brown (1987: 6) defines teaching as “showing or helping someone

to learn how to do something, giving instruction, guiding in study

something, providing with knowledge, causing to know or understand”.

Teaching is also defined as a change or modification of behavior

containing three things which are necessary, they are: experience,

discrimination, and association (Madsen, 1970: 8). Usman (1992: 16)

defines teaching as the guidance of learning activities.

Hornby (1974: 886) in his “Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary

of Current English” gives the same definitions of teaching as a derivation

of the word “to teach” as follows:

1) give instruction to somebody

2) cause somebody to know or be able to do
something
3) give to somebody knowledge, skill, etc
4) give lesson

Learning is defined as acquiring or getting knowledge of a subject

or a skill by study, experience, or obstruction (Brown, 1987: 6). Webster

(1979: 1032) defines the word “learn” in his dictionary as follows:

1) to gain knowledge of a subject; to acquire information

concerning, as by instruction, study, observation, experience,
etc.; to acquire skill in anything; as to learn the news, or a
lesson
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2) to come to know; as I learned that he had sick

3) to come to know how
4) to fix in mind; to memorize
5) to acquire as a habit or attitude
6) to teach: formerly a standard usage now substandard
learning

b. Components of the Teaching and Learning

Process

Gagne in Rustiyah (1994: 39) states that the teaching and learning

components are learning objectives, content, method, resources, media,

management, evaluation, learner, teacher, and development of the teaching

and learning process. Kemp (1977: 39-40) proposes different category of

teaching and learning components. According to him the components of

teaching and learning are goals, topic and general purposes, learner

characteristics, learning objectives, subject content, pre-assessment,

teaching and learning activities and resources, and supporting facilities.

Some of the teaching and learning components according to Gagne

in Rustiyah (1994:39) are as follows:

1) Learner

Breen and Candlin in Richards (1985: 22-23) explain about the

learner’s role in a communicative method as follows:

“The role of learner as negotiator-the self, the learning process, and

the object of learning-emerges from and interacts with the role of
joint negotiator within the group and within the classroom
procedures and activities which the group undertakes. The
implication for the learners is that he should contribute as much as
he gains, and thereby learn in an independent way”.

Johnson and Paulston in Richards (1985: 23) state about the learner’s
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role in an individualized approach to language learning as follows:

(a) the learner is the planner of his own learning program and thus
ultimately assumes responsibility for what he or she does in the class
room;
(b) the learner is the monitor and evaluator of his/her own progress;
(c) the learner is a member of a group and learns by interacting with
others;
(d) the learner is a tutor of other learners;
(e) the learner learns from the teacher, from other students, and from other
teaching sources.

2) Teacher

Some of the instructional systems depend on the teacher as the

source of knowledge; others see the teacher as the catalyst, consultant,

diagnostician, guide, and model for learning. In the classical audio-lingual

method, the teacher is regarded as the source of language and learning.

The teacher is similar to a conductor of the orchestra, whose prime goal is

to keep the players in tune and time, and without whom no music could be

performed (Richards, 1985: 23-24).

Teachers should be able to lead students to learn totally

(developing their cognitive, affective, and psychomotor), optimalize the

teaching - learning process, investigate the student potentials and

personality, and motivate students for their future life (Samana, 1994; 29).

Usman (1994: 7-10) states that the teachers’ roles in teaching are as the

demonstrators, learning managers, evaluators, and facilitators. As

demonstrators, the teachers should master the content of the materials to

be taught to their students, and always improve their skill related to their

specific knowledge. As learning managers, the teachers should be able to

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manage the classroom because the classroom is the learning environment

and the aspect of school environment to be organized. As facilitators, the

teachers should have enough knowledge about educational media because

sometimes they have to use and create the media to support the teaching

and learning process. It is because educational media are the instruments

of communication to make the teaching and learning process more

effective. So, they will help the students to understand the materials easily.

As evaluators, the teachers should be able to evaluate the process and the

result of the teaching and learning process. It is because evaluation will

inform them about the students’ progress and the students’ learning

development.

Breen and Candlin in Richards (1985: 24) propose about the

teacher’s role in a communicative method as follows:

“The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate
communication process between all participants in the classroom,
and between these participants and the various activities and text.
The second role is to act as an independent participant within the
learning and teaching group. The later role is closely related to the
objectives of the first role and arises from it. This role implies a set
of secondary roles for the teacher; first, as an organizer of
resources and as a resource himself, second as a guide within the
classroom procedures and activities… A third role for the teacher
is that if researcher and learner, with much to contribute in terms of
appropriate knowledge and abilities, actual and observed
experience of the nature of learning and organizational capacities”.

3) Materials and Subject Content

Kemp (1977: 45-47) states that the content of the syllabus must

closely related to the objective and students’ needs. Objectives are what

the teachers’ want the content to do. For many teachers, the subject
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content is the traditional strategy point for teaching. In the planning,

teachers are developing the syllabus, and developing the materials from

the textbook which consider as the source of the subject content. Kemp

(1977: 49) also states that the subject content comprises the selection and

organizes the specific knowledge (fact and information), skills (systematic

procedures, conditions, and requirement), and attitudinal factors of any

topic.

What is specified with respect to the content (the syllabus) and to

the learner as well as teacher roles suggest the function for materials

(Richards, 1985: 24). He (1985: 25) mentions the roles of instructional

materials as follows:

(a) The materials will facilitate the communication abilities of

interpretation, expression, and negotiation.
(b) Materials will focus on understandable and relevant communication
rather that on grammatical form.
(c) Materials will command the learner’s interest and involve their
intelligence and creativity.
(d) Materials will involve different types of text, and different media,
which the participants can use to develop their competence through a
variety of different activities and tasks.

4) Teaching and Learning Method

In the Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, methodology is

defined as the study of the practice and procedures used in teaching, and

the principles and beliefs that underline them (Nunan, 1991: 2).

A method refers to a language-teaching philosophy that contains a

standardized set of procedures or principles for teaching a language that

are based upon a given set of theoretical premises about the nature of
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language and language learning (Richards, 1985: 32). Roestiyah (1994:

65) states that a method in the teaching and learning activities is a

systematic planning and strategy to present information.

Stern (1983: 474) explains Anthony’s terminology about the

distinction among approach, method and technique. According to

Anthony’s terminology, an approach constitutes the axiomatic or

theoretical bases of language teaching. A method is a procedural and the

selection of materials to be taught, the graduation of those materials, their

presentation, and pedagogical implementation to induce learning. Within

one approach, there can be more than one method, while a technique is

implementation. An approach is simply defined as a theoretical

assumption, a method is the teaching strategy, while a technique is specific

classroom activities.

5) Media

Instructional media refers to audiovisual materials, books, and

duplicated materials that serve instructional functions in education.

(Burden & Byrd, 1999: 137). Sugeng (1997: 46) states that media are

important factors to facilitate the teaching and learning process. In the

teaching and learning process the teacher has to choose the media

selectively, it is because the media that is used must be appropriate with

the material that is taught.

a) Contributions of media to the teaching and learning process

Kemp and Smellie in Burden and Byrd (1999: 13) mention some
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benefits of media as follows:

(1) The content of topic can be more carefully selected and organized.
(2) The delivery of instruction can be more standardized.
(3) The instruction can be more interesting.
(4) Learning becomes more interactive when applying accepted learning
theory.
(5) The length of time required for instruction can be reduced.
(6) The quality of learning can be improved.
(7) The instruction can be provided when and where desired or
necessary.
(8) The positive attitude of individuals towards what they are learning
and to the learning process itself can be enhanced.
(9) The role of instructor or teacher can be enhanced.

b) Types of media and resources

Lado (1964: 173-202) distinguishes the main types of media as

technological aids in language teaching into two namely language

laboratory and visual media. The visual media consist of pictures,

whiteboard, marker, charts, slide and slide projectors, film strips, opaque

projectors, overhead projectors, motion pictures, and television.

Burden and Byrd (1999: 144-159) also have a similar idea. They

state that a wide variety of media and resources are available for

instructional purposes including audio visual materials, books and

duplicates materials, and other resources. Audio visual media consist of

non-projected visual (chalk boards, display boards, flip charts, etc.),

projected visual (overhead projector and transparencies, filmstrips, slides,

and opaque projector), audio media (phonograph record, audiotapes and

compact disc), multimedia (interactive video, multi-image system, etc),

film and video, electronic distribution system (radio, television, etc.),

computer, and simulation and games.

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Books and duplicated materials consist of textbooks, resource

materials, and workbooks. Other resources are free and inexpensive

materials (brochures, pamphlets, statistical reports, etc.), and media

created by the teachers.

2. Constraints

a. The Definition of Constraint

Hornby (1995: 247) defines constraint as a thing that limits or

restricts. According to Webster (1990: 281) constraint is state of being

checked, restricted, or compelled to avoid or to perform some action. So, it

can be concluded that a constraint is a confinement or restriction that

limits or restricts one’s performance in some activities.

b. The Constraints in the Language Teaching and

Learning

Rombepajung (1988: 14-15) mentions some constraints in

language teaching and learning process; they are the subject content that

must be taught, the teaching intensity, and quality of the teacher. The other

constraints are the limited classroom, textbooks, and class teachers. Other

factors such as classroom density, the noise, fatigue, and anxiety also

influence the language teaching and learning process.

Baradja (1990: 6) adds that the failure of the teaching of a foreign

language is caused by the educational policy which is not suitable with the

principles of foreign language teaching. The principles are small classes,

professional teachers, high frequency of meeting, suitable learning

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resources, environmental supports, and students’ motivation.

c. The Constraints in the Teaching and Learning

Components

The constraint of the language teaching and learning is a negative

phenomenon that can disturb the success of the teaching and learning

process. The constraints can emerge from the teaching and learning

components: the teachers, the students, the material, time and space.

1) The Constraints Caused by the Teachers

Coletti in Soekarwati (1995: 60) states that ineffective teaching is

caused by several factors. First, the teachers may lack of the capability in

making students interested in following and understanding the materials.

The teacher cannot modify the material so that the students are not

interested in the lessons.

Second, the teachers sometimes tend to be selfish. The teachers

do not want to receive criticism, advice or feedback from the students. It

seems that they seem feel that they have given the best things to their

students. This attitude may cause the students do not like the teachers. As

the result, the classroom become noisy and the students do not pay full

attention to the teacher’s explanation.

Third, the teachers may lack on material mastery. The teachers

only use the materials from the textbook. Thus, in the teaching and

learning process, sometimes the teachers cannot answer the students’

questions, and cannot explain the material clearly. Without material

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mastery, the teachers will not make the students interested in the materials.

Fourth, the teachers may lack of sense of humor. Without this

sense the teachers will find some difficulties in teaching because they face

students’ unpleasant feelings. Students will become afraid if their teachers

teach them with a fiery face. Possibly, the classroom will be silent because

the students feel afraid to ask questions to the teachers. As the result, the

teachers will be angry because they feel that the students neglect them. So

the teaching and learning process to be unsuccessful.

Fifth, the teachers may lack of capability in managing the class.

Classroom management in the teaching and learning process is an

important thing. With good classroom management, the teaching and

learning process will become more efficient. On the other hand, lack of

capability in managing the class will cause the teaching and learning

process to become inefficient. The classroom becomes noisy and students

are difficult to manage.

Last, the teachers may lack of capability in improving the quality

of their leadership. The teachers are the leader of their students. Therefore,

they should show their leaderships. So students will respect them.

2) The Constraints Caused by the Students

Westwood (1975: 2) mentions the characteristics of children with

learning difficulties as a) less being mature, b) less ready for academic

work, c) having poor attention span, d) being poor at art work, e) having

poor motor control, f) having poor social and emotional adjustment, g)

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having poor speech and language, and h) being more impulsive which

often disturbs their learning activities.

Kauchack, Eggen, and Jacobson (1989: 183) state that it is a

problem if a student does not want to cooperate. This kind of problem can

be frustrating in term of the time and energy that the teacher requires.

Petty and Jenson (1980: 67-71) explain many factors that

influence children language development, i.e., their mental abilities,

physical characteristics, sex, time and environmental contexts, and ethnic

and economic backgrounds. They further state that the family’s economic

circumstances of children influence the language development. Children

from the middle-income families tend to be more develop than children

from low-income families.

3) The Constraints Caused by the Materials

The constraints in the instructional material can occur because of

the grammar practice. Students seem to find it difficult to understand a

lesson because of grammar difficulties (Betts and Howell 1984: xii).

Nunan (1991: 209) says that the criteria of good materials can be

burdensome in a foreign language context. In this case, authentic source

and stimulating materials may not be readily available in the textbook.

Wilkins in Nunan (1991: 152) says, “…an inadequate knowledge

of grammar would constraint linguistic creativity and limits the capacity

for communication.” Meanwhile, Rivers in Nunan (1991: 117) argues that

“…without an extensive vocabulary, we will be unable to use the

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structures and functions we may have learned for comprehensible

communication.”

4) The Constraints Caused by Time and Space

Willey and Harnischfegar in Kauchack, Eggen, and Jacobson

(1989: 66) state that the lack of time can be the constraint in the teaching

and learning process. It often happens because the teacher and the students

have the lack of awareness of the time. They do not use the time optimally.

In relation to the classroom environment, Kauchack, Eggen, and

Jacobson (1989: 155) state that the room which is not well arranged can

disrupt both management and achievement. Cullingford (1995: 129) states

that a classroom is uncomfortable to the learning process if there is lack of

resources, and if it is untidy and dirty.

d. The Constraints in the English Skill Components

1) The Constraints in Speaking

Lubis (1988: 13-14) states that there are some challenges in

conversation practice. Students may be too shy and afraid to take part in

the conversation. As a result, they speak too quietly, so their voice cannot

be heard. So, the other students are not interested in the conversation.

2) The Constraints in Writing

Smedly (1983: 16) states that the written work of English as a

foreign language students is profusely littered with spelling errors, and

hopes that they will be cured by time. But it turns out to be unfounded.

Some of these poor spellers may well experience problems in reading and
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writing.

3) The Constraints in Reading

Smedly (1983: 23) states that reading difficulties may occur

when background of concepts and vocabulary is not enough to deal with

specific material. The reading difficulties also occur if the students have

the low motivation.

4) The Constraints in Listening

Wittich and Scuhuller (1979: 171) state that many factors can

obstruct students’ learning. Extraneous environmental noises, for example,

can influence the audibility of instructional messages.

An auditory system is also one of the constraints in listening,

especially if the physical condition of hearing does not work optimally

(Tarigan, 1985: 56). Besides, he also argues that vocabulary and structure

of a message can be the constraint when those matters are new.

3. The Teaching of English to Children

a. Principles of Teaching

Scot and Ytreberg (1994: 5) propose some principles in the

teaching English as a foreign language. The first principle is that ‘words

are not enough.’ It means that when the teachers teach, they do not rely on

the spoken words only. They should include movements and involve the

senses.

The second principle is ‘play with the language.’ This statement

refers to the fact that the students should have experience in using the
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English. The teachers let the pupils talk to themselves, make up rhymes,

sing a song, telling stories, etc.

The third principle is ‘variety in the classroom.’ The teachers

should create interesting activities for the children in the classroom, such

as playing games, singing a song, telling stories, etc. So the students will

not get bored.

The fourth principle is ‘routines’, it is important for the children

to know the rules and to be familiar with the situations. The teachers

should create familiar situations and activities, such as repeat stories,

rhymes, etc.

The fifth principle is ‘cooperation not competition.’ It means that

the teachers should create an atmosphere of involvement and togetherness.

Rewards and prizes should be involved. Working in groups is one way to

lead to cooperative learning.

The sixth principle is ‘group the children together whenever

possible’; this does not mean that the children have to be in groups all the

time, but most children like to have other children around them. Therefore,

it would be better for the teachers to provide some students with group

activities.

The last principle is ‘assessment’, it is necessary to know the

children’s progress. To know the children’s learning development, the

teachers should asses the children’s ability in the classroom.

b. Characteristics of the Students

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According to Paint in Hudelson (1994: 256), children in the

primary or elementary school are usually in the concrete operational stage

of cognitive development. It is still hard for them to understand abstract

things. Children will easily understand the material if the teacher gives

examples or shows pictures, real objects, or gestures during the teaching

and learning process.

Scott and Yterberg (1994: 3-4) identify some general

characteristics of children in relation to their capability and aptitudes.

First, their basic concepts are formed, it means that when the children

learn English the teachers need to give objects and pictures in order that

they will understand the materials easily. They can know something from

the objects that they have seen.

Second, they tell the differences between fact and fiction. It

means that when children come to school they find the fact and the fiction.

They can tell the differences between fact and fiction. For example,

something is fact if they can see and touch the object. Something is fiction

if they cannot see and touch the object.

Third, they ask questions all the time. It means that they learn

something because they do not know about it. As we know, children have

great curiosity that makes them asking all the time about something that

they have not known.

Fourth, they rely on the spoken words. When children learn

something they will imitate what the teachers say, in the class activity they
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learn something new from their teachers. They will do all the instructions

given by the teachers. They learn from the real world.

Fifth, they are able to make some decisions about their own

learning. Children will learn something if there is a desire from

themselves. They will make decisions when they learn without any

compellation from people around them.

Sixth, they have insufficient view about what they like and do

not like to do. Children will always doing something that they like

everyday.

Seventh, they have developed a sense of fairness about what

happens in the classroom. What children usually do in the classroom is

something that comes from their minds. In general, the children in the

classroom like moving everywhere, making noise, and something that will

make them feel happy without regards to the people around them.

Last, they are able to work with others and learn from others.

Children like learning in groups. They will easily work in groups because

they can ask each other.

4. The Teaching of English at SD Muhammadiyah Girikerto

SD Muhammadiyah Girikerto has conducted the teaching of English as

a local content since 2004. The English teaching has begun at grade four. The

class size of each grade is more than 30 students. The English subject is taught
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two hours a week. There is no specific English teacher. There is only one

teacher who has some capability of teaching English. She graduated from

SMK Ngebong and during her study she learnt English two hours a week. To

improve her skill on English she learnt by herself.

In the English teaching and learning process, the teacher only uses a

textbook, which is published by Yudhistira. However, some students do not

have the textbook, so they get the materials only from their teacher. The

English teaching and learning process outside of the classroom and group-

work are rarely conducted, and there is no variety of activities. In terms of

media use, the teacher only uses the pictures from the textbook although the

number of pictures is limited.

Time allocation is limited. The range is from 35 minutes to 70 minutes.

With the limited time the teacher is unable to conduct group work. When the

English lesson is in the afternoon, students’ focus is not on the lesson. They

are tired and they want to go home quickly.

The class size is more than 30 students. Meanwhile, the classroom size

is 6X7 m, ideally the class size in a classroom was up to 25 students. The

space of the classroom is not conducive for playing games. There is no space

to modify the setting arrangement as the desks and chairs are difficult to

move.

B. Conceptual Framework

In the English teaching and learning process, it often happens that there are

some students and teachers who have constraints that influence the teaching and
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learning process and students’ learning achievement. The constraints might come

from the teachers, students, materials, teaching and learning method, time, media,

and supporting services. The students’ constraints concern to their backgrounds

and conditions. The teachers’ constraints concern to their personal, professional

and social competences, affected by their backgrounds, personalities, and

experiences. Other constraints relate to the learning process, and the educational

policy.

The teaching English in elementary school is considered different from the

English teaching and learning for the higher levels, both in approaches and

techniques. Children have specific characteristics in their ways of learning.

Students of elementary school learn the language differently from students in the

secondary school. In the classroom setting, children understand things in a more

real way than adults and they tend not to analyze the language but concentrate

more on the total meaning. The children also learn best through active

involvement. In other words, they learn by doing.

In the children language classroom, activities provided by the teacher

should include the element of fun which makes it possible for the students to learn

while playing. It is believed that the use of songs, games, quizzes, group-work

activities, and pictures seem to be more appropriate for children.

Above all, the teacher who conducts the teaching of English to children

should be aware of children’s characteristics. In addition, they need to know the

principles of teaching for children including the materials, activities, and

techniques.
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SD Muhammadiyah Girikerto has decided to conduct an English program

as part of their local content curriculum. Since it is relatively new program, this

program might have been implemented under the limitation of supporting

facilities. Besides, there is no trained teacher of English.

It is predicted that there are some constraints of the English teaching and

learning process at SD Muhammadiyah Girikerto. Therefore, the purpose of this

study is to find out and describe the constraints of the English teaching and

learning process at SD Muhammadiyah Girikerto. The result of this study may be

used as considerations in improving the teaching of English at SD

Muhammadiyah Girikerto.